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Chimú Art and Architecture (Art History)

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  1. Introduction
  2. The Chimú culture flourished on what is now the north coast of Peru from around AD 1000 to c. 1470, when the polity was conquered by the Inca. The Chimú state, sometimes referred to in the historical sources as Chimor, dominated a length of approximately 1,000 kilometers of the coast, from nearly what is now the border between Peru and Ecuador to just north of the modern capital of Lima. The Chimú were the most powerful entity in the period known as the Late Intermediate period but drew upon cultural traditions developed in the same region in earlier periods, particularly the Moche and the Lambayeque (also known as Sicán). Indeed, the capital of the Chimú state, Chan Chan, was constructed just a few kilometers away from the earlier Moche center of Huaca de la Luna and Huaca del Sol, in what is now the outskirts of the modern city of Trujillo. There is a fair amount of published archaeological research on the Chimú, although in recent years, in the wake of the spectacular finds at the Moche site of Sipán, Chimú studies have been eclipsed by Moche-focused projects. The literature specifically on Chimú art and architecture, however, is far less abundant. As yet there are no dedicated journals to Chimú studies, nor are there specific bibliographies, anthologies, reference works, or textbooks.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. Historical sources from the 16th and 17th centuries, along with archaeological studies, form the core background literature for understanding the context of Chimú art and architecture.
  6.  
  7. Historical Sources
  8. Because there was no tradition of writing in the Andean region before the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century, the only documentary sources on the Chimú date from after the time of the Spanish conquest, several generations after Chimor fell and became subject to the Inca. Although these sources are therefore not contemporaneous with the height of Chimú culture, they provide some critical details about aspects of Chimor, including tantalizing glimpses of the royal court structure and religious beliefs (for a summary of the major historical sources, see Rowe 1948). Cieza de León 1959, by one of the most important early chroniclers of Peru, provides a first description of Chan Chan, from the perspective of a well-educated Spanish soldier. It is worthwhile to compare Cieza’s work with legal testimony provided by descendants of Chimú kings in 16th-century court cases concerning Chan Chan, which is included in Ramírez 1996 and Zevallos Quiñones 1994. Later writings attempt to gain a deeper understanding of the history and beliefs of the Chimú: Cabello Valboa 1951 as part of an attempt to write a universal history (see also Vargas Ugarte 1936); Calancha 1974–1982 as part of a history of a specific religious order. The most important source of the 18th century may be the monumental Martínez Compañón 1978–1991, a visual encyclopedia of the province of Trujillo, including detailed plans of Chan Chan.
  9.  
  10. Cabello Valboa, Miguel. Miscelánea antártica: Una historia del Perú antiguo. Lima, Peru: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Facultad de Letras, Instituto de Etnología, 1951.
  11.  
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  13.  
  14. This late-16th-century source (originally 1586) includes a list of the kings of Chimor (pp. 329–332).
  15.  
  16. Find this resource:
  17.  
  18. Calancha, Antonio de la. Corónica moralizada del Orden de San Augustín en el Perú. 6 vols. Transcription, critical study, notes, bibliography, and indexes by Ignacio Prado Pastor. Crónicas del Perú 4–9. Lima, Peru: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 1974–1982.
  19.  
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  21.  
  22. This source, originally published in 1638 (Barcelona: P. Lacavalleria), is one of the most extensive accounts of indigenous religious beliefs and practices on the north coast of Peru.
  23.  
  24. Find this resource:
  25.  
  26. Cieza de León, Pedro de. The Incas of Pedro de Cieza de León. Edited by Victor Wolfgang von Hagen. Translated by Harriet de Onís. Civilization of the American Indian 53. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959.
  27.  
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  29.  
  30. One of the earliest (1553) written accounts of Chan Chan (pp. 322–323), Cieza de León notes that Chimú metalsmiths were highly skilled and, following the Inca conquest of Chimor, were brought to Cuzco (p. 328). Reprinted in 1976.
  31.  
  32. Find this resource:
  33.  
  34. Martínez Compañón, Baltasar Jaime. Trujillo del Perú en el siglo XVIII. 9 vols. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica del Centro Iberoamericano de Cooperación, 1978–1991.
  35.  
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  37.  
