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The Hukou (Household Registration) System (Chinese Studies)

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Jun 11th, 2018
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  1.  
  2. Introduction
  3. China’s hukou system (hukou zhidu 户口 [household registration system] or huji zhidu 户籍制度 [residential registration system]) is a key sociopolitical and economic institution in China. This system requires every Chinese citizen to be officially and constantly registered with the hukou police from birth. One cannot acquire a legal permanent residency or numerous community-based rights, opportunities, benefits, and privileges in places other than the locality of one’s hukou. Only through proper government authorization can one permanently change hukou location and categorization. Travelers, visitors, and temporary migrants must be registered with the hukou police for extended (longer than three days) stays in a locality, usually through local innkeepers. For a stay of longer than one month, and especially when seeking local employment, one must apply and be approved for a temporary residential permit. Violators, if caught, are subject to fines, detention, forced repatriation, and even jail sentences. Hukou files are routinely used by the police for investigation, social control, and crime-fighting purposes. Performing four crucial functions (see Functions and Implications), this system helps stabilize the Chinese political system and shape the Chinese political economy, while fundamentally affecting individuals’ life chances and social status.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6. The broadest treatment in English, Wang 2005 provides a comprehensive examination of the hukou system. This text traces the history and the creation of the system; describes its functions, operation, and evolution in the People’s Republic of China (PRC); analyzes it comparatively, within a framework of institutional exclusion; and speculates about its prospects. Chan and Buckingham 2008 updates information about the system, especially regarding changes. Young 2013 details developments in the hukou system, in the context of China’s overall socioeconomic changes, by applying an institutionalist framework of analysis.
  7.  
  8. Chan, Kam Wing, and Will Buckingham. “Is China Abolishing the Hukou System?” China Quarterly 195 (2008): 582–606.
  9.  
  10. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11.  
  12. This article examines the reforms to the hukou system in the early 21st century and concludes that, with its changes, the system is in fact being improved and strengthened, but not abolished.
  13.  
  14. Find this resource:
  15.  
  16. United States Congress: Senate. China’s Household Registration (Hukou) System: Discrimination and Reforms. Washington, DC: BiblioGov, 2010.
  17.  
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19.  
  20. This free, print-on-demand US government publication collects testimonies from Congressional hearings on China’s hukou system that offer a basic description of the system and its evolution, with a focus on its impact of social discrimination.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24. Wang, Fei-Ling. Organizing through Division and Exclusion: China’s Hukou System. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005.
  25.  
  26. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27.  
  28. This is the first comprehensive study of China’s hukou system in English. The text traces the history and development of the hukou system, describing and assessing its functions, impact, and operational mechanisms. The work also analyzes the hukou, in comparison with the systems of exclusion and discrimination in other nations, notably, Brazil and India, by employing a theory of institutional exclusion.
  29.  
  30. Find this resource:
  31.  
  32. Wang Fei-Ling 王飛凌. “Zhongguo hukou zhidu de zhuanxing” (中國戶口制度的轉型). Ershiyi shiji (二十一世紀), 109 (October) 2008: 4–14.
  33.  
  34. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35.  
  36. This article summarizes some of the findings of Wang 2005 and gives an overview and analysis of the hukou system and its changes and reforms in the early 21st century.
  37.  
  38. Find this resource:
  39.  
  40. Young, Jason. China’s Hukou System: Markets, Migrants and Institutional Change. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
  41.  
  42. DOI: 10.1057/9781137277312Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  43.  
  44. This book explores the changes and reforms of the hukou system by applying an institutionalist approach and explains its ongoing importance in terms of socioeconomic and political development in China.
  45.  
  46. Find this resource:
  47.  
  48. Earlier Scholarship
  49. Earlier works on the hukou system in English include Cheng and Selden 1994 and Chan 1998, which outline the system’s origin and creation, especially its evolving role in separating Chinese city dwellers from the rural Chinese. Other works published in English have considered different aspects of the system, particularly its functions and impacts. Solinger 1999 explores the migrant workers and Chinese labor market, both affected by the hukou system. Davin 1999 examines China’s internal migration, with discussion on the system’s regulatory role. Dutton 1992 studies the hukou system’s role in policing and criminal justice.
  50.  
  51. Chan, Kam Wing. The Hukou System and Rural–Urban Migration in China: Processes and Changes. Working paper, Seattle Population Research Center, University of Washington, 1998.
  52.  
  53. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  54.  
  55. This paper covers the hukou system from the 1980s to 1990s, mainly in the area of rural–urban migration.
  56.  
  57. Find this resource:
  58.  
  59. Cheng, Tiejun. “Dialectics of Control: The Household Registration (Hukou) System in Contemporary China.” PhD diss., State University of New York at Binghamton, 1991.
  60.  
  61. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  62.  
  63. This doctoral thesis in sociology describes and analyzes the hukou system as a social control mechanism in the PRC. Unpublished in itself, but parts have since appeared as articles and essays.
  64.  
  65. Find this resource:
  66.  
  67. Cheng, Tiejun, and Mark Selden. “The Origins and Social Consequences of China’s Hukou System.” China Quarterly (1994).
  68.  
  69. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  70.  
  71. This article traces and analyzes the origin of the hukou system in the PRC in the 1950s and looks at the system’s impact on China’s social stratification.
  72.  
  73. Find this resource:
  74.  