  38. A facsimile edition of a set of nine volumes of watercolors documenting the province of Trujillo. Composed between 1781 and 1789, Volume 9 is devoted to archaeological subjects, including the earliest plans of Chan Chan and numerous illustrations of Chimú ceramics, some of which are now in the Museo de América in Madrid.
  39.  
  40. Find this resource:
  41.  
  42. Ramírez, Susan E. The World Upside Down: Cross-Cultural Contact and Conflict in Sixteenth-Century Peru. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  43.  
  44. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  45.  
  46. Provides useful data on Chan Chan after the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century, including accounts of the extensive looting of tombs.
  47.  
  48. Find this resource:
  49.  
  50. Rowe, John H. “The Kingdom of Chimor.” Acta Americana 6.1–2 (1948): 26–59.
  51.  
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  53.  
  54. An overview of the major historical sources for the study of the Chimú.
  55.  
  56. Find this resource:
  57.  
  58. Vargas Ugarte, Rubén. “La fecha de la fundación de Trujillo.” Revista histórica 10.2 (1936): 229–239.
  59.  
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  61.  
  62. This brief work brings to light an anonymous fragment of a history of Chimor written in 1604. As with Cabello Valboa 1951 there is a king list and an account of the founding of the dynasty.
  63.  
  64. Find this resource:
  65.  
  66. Zevallos Quiñones, Jorge. Huacas y huaqueros en Trujillo durante el virreinato (1535–1835). Trujillo, Peru: Editora Normas Legales, 1994.
  67.  
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  69.  
  70. The afterlife of Chan Chan and other sites in the colonial period.
  71.  
  72. Find this resource:
  73.  
  74. Archaeological Studies
  75. The Chan Chan–Moche Valley project (1969–1974), directed by Michael E. Moseley and Carol J. Mackey, stands out as one of the most productive and influential archaeological projects at the site. A set of plans of Chan Chan (Moseley and Mackey 1974) and two edited volumes (Moseley and Day 1982, Moseley and Cordy-Collins 1990) provide an overview of the project, as well as summaries of the major findings and models proposed by the numerous archaeologists who worked on the project. Subsequent research at Chan Chan has focused more on the conservation of the adobe architecture, but important smaller studies have revealed both earlier and later occupations than previously known (see Campana Delgado 2006 for a summary of later research at the site, as well as a perspective on the ecology and iconography of the site). Outside the capital, Mackey and her colleagues have investigated several provincial Chimú sites in detail, revealing characteristic patterns of Chimú architecture but also regional and chronological variations. Mackey’s work is particularly important for understanding how certain structures were used. At least some portions of the provincial sites have not been as heavily looted as Chan Chan, which was systematically pillaged beginning in the 16th century. Mackey 1987, Mackey 2006, and Mackey 2009 are studies of relatively well-preserved sites such as Manchan and Farfán that have revealed a rich body of material for art historians.
  76.  
  77. Campana Delgado, Cristóbal Manuel María. Chan Chan del Chimo: Estudio de la ciudad de adobe más grande de América antigua. Lima, Peru: Editorial Orus, 2006.
  78.  
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  80.  
  81. The most extensive recent study of the Chimú capital, this book summarizes the earlier Chan Chan–Moche Valley project and contributes new data from more-recent conservation projects.
  82.  
  83. Find this resource:
  84.  
  85. Mackey, Carol J. “Chimu Administration in the Provinces.” In The Origins and Development of the Andean State. Edited by Jonathan Haas, Shelia G. Pozorski, and Thomas G. Pozorski, 121–129. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
  86.  
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  88.  
  89. One of the first studies of Chimú provincial sites, this chapter focuses on data from Manchan, a site in the Casma Valley.
  90.  
  91. Find this resource:
  92.  
  93. Mackey, Carol J. “Elite Residences at Farfán: A Comparison of the Chimu and Inka Occupations.” In Palaces and Power in the Americas: From Peru to the Northwest Coast. Edited by Jessica Joyce Christie and Patricia Joan Sarro, 313–352. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006.
  94.  
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  96.  
  97. Useful study for understanding Chimú provincial architecture, in this case a major site in the Jequetepeque Valley.
  98.  
  99. Find this resource:
  100.  
  101. Mackey, Carol J. “Chimú Statecraft in the Provinces.” In Andean Civilization: A Tribute to Michael C. Moseley. Edited by Joyce Marcus and Patrick Ryan Williams, 325–349. Monograph (Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA) 63. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, 2009.
  102.  
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  104.  
  105. Thorough synthesis of what we know about Chimú provincial sites, on the basis of decades of archaeological research.
  106.  
  107. Find this resource:
  108.  
  109. Moseley, Michael E., and Alana Cordy-Collins, eds. The Northern Dynasties: Kingship and Statecraft in Chimor: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 12th and 13th October 1985. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1990.
  110.  
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  112.  
  113. This volume addresses Chimor and an earlier dynasty known as Lambayeque or Sicán, from archaeological, ethnohistorical, and art-historical perspectives.
  114.  
  115. Find this resource:
  116.  
  117. Moseley, Michael E., and Kent C. Day, eds. Chan Chan: Andean Desert City. School of American Research Advanced Seminar. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982.
  118.  
  119. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  120.  
  121. This edited volume presents the fruit of the major archaeological project conducted at the Chimú capital, the Chan Chan–Moche Valley project (1969–1974).
  122.  
  123. Find this resource:
  124.  
  125. Moseley, Michael E., and Carol J. Mackey. Twenty-Four Architectural Plans of Chan Chan, Peru: Structure and Form at the Capital of Chimor. Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum Press, 1974.
  126.  
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  128.  
  129. These maps, based on aerial photographs and ground truthing, are the most accurate representations of the city to date.
  130.  
  131. Find this resource:
  132.  
  133. Art-Historical Studies
  134. Archaeological studies are fairly abundant for the Chimú, but there is far less literature dedicated solely to Chimú visual arts and architecture. Following an overview of the most-important works for Chimú art history in general, particularly those works that address major theoretical or methodological issues, the remainder of the literature is organized by medium. Major collections of Chimú art are found in Trujillo, Peru, the modern city adjacent to the ancient site of Chan Chan (particularly the Museo de Sitio de Chan Chan). Other noted collections of Chimú art may be found in Lima, Peru (Museo Larco), Madrid (Museo de América), New York (American Museum of Natural History, Metropolitan Museum of Art), Santiago, Chile (Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino), and Washington, DC (Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Textile Museum).
  135.  
  136. American Museum of Natural History. New York.
  137.  
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  139.  
  140. One of two important collections in New York along with the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Chimú holdings are extensive and include related material such as Adolph Bandelier’s late-19th-century watercolor plans of Chan Chan. See the Hall of South American Peoples and related exhibits.
  141.  
  142. Find this resource:
  143.  
  144. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Washington, DC.
  145.  
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  147.  
  148. This historically important collection—the first pre-Columbian collection assembled as fine art in the United States—includes a number of major Chimú works, including objects in silver, shell, and other materials.
  149.  
  150. Find this resource:
  151.  
  152. Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York.
  153.  
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  155.  
  156. One of the most comprehensive collections of Chimú art anywhere, notable in particular for works in silver as well as textiles.
  157.  
  158. Find this resource:
  159.  
  160. Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino. Santiago, Chile.
  161.  
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163.  
  164. A small but high-quality collection of Chimú objects, including one of the most complex garments known (see the Textile listings); also see the Textiles section in this article.
  165.  
  166. Find this resource:
  167.  
  168. Museo de América. Madrid.
  169.  
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  171.  
  172. This Madrid museum holds a large collection of Chimú objects, particularly ceramics, including works collected by Martínez Compañón in the 18th century (Martínez Compañón 1978–1991, cited under Historical Sources).
  173.  
  174. Find this resource:
  175.  
  176. Museo de Sitio de Chan Chan. Trujillo, Peru.
  177.  
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179.  
  180. Located near the entrance to Chan Chan, this small museum holds works recently excavated from Chan Chan and other collections.
  181.  
  182. Find this resource:
  183.  
  184. Museo Larco. Lima, Peru.
  185.  
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187.  
  188. This Lima museum is better known for its Moche collections, but it also contains some important Chimú works, including rare items of gold and silver.
  189.  
  190. Find this resource:
  191.  
  192. Textile Museum. Washington, DC.
  193.  
  194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195.  
  196. One of two major collections in Washington, DC, along with Dumbarton Oaks, the holdings include outstanding examples of Chimú textiles.
  197.  
  198. Find this resource:
  199.  