  75. Davin, Delia. Internal Migration in Contemporary China. New York: Palgrave, 1999.
  76.  
  77. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  78.  
  79. This book, a little dated now, reports on some of the general patterns and developments of China’s internal migration and mentions the indispensable role of the hukou system in its regulation.
  80.  
  81. Find this resource:
  82.  
  83. Dutton, Michael R. Policing and Punishment in China: From Patriarchy to “The People.” New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  84.  
  85. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  86.  
  87. This book is a major work on post-Mao policing and the criminal justice system in China. The book touches on the crucial role of the hukou system in China’s governance and law enforcement as well as social relations.
  88.  
  89. Find this resource:
  90.  
  91. Solinger, Dorothy J. Contesting Citizenship in Urban China: Peasant Migrants, the State, and the Logic of the Market. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.
  92.  
  93. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  94.  
  95. Through the lens of citizenship, this work analyzes the post-Mao market reforms in the Chinese labor market, particularly the massive rural–urban migration and the “floating population,” which have been key to China’s economic development. The Hukou system is viewed as critical in shaping the (inadequate) Chinese citizenship of the huge rural population.
  96.  
  97. Find this resource:
  98.  
  99. People’s Republic of China Publications
  100. There have been numerous publications on the hukou system in Chinese. Because of the highly sensitive nature of the system and the thick wall of secrecy surrounding its operation, the voluminous works by PRC authors tend to be narrow and repetitive descriptions of those aspects of the system that are generally allowed to be openly discussed (such as its impact on internal migration control and urbanization). These texts are also usually interpretations and explanations of government policies and decrees, heavily influenced by one-time state preferences and instructions and mostly incomplete and limited. Some, however, do provide useful information and background; Yu 2002, Yao 2004, and Zhang 1987 are three such works.
  101.  
  102. Yao Xiulan 姚秀兰. Huji, shengfen yu shehui bainqian (户籍，身份与社会变迁). Bejing: Falü chubanshe, 2004.
  103.  
  104. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  105.  
  106. This book outlines the hukou system from legal and historical perspectives, with useful information about the creation and administration of the system in the PRC.
  107.  
  108. Find this resource:
  109.  
  110. Yu Depeng 俞德鹏. Chengxiang shehui:Ccong geli zouxiang kaifang—Zhongguo huji zhidu yu hujifa yanjiu (城乡社会：从隔离走向开放－中国户籍制度与户籍法研究). Jinan, China: Shandong renmin chubanshe, 2002.
  111.  
  112. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  113.  
  114. This openly published text is one of the more comprehensive (though still highly selective and very incomplete) academic works in Chinese on the hukou system and its related laws and regulations governing internal (especially rural–urban) migration.
  115.  
  116. Find this resource:
  117.  
  118. Zhang Qingwu 张庆五. Hukou dengji changshi (户口登记常识). Beijing: Falü chubanshe, 1983.
  119.  
  120. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  121.  
  122. This book, by a leading PRC hukou scholar-official, was designed to promote the rules—the dos and don’ts—of the hukou system, as part of the official “promoting laws” campaign of the 1980s. Useful for understanding the basic (and still valid) mechanisms of the system’s operation (many of the finer details have changed since). An English edition, China’s Household Registration System, translated by Michael Dutton (Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 1988), is available.
  123.  
  124. Find this resource:
  125.  
  126. Zhang Qingwu 张庆五. Huji guanli xue (户籍管理学). Beijing: Zhongguo gongan daxue chubanshe, 1987.
  127.  
  128. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  129.  
  130. This work, by a leading PRC hukou scholar-official, attempts to approach the study of the hukou system from a social sciences perspective. Incomplete and heavily censored, as such works published in the PRC typically are.
  131.  
  132. Find this resource:
  133.  
  134. Reference Resources
  135. The People’s Republic of China State Council and its ministries have issued numerous regulations and directives that have substantiated and fine-tuned the hukou system. The majority of these “state documents” have concerned the ever-changing criteria for and mechanisms of control of internal migration (hukou relocation). The Ministry of Public Security (MPS) and the local public security bureaus and police stations are the administrators of the hukou system. Specialized hukou police officers are assigned to be in charge of hukou matters in each hukou zone: a neighborhood, street, danwei (work unit), or township. With the authorization of the central government, provincial and municipal governments can make marginal changes and experimental modifications of the hukou system in their respective jurisdictions. The MPS and other central government agencies, such as the National Bureau of Statistics, publish many hukou-related documents, decrees, and statistical data. Some of these materials have been put online for easy search.
  136.  
  137. Gong’an bu 公安部. 2010 Niandu Quanguo fenxianshi renkou tongji ziliao (中华人民共和国全国分县市人口统计资料2010年). Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 2011.
  138.  
  139. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  140.  
  141. This MPS annual public report contains rich but unsystematic information about the hukou system, especially its current state and changes.
  142.  
  143. Find this resource:
  144.  
  145. Gong’an bu renshi peixun si公安部人事培训司, ed. Huzheng guanli jiaocheng (户政管理教程). Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 2000.
  146.  
  147. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  148.  
  149. This is a book published for internal circulation within the MPS only. The work offers extensive and detailed information about the management of the hukou system and the evolution of its managerial mechanisms. There have likely been revised editions since 2000.
  150.  
  151. Find this resource:
  152.  
  153. Guojia tongji ju 国家统计局, ed. Zhongguo renkou tongji nianjian 2011 (中国人口统计年鉴). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2012.
  154.  
  155. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  156.  
  157. This annual publication, by the National Bureau of Statistics, collects the official data on Chinese population, migration, and residential location. Presents useful information for study of the hukou system through careful reading and analysis.
  158.  
  159. Find this resource:
  160.  
  161. Xinlang Wang 新浪网. Guanzhu huji zhidu (关注户籍制度).
  162.  
  163. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  164.  
  165. For many years, this officially censored PRC website has been displaying a large number of journalistic reports, op-eds, and government announcements about the hukou system and its reform. With its learned research and analysis, this is a useful source of information about the status quo of the PRC hukou system.
  166.  
  167. Find this resource:
  168.  
  169. Zhonghua renmin gonghe guo zhongyang renmin zhengfu 中华人民共和国中央人民政府. Huji menhu wangzhan (户籍门户网站).
  170.  
  171. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  172.  
  173. This government-run website provides current government regulations and information about the hukou system, especially its administration, including informational questions and answers for the Chinese citizen about the system.
  174.  
  175. Find this resource:
  176.  
  177. Internal Publications
  178. From 1986 to 1999, the MPS created a national electronic hukou database. By the early 21st century the entire PRC hukou system had been digitized and managed online, but this information is still highly guarded, and the website’s content is classified (some of it is even “top secret” [juemi]). Access to the hukou files and database by nongovernmental researchers is, therefore, strictly forbidden, and authorized researchers tend to have only limited access, mostly at local levels. The MPS and other PRC government agencies, however, put out internal publications on the hukou system that are used for training and reference and that are not classified. These provide useful background information, anecdotal (and sometimes comprehensive) data, and insight into some of the thinking and rationale behind the creation and management of the hukou system. The MPS publications included here are a sampling of these sources. Jiang and Luo 1996 and Gongan bu renshi peixun si 1999 cover the basic hukou rules that the PRC hukou police need to know. Li 1999 and Yao 2003 describe the routine operation of the hukou system in the police zones. Gong’an bu zhian guanli ju 2000 (公安部治安管理局), Gong’an bu zhian guanli ju 2001 (公安部治安管理局), and Gong’an bu- 2013 (Third Bureau 公安部第三局) are collections of hukou-related state documents.
  179.  
  180. Gong’an bu-[Third Bureau公安部第三局]. Hukou guanli ziliao huibian (户口管理资料汇编). Vol. 8, 2008–2011. Beijing: Zhongguo renmin gongan daxue chubanshe, 2013.
  181.  
  182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183.  
  184. This internal publication collects and updates many essays, reports, and documents, offering valuable anecdotal (and somewhat systematic) and largely uncensored information about the PRC hukou system, with emphasis on its daily operation.
  185.  
  186. Find this resource:
  187.  
  188. Gong’an bu renshi peixun si（公安部人事培训司, ed. Zhian jicheng jichu jiaocheng (治安基程基础教程). Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe 1999.
  189.  
  190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191.  
  192. This is a textbook published for the use of local police and police precincts (paichusuo 派出所) only. It contains useful information about the hukou zones. There have likely been revised editions since 1999.
  193.  
  194. Find this resource:
  195.  
  196. Gong’an bu zhian guanli ju 公安部治安管理局, ed. Quanguo zanzhu renkou tongji ziliao huibian (全国暂住人口统计资料汇编). Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 1999.
  197.  
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199.  
  200. The MPS internally publishes statistical information, albeit incomplete, about the various segments of the population in the PRC. This report is about migrants. There have likely been revised editions since 1999.
  201.  
  202. Find this resource:
  203.  
  204. Gong’an bu zhian guanli ju 公安部治安管理局, ed. Gongmin shenfen haoma gongzuo wenjianji (公民身份证号码工作文件集). Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 2000.
  205.  
  206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207.  
  208. This MPS internal publication collects documents and decrees about the management of PRC personal identification cards, a key component in the operation of the hukou system. There have likely been revised editions since 2000.
  209.  
  210. Find this resource:
  211.  
  212. Gong’an bu zhian guanli ju 公安部治安管理局, ed. Hukou guanli fagui guizhang zhengce huibian (户口管理法规规章政策汇编), ed. Beijing: Zhongguo renmin gongan daxue chubanshe, 2001.
  213.  
  214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215.  
  216. This MPS internal publication collects government regulations and decrees about the management of the hukou system, many s1till in effect. There have likely been revised editions since 2001.
  217.  
  218. Find this resource:
  219.  
  220. Jiang Xianjin 蒋先进 and Luo Feng 罗丰. Jingcha yewu shiyong quanshu: Zhian guanli juan (警察业务实用手册：治安管理卷). Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 1996.
  221.  
  222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223.  
  224. The MPS periodically internally publishes guidebooks and reference books such as this for the hukou police. The texts present details about the daily work of the hukou police, some comprehensive information, and many anecdotes about the people the policmanaged. These sources are frequently updated and expanded.
  225.  
  226. Find this resource:
  227.  
  228. Li Zhongxin 李忠信, ed. Zhongguo shequ jingwu yanjiu (中国社区警务研究). Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 1999.
  229.  
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231.  
  232. This is an internal collection of research reports on and analyses of local policing in the PRC, with considerable coverage of the hukou system, particularly its role in social control, which is not known by the public.
  233.  