  200. Theoretical and Methodological Studies
  201. An important point of departure for any study of Chimú art should be Topic 1990, a study of craft production at Chan Chan. On the basis of the archaeological study of production areas, the chapter situates the importance of craft production in Chimú culture. The Chimú state grew quickly, prompting a growing need for the types of objects that were so critical to the maintenance of elite status, such as ritual objects, ornaments, and the architectural contexts in which such objects would be deployed. The result was the development of mass-produced objects, particularly ceramics, which are often compared unfavorably with those of the earlier Moche culture. Gallardo Ibáñez 2004 addresses the contexts of production, and how an ever-increasing demand for fine textiles, shell mosaics, and other objects prompted the development of new practices. A central text for Chimú art history, Mackey 2000, an essay on Chimú iconography, considers the transformation of deity imagery and other iconographic motifs on the north coast of Peru from the Early Intermediate period through Chimú times. Pillsbury 2009, an essay on architectural sculpture at Chan Chan, underscores the methodological challenges of studying the art of cultures for which there are no contemporaneous texts in general, and Chimú art in particular.
  202.  
  203. Gallardo Ibáñez, Francisco. “Un ensayo sobre cultura visual y arte Chimú, costa norte del Perú.” Boletín del Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino 9 (2004): 35–54.
  204.  
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  206.  
  207. Innovative model for thinking about Chimú artistic practice, particularly in the later empire.
  208.  
  209. Find this resource:
  210.  
  211. Mackey, Carol. “Los dioses que perdieron los colmillos.” In Los dioses del antiguo Perú. Vol. 2. Edited by Krzysztof Makowski, 111–157. Colección Arte y Tesoros del Perú. Lima, Peru: Banco de Crédito del Perú, 2000.
  212.  
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  214.  
  215. This extensive essay, based on many years of detailed archaeological studies, traces the evolution of major iconographic motifs over time.
  216.  
  217. Find this resource:
  218.  
  219. Pillsbury, Joanne. “Reading Art without Writing: Interpreting Chimú Architectural Sculpture.” In Dialogues in Art History, from Mesopotamian to Modern: Readings for a New Century. Edited by Elizabeth Cropper, 72–89. Studies in the History of Art 74. Washington, DC: Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, National Gallery of Art, 2009.
  220.  
  221. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  222.  
  223. This study examines the methodological and theoretical challenges for Chimú art history. Focusing on the impressive architectural reliefs of the palaces of the Chimú kings, the author approaches Chimú art and architecture from a contextual and cross-media perspective.
  224.  
  225. Find this resource:
  226.  
  227. Topic, John R. “Craft Production in the Kingdom of Chimor.” In The Northern Dynasties: Kingship and Statecraft in Chimor: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 12th and 13th October 1985. Edited by Michael E. Moseley and Alana Cordy-Collins, 145–176. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1990.
  228.  
  229. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  230.  
  231. Although not intended as an art-historical study per se, this richly detailed article underscores the impressive scale and overall importance of crafting at Chan Chan.
  232.  
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  234.  
  235. Urbanism
  236. Chan Chan is an unusual urban center in that, unlike other cities, there is no clear central core such as a main plaza. Instead, the city is shaped around monumental compounds thought to have been the palaces of the Chimú kings and sometimes called ciudadelas. Day 1974 analyzes the characteristic elements of ciudadela architecture, particularly the features of one of the best-preserved palaces, known as Rivero. According to the model of “split inheritance” in Conrad 1981, over time the Chimú kings developed a system where each new monarch constructed his own palace rather than occupy that of a predecessor, creating a cluster of monumental palaces at the core of the city. Other architectural types at Chan Chan include temple structures (referred to generically as huacas), dwellings for the lesser nobility and crafters, workshops, and cemeteries. The twenty-four maps of the city created under the direction of Michael Moseley and Carol Mackey (see Moseley and Mackey 1974, cited under Archaeological Studies) are indispensible for any understanding of Chan Chan and have provided the basis for all subsequent studies of the site. The growth and development of the city are still poorly understood, however, and there have been multiple attempts to devise a chronology for the construction of the major features (see Moseley and Day 1982, cited under Archaeological Studies). Subsequent studies (Narváez Vargas 1989, Narváez Vargas and Hoyle Montalva 1985) contributed important data both on the early and late ends of the construction and occupation history of the site. The chronology in Topic and Moseley 1983 remains the most comprehensive and useful source because it takes into consideration various lines of evidence, although several more-recent studies have contributed new data to the discussion (Pillsbury 1992, Sakai 1998).
  237.  
  238. Conrad, Geoffrey W. “Cultural Materialism, Split Inheritance, and the Expansion of Ancient Peruvian Empires.” American Antiquity 46.1 (1981): 3–26.
  239.  
  240. DOI: 10.2307/279981Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241.  
  242. This provocative article lays out the “one king–one palace” model. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  243.  
  244. Find this resource:
  245.  
  246. Day, Kent C. “Walk-In Wells and Water Management at Chanchan, Peru.” In The Rise and Fall of Civilizations, Modern Archaeological Approaches to Ancient Cultures: Selected Readings. Edited by C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky and Jeremy A. Sabloff, 182–190. Menlo Park, CA: Cummings, 1974.
  247.  
  248. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  249.  
  250. Traces the critical element of water management at the capital.
  251.  
  252. Find this resource:
  253.  
  254. Narváez Vargas, Alfredo. “Chan Chan: Chronology and Stratigraphic Contexts.” Andean Past 2 (1989): 131–174.
  255.  
  256. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  257.  
  258. Valuable data on the early occupation of the city.
  259.  
  260. Find this resource:
  261.  
  262. Narváez Vargas, Alfredo, and Ana María Hoyle Montalva. “Evidencias Inca en Chan Chan, Palacio Tschudi.” Boletín del Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Departamental La Libertad 1.1 (1985): 51–61.
  263.  
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  265.  
  266. This short piece presents intriguing evidence for a continued, probably occasional, use of at least part of some Chan Chan palaces in the Inca period.
  267.  
  268. Find this resource:
  269.  
  270. Pillsbury, Joanne. “Technical Evidence for Temporal Placement: Sculpted Adobe Friezes of Chan Chan, Peru.” In Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology III: Symposium Held April 27–May 1, 1992, San Francisco, California, USA. Edited by Pamela B. Vandiver, James R. Druzik, George S. Wheeler, and Ian C. Freestone, 989–995. Materials Research Society Symposia Proceedings 267. Pittsburgh, PA: Materials Research Society, 1992.
  271.  
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  273.  
  274. This brief study assesses the different chronological models and provides data on the sequence of the architectural reliefs.
  275.  
  276. Find this resource:
  277.  
  278. Sakai, Masato. Reyes, estrellas y cerros en Chimor: El proceso de cambio de la organización especial y temporal en Chan Chan. Arqueología e Historia 11. Lima, Peru: Editorial Horizonte, 1998.
  279.  
  280. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  281.  
  282. Following on from the Chan Chan–Moche Valley project, Sakai proposes a new model for the growth of the city, on the basis of astronomical calculations.
  283.  
  284. Find this resource:
  285.  
  286. Topic, John R., and Michael E. Moseley. “Chan Chan: A Case Study of Urban Change in Peru.” Ñawpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology 21 (1983): 153–182.
  287.  
  288. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  289.  
  290. This thorough study draws together data from architectural and ceramic studies to construct a possible sequence for the growth of the city. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  291.  
  292. Find this resource:
  293.  
  294. Architecture
  295. Chimú architecture has been admired—at least for its monumental qualities—since the earliest descriptions of the city were recorded in the 16th century (see Historical Sources). Chimú architecture has received more scholarly attention than other art forms, yet there are still many questions about architecture both in the capital and in the provinces. The foundational arguments on architectural types can be found in Moseley and Day 1982 (cited under Archaeological Studies), and illuminating considerations of the nature of Chimú architectural spaces can be found in Conklin 1990, Moore 1996, and Moore 2005. The field continues to witness debates over function, nomenclature, typologies, sequence of construction, and other matters. The largest building type, referred to in the earliest historical sources as palaces, has also been called citadels (ciudadelas), or simply “monumental compounds.” Part of the confusion stems from the complexity of the forms, which incorporate multiple functions, from grand ceremonial spaces to storage facilities and burial structures (see Pillsbury and Leonard 2004). Smaller architectural types found within the monumental compounds, called “U-shaped structures,” also resist easy interpretation and have been the subject of several studies since the 1990s, including Moore 1992, Moore 1996, and Topic 2003. In the 1990s, Santiago Uceda (see Uceda 1999 and Uceda 2011) excavated several Chimú architectural models—complete with figures sewn to a cloth base—and his studies of these tableaux are essential reading for anyone interested in Chimú architecture because they provide a remarkable glimpse into how the Chimú themselves visualized their architecture in action.