  234. Find this resource:
  235.  
  236. Yao Weizhang 姚伟章, ed. Gongan paichusuo zhifa xuzhi (公安派出所执法须知). Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 2003.
  237.  
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239.  
  240. This internal publication details hukou-related police work in the PRC and contains useful information about the system’s local operation.
  241.  
  242. Find this resource:
  243.  
  244. History
  245. The hukou system was created in the centrally planned economy of the 1950s, with long historical roots in Imperial China that can be traced back to the 5th century BCE, during the Warring States period. The system was institutionalized and adopted, with varying degrees of effectiveness and extensiveness, as an important part of the Chinese imperial political system from the Qin (3rd century BCE) to the Qing (1644–1911). The Republic of China (ROC, 1912–) and the People’s Republic of China (PRC, 1949–) both established a national hukou system. Liang 1980 and Zhang, et al. 1992 survey the hukou system in Chiense history. Gu, et al. (Gu Daoxian 1996) examines the hukou system of the Qin and ROC. Lu 2002 reports on the evolution of the hukou system in the PRC.
  246.  
  247. Gu Daoxian 顾道先 ed. Qingchao moqi zhi Zhonghua minguo huji guanli fagui (清朝末期至中华民国户籍管理法规). Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 1996.
  248.  
  249. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250.  
  251. This book, authorized by the PRC Ministry of Public Security (MPS), collects the historical documents and government regulations governing the hukou system between mid-19th century and mid-20th century.
  252.  
  253. Find this resource:
  254.  
  255. Liang Fangzhong 梁方仲. Zhongguo lishishang de hukou, tudi, tianfu tongji (中国历代户口、土地、田赋统计). Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1980.
  256.  
  257. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  258.  
  259. This book, published twenty-five years after its completion, collects rich and comprehensive data on China’s hukou system, especially relevant statistical information about the system’s economic and fiscal functions from 2nd century BCE to the late-19th century. The book also analyzes the data collected to reveal some key trends and patterns of the imperial versions of the hukou system.
  260.  
  261. Find this resource:
  262.  
  263. Lu Yilong 陆益龙. “1949 nianhou de Zhongguo huji zhidu: Jiegou yu bianqian” (1949年后的中国户籍制度：结构与变迁). Beijing daxue xuebao 2 (2002): 123–130.
  264.  
  265. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  266.  
  267. Lu describes the hukou system in the PRC, with a focus on the system’s structural changes over the time and its role in regulating internal migration.
  268.  
  269. Find this resource:
  270.  
  271. Zhang Qingwu张庆五, Yang Zihui 杨子慧, Zhongguo lidai de renkou yu huji (中国历代人口与户籍). Tianjin, China: Tianjin jiaoyu chubanshe, 1992.
  272.  
  273. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  274.  
  275. This brief summary of the hukou system, by leading PRC scholars, deals with Chinese demography and hukou system in history.
  276.  
  277. Find this resource:
  278.  
  279. Imperial Times
  280. The hukou has been mentioned in numerous Chinese history books since the pre-Qin era (prior to 3rd century BCE), albeit rarely academically. Most of the official, semiofficial, and even unofficial historical records of the Chinese imperial dynasties contain substantial but largely incomplete information about the imperial versions of the system. Many well-researched academic works on Chinese history, particularly the economic history of the PRC, have inevitably looked at the history and the historical role of the system, usually in the context of examining Chinese demographic, political, and economic developments. The literature in English solely devoted to the history of the hukou system itself, however, is relatively thin. Wan 1998 discusses the origin of the hukou system. Song 1988 examines improvements in the imperial hukou system. Ershisi shi and Zhao 1998 contain useful, original materials about the imperial hukou system.
  281.  
  282. Ershisi shi (二十四史). Beijing: 中华书局 Zhonghua shuju, 2000.
  283.  
  284. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  285.  
  286. This huge collection of official and semiofficial historical records on Imperial China, from the pre-Qin (prior to 3rd century BCE) to the end of Ming (mid-17th century, contains rich information about the imperial hukou system, mostly anecdotal, especially the chapters on fiscal and economic history, Shihuo zhi (食货志).
  287.  
  288. Find this resource:
  289.  
  290. Song Jiajue 宋家珏. Tangchao hujifa yu juntianzhi yanjiu (唐朝户籍法与均田制研究). Beijing: Shangwu, 1988.
  291.  
  292. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  293.  
  294. Studying two key institutions during a major period of imperial Chinese history, this book provides useful information about and a good analysis of the history of the hukou system.
  295.  
  296. Find this resource:
  297.  
  298. Wan Chuan 万川. “Shang Yang de huji zhidu gaige jiqi lishi yiyi” (商鞅的户籍制度改革及其历史意义). Gongan daxue xuebao (公安大学学报) 1 (1998): 80–83.
  299.  
  300. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  301.  
  302. This article explores a main origin of China’s hukou and baojia systems, the Lord Shang Reform (4th century BCE), a law that set the foundation for the rise of the Qin kingdom, which eventually united China two centuries later.
  303.  
  304. Find this resource:
  305.  
  306. Zhao Erxun 赵尔巽. Qingshigao (清史稿). Beijing: 中华书局 Zhonghua shuju, 1998.
  307.  
  308. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  309.  
  310. Zhao presents historical records of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) that offer valuable information about the Qing hukou system, mostly anecdotal, particularly in the chapter on fiscal and economic history, Shihuo zhi (食货志).