  296.  
  297. Conklin, William J. “Architecture of the Chimu: Memory, Function, and Image.” In The Northern Dynasties: Kingship and Statecraft in Chimor: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 12th and 13th October 1985. Edited by Michael E. Moseley and Alana Cordy-Collins, 43–74. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1990.
  298.  
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  300.  
  301. Considers the architecture from the perspective of the visual experience, including the display of objects.
  302.  
  303. Find this resource:
  304.  
  305. Moore, Jerry D. “Pattern and Meaning in Prehistoric Peruvian Architecture: The Architecture of Social Control in the Chimu State.” Latin American Antiquity 3.2 (1992): 95–113.
  306.  
  307. DOI: 10.2307/971938Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  308.  
  309. This study questions the spatial relationships in the palaces, particularly the association of storage areas and U-shaped structures. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  310.  
  311. Find this resource:
  312.  
  313. Moore, Jerry D. Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes: The Archaeology of Public Buildings. New Studies in Archaeology. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
  314.  
  315. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511521201Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  316.  
  317. This influential volume explores phenomenological aspects of pre-Columbian architecture of the Andes. Chapter 5 (pp. 168–219), “The Architecture of Social Control: Theory, Myth, and Method,” examines Chimú architecture in detail, specifically access patterns of the palaces or ciudadelas.
  318.  
  319. Find this resource:
  320.  
  321. Moore, Jerry D. Cultural Landscapes in the Ancient Andes: Archaeologies of Place. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005.
  322.  
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  324.  
  325. Chapter 5 (pp. 174–211), “Memory and Architecture: House and Society on the North Coast of Peru,” argues that Chimú ciudadelas (palaces) can be considered “house societies” as defined by Claude Lévi-Strauss.
  326.  
  327. Find this resource:
  328.  
  329. Pillsbury, Joanne, and Banks L. Leonard. “Identifying Chimú Palaces: Elite Residential Architecture in the Late Intermediate Period.” In Palaces of the Ancient New World: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 10th and 11th October 1998. Edited by Susan Toby Evans and Joanne Pillsbury, 247–298. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2004.
  330.  
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  332.  
  333. A study of the development of architectural types, particularly the development of the palace form.
  334.  
  335. Find this resource:
  336.  
  337. Topic, John R. “From Stewards to Bureaucrats: Architecture and Information Flow at Chan Chan, Peru.” Latin American Antiquity 14.3 (2003): 243–274.
  338.  
  339. DOI: 10.2307/3557559Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  340.  
  341. This provocative essay argues that the U-shaped structures at Chan Chan were a type of record-keeping device. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  342.  
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345. Uceda, Santiago. “Esculturas en miniatura y una maqueta en madera: El culto a los muertos y a los ancestros en la época Chimú.” Beiträge zur Allgemeinen und vergleichenden Archäologie 19 (1999): 259–311.
  346.  
  347. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  348.  
  349. Uceda’s excavations at the Moche site of Huaca de la Luna yielded the surprising find of several Chimú architectural models. This detailed study provides photographs and line drawings of the models—all probably representing the first plaza of a palace—and the various figures that populated them.
  350.  
  351. Find this resource:
  352.  
  353. Uceda, Santiago. “Las maquetas Chimú de la Huaca de la Luna y sus contextos.” In Modelando el mundo: Imágenes de la arquitectura precolombina. Edited by Cecilia Pardo, 144–163. Lima, Peru: Asociación Museo de Arte de Lima, 2011.
  354.  
  355. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  356.  
  357. The Chimú architectural models revisited, with additional color photographs and observations on their context.
  358.  
  359. Find this resource:
  360.  
  361. Textiles
  362. Some of the earliest textiles in the Americas were found at Huaca Prieta, a site on the coast of the Chicama Valley, where thousands of years later the Chimú state would flourish. Textiles were a precocious and enduring art form, predating ceramics and retaining a certain cultural primacy in later periods. Few complete Chimú textiles have been excavated under scientific conditions, but examples found in museums worldwide attest to the quality of Chimú weaving. Rowe 1984, an exhibition catalogue, remains the single-best publication on Chimú textiles, although other studies have also provided valuable insights. Two publications from Santiago’s Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino (Cornejo B. and Sinclaire A. 2005; Brugnoli B., et al. 1997) address their spectacular high-status garment set, and Pillsbury 2009 (cited under Theoretical and Methodological Studies) considers the deep cultural resonances of textiles in Chimú architecture.