  311.  
  312. Find this resource:
  313.  
  314. Republic of China and People’s Republic of China
  315. Inheriting much of the ROC-era hukou system, on 9 January 1958 Mao Zedong promulgated The Regulation on Hukou Registration of the People’s Republic of China, finalizing the creation of the PRC national hukou system. Twenty-seven years later, on 6 September 1985, Beijing adopted its Regulation on Resident’s Personal Identification Card in the People’s Republic of China (amended, on 29 June 2003, to The Law on Resident’s Personal Identification Card in the People’s Republic of China), through which the PRC hukou system achieved an unprecedented level of uniformity, extensiveness, rural–urban duality, effectiveness, and rigidity. Guo Yanlin 1952 and Schurmann 1966 cover the ROC hukou system. Chan 1988, Chan 1994, and Wen 2003 report on the history of the PRC hukou system. Matthews 1993 and Rubins 1998 discuss the internal passport system of the former Soviet Union, an important ideological inspiration for the PRC hukou system.
  316.  
  317. Chan, Kam Wing. “Rural–Urban Migration in China, 1950–1982.” Urban Geography 9.1 (1988): 53–84.
  318.  
  319. DOI: 10.2747/0272-3638.9.1.53Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  320.  
  321. This article reports on and analyzes the historical data of internal, particularly the rural–urban type, migration in the PRC’s first three decades.
  322.  
  323. Find this resource:
  324.  
  325. Chan, Kam Wing. “Urbanization and Rural–Urban Migration in China since 1982: A New Baseline.” Modern China 20 (1994): 243–282.
  326.  
  327. DOI: 10.1177/009770049402000301Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328.  
  329. This article presents and analyzes the historical data and patterns of internal migration, with a focus on urbanization in the PRC during the 1980s and 1990s.
  330.  
  331. Find this resource:
  332.  
  333. Guo Yanlin 郭延林, ed. Jingcha yu huzheng (警察與戶政). Taipei: Jingmin daobao she, 1952.
  334.  
  335. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  336.  
  337. This book summarizes the function and administration of the ROC version of the hukou system, especially the one administrated in Taiwan.
  338.  
  339. Find this resource:
  340.  
  341. Matthews, Mervyn. The Passport Society: Controlling Movement in Russia and the USSR. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1993.
  342.  
  343. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  344.  
  345. This book studies the Soviet propiska (resident permit) system of internal population and migration control. The text is useful for advancing our understanding of this Soviet source of the PRC hukou system and its role in regulating internal migration.
  346.  
  347. Find this resource:
  348.  
  349. Rubins, Noah. “Recent Development: The Demise and Resurrection of the Propiska.” Harvard International Law Journal 39.545 (1998).
  350.  
  351. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  352.  
  353. This study considers the fate of the Soviet propiska system in Russia after the collapse of the former Soviet Union, providing a good contrast to the post–Cold War PRC hukou system.
  354.  
  355. Find this resource:
  356.  
  357. Schurmann, Franz. Ideology and Organization in Communist China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966.
  358.  
  359. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  360.  
  361. This work reveals the political role of the hukou system in Chinese history during the republican era and under the Japanese occupation. The work also looks at how the PRC developed its way of governance, with the creation of its new hukou system as a key element.
  362.  
  363. Find this resource:
  364.  
  365. Wen Tiejun 温铁军. “Hukou zhidu gaige de lishi, xianzhuang yu weilai” （户口制度改革的历史，现状与未来）. In Zhongguo shehui xingshi fenxi yu yuce (中国社会形态分析与预测). Edited by Ru Xin 汝信, 109–206 Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian hunbashe, 2003.
  366.  
  367. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  368.  
  369. This article, by a senior PRC scholar-offical, explores the history of the PRC hukou system, with an emphasis on its changes and prospects.
  370.  
  371. Find this resource:
  372.  
  373. History of the baojia System
  374. There is a body of literature on the history of the politically valuable variation of the hukou system—the baojia (保甲) system—that is very useful for understanding the history of the hukou system. Wen 1935 and Zhou 1947 are still the most complete studies of the baojia system in Chinese. Hsiao 1968, Kuhn 1980, Kuhn 2001, Zhu 1994, and Sheng 2012 contain historical and empirical studies on the baojia system. Xu and Ding 1968 collects baojia-related documents.
  375.  
  376. Hsiao, Kung-Chuan. Rural China: Imperial Control in the Nineteenth Century. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1968.
  377.  
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379.  
  380. This book discusses the historical role of the local-gentry-led baojia system and imperial political control in rural China in the late-Qing era.
  381.  
  382. Find this resource:
  383.  
  384. Kuhn, Philip A. Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796–1864. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
  385.  
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387.  
  388. Kuhn deals with the history of the political economy in late-Imperial China and offers rich information and solid discussion on the hukou system, especially the baojia version of it, as a key instrument of imperial governance.
  389.  
  390. Find this resource:
  391.  
  392. Kuhn, Philip A. Origins of the Modern Chinese State. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.
  393.  
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395.  
  396. This work explores the origin of the PRC state in late–Imperial China, with useful consideration of the roots of China’s hukou system as a statecraft that has been used by emperors and the ROC and PRC governments.
  397.  
  398. Find this resource:
  399.  
  400. Sheng Chengfei 沈成飞. “Shidao baojia zhengwu” (视导保甲政务). Zhongshan daxue xuebao (中山大学学报) 3 (2012): 84–90.
  401.  
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403.  
  404. This article studies the practice of the baojia system in the ROC era, with reference to the administrative effectiveness of local governance and social stability.
  405.  
  406. Find this resource:
  407.  
  408. Wen Juntian 聞鈞天. Zhongguo baojia zhidu (中國保甲制度). Shanghai: Shangwu yingshu guan, 1935.
  409.  
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411.  
  412. Prefaced by the then ROC top leader Chiang Kai-shek, this book revived in the 1930s the discussion of a critical imperial statecraft. This is still the most comprehensive study on the history of the baojia system in Chinese, addressing the powerful role of the hukou system in political control and local governance in Chinese history.
  413.  
  414. Find this resource:
  415.  
  416. Xu Dong徐棟 and Ding Richang 丁日昌, eds. Baojia shu jiyao (保甲書輯要). Taipei: Chengwen chubanshe, 1968.
  417.  
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419.  
  420. This book collects the significant documents about the baojia system, a politically instrumental variation of the hukou system in late–imperial-era China.
  421.  
  422. Find this resource:
  423.  
  424. Zhou Zhongyi 周中一. Baojia yanjiu (保甲研究). Shanghai: Duli chubanshe, 1947.
  425.  
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427.  
  428. This study traces the history of the baojia system, particularly the Qing and ROC versions of it.
  429.  
  430. Find this resource:
  431.  
  432. Zhu Dexin (朱德新). Ershi shiji sansishi niandai Henan Jidong baojia zhidu yanjiu (二十世纪三四十年代河南冀东保甲制度研究). Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1994.
  433.  
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435.  
  436. Focusing on a politically crucial region in northern China during the 1930s and 1940s, this study outlines the practice and functions of the baojia system, which was used extensively and effectively by the invading Japanese Army, the ROC government, and the rebellious Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
  437.  
  438. Find this resource:
  439.  
  440. Demography
  441. The relatively rich works on the history of Chinese demography contain significant, useful information about the history of the hukou system. Ge, et al. 2002 is the most comprehensive collection of historical data. Ho 1959, Skinner 1977, and Banister 1987 outline the demographic history of China from ancient times to the PRC. Jiang 1999 is a Chinese take on Chinese demographic history.
  442.  
  443. Banister, Judith. China’s Changing Population. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987.
  444.  
  445. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  446.  
  447. book outlines demographic changes in the PRC, giving useful historical data relevant to the operation of the hukou system.
  448.  
  449. Find this resource:
  450.  
  451. Chen Shaoxin 陳紹馨. Taiwan de renkou bianqian yu shehui bianqian (臺灣的人口與社會變遷). Taipei: Jinglian, 1995.
  452.  
  453. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  454.  
  455. This study describes demographic changes in Taiwan and presents valuable information about the ROC (especially Taiwan) version of China’s hukou system, especially in Taiwan.
  456.  
  457. Find this resource:
  458.  
  459. Fei, Hsiao-tung (Fei Xiaotong费孝通), ed. China’s Gentry: Essays in Rural–Urban Relations. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1980.
  460.  
  461. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  462.  
  463. This volume collects works on the gentry in Chinese history and how that class has traditionally bridged rural and the urban societies and shaped the Chinese political economy over time.
  464.  
  465. Find this resource:
  466.  
  467. Ge Jianxiong 葛剑雄 and Hou Yangfang 侯杨方, eds. Zhongguo renkou shi (中国人口史). 6 vols. Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2002.
  468.  
  469. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  470.  
  471. This major project, consisting of sixvolumes, with more than four thousand pages total, is authored by a team of China’s leading historical demographers and geographers. The work details the evolution of the Chinese population over two thousand years, until 1953, providing rich information and anecdotes about the growth, migration, and management of the Chinese population under the imperial and republican governments, with many references to the hukou system.
  472.  
  473. Find this resource:
  474.  
  475. Ho, Ping-ti. Studies on the Population of China, 1368–1953. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959.
  476.  
  477. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  478.  
  479. This is a classic study of population in China that carefully and authoritatively treats some of the basics in the study of the history of Chinese demography, with ample reference to the hukou system in Imperial China.
  480.  
  481. Find this resource:
  482.  
  483. Jiang Tao 姜涛. Lishi yu renkou—Zhongguo chuantong renkou jiegou yanjiu (历史与人口 中国传统人口结构研究). Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1999.
  484.  
  485. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  486.  
  487. Jiang traces the evolution of demographic elements in Chinese history and offers useful information and analysis on the function of the hukou system in the background.
  488.  
  489. Find this resource:
  490.  
  491. Skinner, G. William. The City in Late Imperial China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1977.
  492.  
  493. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  494.  
  495. A well-established work on the history of Chinese cities and urbanization, helping advance our understanding of rural–urban relations in modern-day and China.
  496.  
  497. Find this resource:
  498.  
  499. Wang, Gungwu. The Chinese Overseas: From Earthbound China to the Quest for Autonomy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000.
  500.  
  501. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  502.  
  503. An authoritative work on overseas Chinese migrant societies and the forces behind Chinese emigration in modern times.
  504.  
  505. Find this resource:
  506.  