  363.  
  364. Brugnoli B., Paulina, Soledad Hoces de la Guardia Chellew, and Paulina Jélvez H. Fertilidad para el desierto: Un traje ceremonial Chimú, Costa Norte de los Andes Centrales, siglos XII–XV. Santiago, Chile: LOM Ediciones, 1997.
  365.  
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367.  
  368. Detailed study of a remarkable Chimú costume (turban, shirt, skirt) in the Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino in Santiago, including both with color photographs and line drawings.
  369.  
  370. Find this resource:
  371.  
  372. Cornejo B., Luis E., and Carole Sinclaire A., eds. Chimú: Laberintos de un traje sagrado. Santiago, Chile: Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino, 2005.
  373.  
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375.  
  376. Catalogue prepared in connection with the installation of the Museo Chileno’s unique Chimú costume (see Brugnoli B., et al. 1997), including excellent photographs and drawings of the rich botanical details in the weaving.
  377.  
  378. Find this resource:
  379.  
  380. Rowe, Ann P. Costumes and Featherwork of the Lords of Chimor: Textiles from Peru’s North Coast. Washington, DC: Textile Museum, 1984.
  381.  
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383.  
  384. Unsurpassed study of Chimú textiles, including superb examples from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and the Textile Museum in Washington, DC, as well as fragments excavated at Chan Chan.
  385.  
  386. Find this resource:
  387.  
  388. Ceramics
  389. Ceramics form the most abundant class of artifacts that survive from the Chimú culture and serve as the foundation for chronological schema. Despite their abundance (or perhaps because of it), outside of Cruz Martínez de la Torre 1986b there have been relatively few analytical studies of Chimú ceramics or their iconography. Considered somewhat repetitive in comparison with the liveliness of earlier Moche ceramics, Chimú pottery warrants greater study. Several useful catalogues exist (Jansen and Leyenaar 1986, Cruz Martínez de la Torre 1986a), but the best publication, to date, is Mackey 2009, whose author is the leading authority on Chimú archaeology.
  390.  
  391. Cruz Martínez de la Torre, María. Cerámica prehispánica norperuana: Estudio del la cerámica chimú de la colección del Museo de América de Madrid. 2 vols. BAR International Series 323. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1986a.
  392.  
  393. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  394.  
  395. Two-volume publication with photographs and line drawings of the extensive collection of Chimú ceramics in the Museo de América, Madrid.
  396.  
  397. Find this resource:
  398.  
  399. Cruz Martínez de la Torre, María. “Temas iconográficos de la cerámica chimú.” Revista española de antropología americana 16 (1986b): 137–152.
  400.  
  401. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  402.  
  403. Iconographic study based on the detailed inventory of the Museo de América’s collection (Cruz Martínez de la Torre 1986a).
  404.  
  405. Find this resource:
  406.  
  407. Jansen, Th. P. M. Kop, and Th. J. J. Leyenaar. Chimú, PreSpanish Pottery from Peru: Catalogue of the Chimú Collection of the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde (1882–1986). Collections of the RMV 1. Leiden, The Netherlands: Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, 1986.
  408.  
  409. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  410.  
  411. Catalogue of Leiden’s collection of Chimú ceramics, with photographs and brief descriptions.
  412.  
  413. Find this resource:
  414.  
  415. Mackey, Carol. “Los estilos alfareros costeños de los periodos tardíos.” In De Cupisnique a los Incas: El arte del Valle de Jequetepeque; La donación Petrus Fernandini al MALI. Edited by Luis Jaime Castillo and Cecilia Pardo, 268–303. Lima, Peru: Asociación Museo de Arte de Lima, 2009.
  416.  
  417. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  418.  
  419. Although a relatively short section in a larger catalogue of north coast ceramics now in the Museo de Arte de Lima, Mackey draws on her unparalleled knowledge of Chimú ceramics to shed light on this important medium.
  420.  
  421. Find this resource:
  422.  