  507. Internal Migration
  508. Historical works on internal migration are a good source for understanding the patterns and control resulting from variations of the hukou system in Chinese history as well as the historical development of the rural–urban divide. Leong 1997; Ge, et al. 1993; Lary 2012; and Day, et al. 1994 outline the history of internal migration in China with varied depth and perspectives, whereas Elvin and Skinner 1974 and Fei 1986 consider the urban sector and urbanization. Sun 1997 and Honig 1992 provide in-depth case studies of internal migration in Chinese history. Lu 1997 reports on the refugees, internal exiles, and floating population.
  509.  
  510. Day, Lincoln H., and Ma Xia, eds. Migration and Urbanization in Modern China. Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 1994.
  511.  
  512. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  513.  
  514. A useful discussion on general trends and patterns in China’s internal migration in modern history.
  515.  
  516. Find this resource:
  517.  
  518. Elvin, Mark, and G. William Skinner, eds. The Chinese City between Two Worlds. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1974.
  519.  
  520. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  521.  
  522. A historical study on rural–urban relations in China that touches on various aspects of the operation and evolution of the hukou system.
  523.  
  524. Find this resource:
  525.  
  526. Fei Xiaotong 费孝通. Jiangcun jingji (江村经济). Nanjing, China: Jiangsu renmin chubanshe, 1986.
  527.  
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529.  
  530. This sociological study of the political economy and social life, originally published during the ROC era, depicts the Chinese rural and small towns, thus presenting valuable information about the rural–urban divide and continuum prior to the PRC.
  531.  
  532. Find this resource:
  533.  
  534. Ge Jianxiong 葛剑雄, Cao Shuji曹树基基, and Wu Songdi吴松弟. Jianming Zhongguo yimin shi (简明中国移民史). Fuzhou, China: 福建人民出版社 Fujian renmin chubanshe, 1993.
  535.  
  536. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  537.  
  538. As an outline of internal migration in Chinese history, this is a good source for tracing the role and administration of the hukou system in history. A much longer, six-volume, version of this book, by Ge Jianxiong, Cao Shuji & Wu Songdi is published as Zhongguo yimin shi (中国移民史) (Fuzhou, China: Fujian renmin chubanshe, 1997).
  539.  
  540. Find this resource:
  541.  
  542. Honig, Emily. Creating Chinese Ethnicity: Subei People in Shanghai, 1850–1980. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
  543.  
  544. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  545.  
  546. This work examines historically one famous “outsider” group of residents in Shanghai and how that group has been treated politically, economically, and socially under the hukou system.
  547.  
  548. Find this resource:
  549.  
  550. Lary, Diana. Chinese Migrations: The Movement of People, Goods, and Ideas over Four Millennia. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2012.
  551.  
  552. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  553.  
  554. Without particularly emphasizing the hukou system, this book describes concisely the picture of internal migration in China from the pre-Qin tothe early 21st century and hence offers useful background for appreciating the migration-regulating hukou system.
  555.  
  556. Find this resource:
  557.  
  558. Leong, Sow-Theng. Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin, and Their Neighbors. Edited by Tim Wright. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997.
  559.  
  560. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  561.  
  562. This is a historical study on internal migration, especially the marginalized migrating groups in ancient China. The text affords a good understanding of how the imperial rulers and Chinese societal forces attempted to restrict internal migration.
  563.  
  564. Find this resource:
  565.  
  566. Li Debin 李德滨 Jindai Zhongguo yimin shiyao (近代中国移民史要). Harbin, China: 哈尔滨出版社 Harbin chubanshe, 1994.
  567.  
  568. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  569.  
  570. Li details the patterns, routes, and distribution of Chinese migration from 1840 to 1949, revealing the influence of the hukou system and the lack of it.
  571.  
  572. Find this resource:
  573.  
  574. Lu Deyang 陆德阳. Liumin shi (流民史). Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997.
  575.  
  576. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577.  
  578. This book sketches the history of migrants, particularly involuntary migration, or floating refugees, in Chinese history, withvaluable, largely anecdotal, information about the imperial and ROC versions of the hukou system.
  579.  
  580. Find this resource:
  581.  
  582. Sun Xiaofen 孙晓芬. Qingdai qianqi de yimin tian Sichuan (清代前期的移民填四川). Chengdu, China: Sichuan daxue chubanshe, 1997.
  583.  
  584. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  585.  
  586. This text explores a famous and consequential case of the role of hukou system in internal migration in Imperial China.
  587.  
  588. Find this resource:
  589.  
  590. Migration in the People’s Republic of China
  591. Under the unprecedented power of the PRC hukou system, the government intentionally and unintentionally launched many internal migrations that shaped early-21st-century Chinese society. Ma 1994 reports on urban–urban and rural–urban migration. Bernstein 1977, Li 1993, and Rene 2013 examine the Mao-era government-mandated policy of forced internal migration, in which millions of educated youth were sent to the countryside. Johnson 2003 reports on the new waves of migration started in the 1990s.
  592.  
  593. Bernstein, Thomas P. Up to the Mountains and down to the Villages: The Transfer of Youth from Urban to Rural China. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977.
  594.  
  595. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  596.  
  597. This early work on the PRC’s “send-down” campaigns offers insight into the functions and implications of the hukou system.
  598.  
  599. Find this resource:
  600.  
  601. Johnson, D. Gale. “Provincial Migration in China in the 1990s.” China Economic Review 14.1 (2003): 22–31.
  602.  