  423. Metal, Shell, and Wood
  424. Chimú metalsmiths were renowned for their expertise in creating finely wrought vessels and other works in silver and gold, most often shaped from sheet metal, but also small cast items, including delicate pins of copper and other materials. According to Cieza de León 1959 (cited under Historical Sources), when the Inca conquered the Chimú in the last quarter of the 15th century, they pressed Chimú metalsmiths into service at their highland capital in Cuzco. Objects fashioned from shell, however, were arguably of equal or greater importance. The Pacific thorny oyster Spondylus, in particular, was used to create jewelry and other ornaments, and as inlays on vessels and sculptures. The symbolism and use of shell, silver, and gold are discussed in Pillsbury 1996 and Pillsbury 2003, as well as in several well-illustrated catalogues (Carcedo, et al. 1997; Carcedo 1998; King 2000). Regrettably, few of these high-status objects have been scientifically excavated, because Chimú sites were systematically plundered in the colonial period and later. A number of spectacular vessels escaped the colonial-era pillaging of Chan Chan, however, and have been published in Ríos and Retamozo 1982 (see also Carcedo, et al. 1997 for full-color photographs). Wood sculptures have been found in architectural contexts (see Campana Delgado 2006, cited under Archaeological Studies); the most comprehensive study of such works is Jackson 2004.
  425.  
  426. Carcedo, Paloma. Cobre del antiguo Perú. Colección APU. Lima, Peru: Integra AFP, 1998.
  427.  
  428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  429.  
  430. Large catalogue of pre-Columbian copper, including a number of Chimú objects. Introductory essays by archaeologist Izumi Shimada and metallurgy expert Carcedo.
  431.  
  432. Find this resource:
  433.  
  434. Carcedo, Paloma, José Torres della Pina, and Victoria Mújica. Plata y plateros del Perú. Lima, Peru: Patronato Plata del Perú, 1997.
  435.  
  436. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  437.  
  438. This large and influential catalogue includes a detailed and comprehensive essay by one of the leading scholars of pre-Columbian metallurgy, Paloma Carcedo, accompanied by high-quality illustrations. Several other catalogues followed in the wake of this publication, but with lower-quality illustrations and reduced coverage. An exception is King 2000, which includes an English-language version of Carcedo’s essay, as well as new contributions by Luis Jaime Castillo and Heidi King.
  439.  
  440. Find this resource:
  441.  
  442. Jackson, Margaret A. “The Chimú Sculptures of Huacas Tacaynamo and El Dragon, Moche Valley, Perú.” Latin American Antiquity 15.3 (2004): 298–322.
  443.  
  444. DOI: 10.2307/4141576Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. A thorough study of the corpus of wooden sculptures found in disturbed contexts at two of Chan Chan’s outlying monumental structures. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450. King, Heidi. Rain of the Moon: Silver in Ancient Peru. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000.
  451.  
  452. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  453.  
  454. This small but well-researched exhibition catalogue of ancient Peruvian silver includes a number of Chimú objects, as well as objects from neighboring and earlier cultures such as Lambayeque (also known as Sicán). Brief introductory essays provide helpful background on how the objects were made, and the limited information available on find spots.
  455.  
  456. Find this resource:
  457.  
  458. Pillsbury, Joanne. “The Thorny Oyster and the Origins of Empire: Implications of Recently Uncovered Spondylus Imagery from Chan Chan, Peru.” Latin American Antiquity 7.4 (1996): 313–340.
  459.  
  460. DOI: 10.2307/972262Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  461.  
  462. Discusses the find of an architectural relief depicting Spondylus shell divers and the significance of this bivalve in Chimú art and culture. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  463.  
  464. Find this resource:
  465.  
  466. Pillsbury, Joanne. “Luxury Arts and the Lords of Chimor.” In Colecciones latinoamericanas: Essays in Honour of Ted J. J. Leyenaar. Edited by Dorus Kop Jansen and Edward K. de Bock, 67–81. Leiden, The Netherlands: Tetl, 2003.
  467.  
  468. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  469.  
  470. Discussion of Chimú gold, silver, and shell objects, including their symbolic associations and their use in court culture.
  471.  
  472. Find this resource:
  473.  
  474. Ríos, Marcela, and Enrique Retamozo. Vasos ceremoniales de Chan Chan. Lima, Peru: Instituto Cultural Peruano Norteamericano, 1982.
  475.  
  476. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  477.  
  478. This slim volume presents a set of ceremonial vessels found at Chan Chan in the early 20th century. The publication includes rollout and detail drawings; for photographs of the vessels, see Carcedo, et al. 1997.
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