  603. DOI: 10.1016/S1043-951X(02)00085-8Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  604.  
  605. Based on 1990 and 2000 census data, this article reports on the rising internal migration in the PRC, powered by the booming market economy and a relaxation of control of population movement.
  606.  
  607. Find this resource:
  608.  
  609. Li Guangping 李广平, ed. Zhongguo zhiqing beihuan lu (中国知青悲欢录). Guangzhou, China: Huacheng chubanshe, 1993.
  610.  
  611. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  612.  
  613. This reportage describes the ups and downs in the lives of tens of millions Chinese youth from the 1960s to 1980s, with many vivid stories about the power of the hukou system.
  614.  
  615. Find this resource:
  616.  
  617. Ma Xia 马侠. Zhongguo chengzhen renkou jianyi (中国城镇人口迁移). Beijing: Zhongguo renkou chubanshe, 1994.
  618.  
  619. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  620.  
  621. Ma discusses the internal migration of the urban population in the PRC and the operation of the hukou system in the Chinese cities.
  622.  
  623. Find this resource:
  624.  
  625. Rene, Helena K. China’s Sent-Down Generation: Public Administration and the Legacies of Mao’s Rustication Program. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2013.
  626.  
  627. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  628.  
  629. This is a comprehensive study of the send-down campaign of the 1960s and 1970s, a major event related to the operation of the hukou system in the history of the PRC, and looks at how the system administratively shaped the lives of many millions for a very long time.
  630.  
  631. Find this resource:
  632.  
  633. Rural versus Urban
  634. As a major consequence of internal migration control under the hukou system, China has had a long tradition of the rural–urban divide, which peaked in the PRC era. Walder 1988 and Yu and Tang 2012 analyze the rural–urban divide and authority structure. Friedman, et al. 1991; Chan, et al. 1992; Walder 1998; and Cao 2000 present case studies providing rich information.
  635.  
  636. Cao Jinqing 曹锦清. Huanghe biande Zhongguo: Yige xuezhe dui xiangcun shehui de guancha yu sikao (黄河边的中国). Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 2000.
  637.  
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639.  
  640. This is a sociological study of Chinese rural society under the hukou system, with significant anecdotal and regionally comprehensive information about the system.
  641.  
  642. Find this resource:
  643.  
  644. Chan, Anita, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger. Chen Village, under Mao and Deng. 2d ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
  645.  
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647.  
  648. A study of a PRC village that touches on various aspects of the operation and evolution of the hukou system in the rural sector of the PRC.
  649.  
  650. Find this resource:
  651.  
  652. Friedman, Edward, Paul G. Pickowicz, and Mark Selden. Chinese Village, Socialist State. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991.
  653.  
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655.  
  656. A field study on the political economy in the Chinese rural sector, containing analysis of findings relevant to understanding the PRC hukou system.
  657.  
  658. Find this resource:
  659.  
  660. Walder, Andrew G. Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
  661.  
  662. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520064706.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663.  
  664. This sociological study of the authority structure and relations in the urban sector of the PRC proposes an analytical framework for studying the social impact of the hukou and danwei (unit) systems.
  665.  
  666. Find this resource:
  667.  
  668. Walder, Andrew G., ed. Zouping in Transition: The Process of Reform in Rural North China. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.
  669.  
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671.  
  672. A field study on the political economy in one county (mostly rural), with analysis of findings relevant to understanding the PRC hukou system in the post-Mao era.
  673.  
  674. Find this resource:
  675.  
  676. Wu, Weiping, and Piper Gaubatz. The Chinese City. New York: Routledge, 2012.
  677.  
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679.  
  680. This book offers a glimpse into the history of Chinese cities and urbanization in the PRC era. The text helps advance understanding of the key role of the hukou system in shaping Chinese cities and Chinese society in general.
  681.  
  682. Find this resource:
  683.  
  684. Yu Yamei 余亚梅 and Tang Xianxing 唐贤兴. “Zhengfu pianhao yu zhidu qiyuan” (政府偏好与制度起源). Shehui kexue (社会科学) 3 (2012): 34–42.
  685.  
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687.  
  688. This article discusses the origin of the PRC policy of forcefully repatriating hukou-less migrants from the Chinese cities, a policy that was started in the 1950s and officially abolished in 2003 but that in fact continues in the early 21st century.
  689.  
  690. Find this resource:
  691.  
  692. Functions and Implications
  693. In general, the PRC hukou system performs four key functions: First, it registers people, collects and stores information about the populace, and provides personal identification and certification of relations and residence. These routine governmental functions are commonly found in other countries as well. Second, it is the basis for resource allocation and subsidization for selected groups of the population. This unique function has shaped much of Chinese economic development as well as people’s life chances since the mid-20th century. Third, the hukou system allows the government to regulate and control internal migration, especially rural to urban, creating a lasting rural–urban divide and regional gaps. Fourth, the hukou system has a less well-known but very powerful role, in terms of social control, through its management of so-called targeted people (zhongdian renkou). Numerous works have been published, in both English and Chinese, examining the three unique functions of the hukou system, particularly the second and third (resource allocation, internal migration control). Several of the Chinese publications, however, tend to be descriptive, repetitive reports on the much noted rural–urban inequality, but are mostly only anecdotal. The fourth function, of population control, is thinly covered in the literature, owing to its high level of sensitivity and secrecy. For this reason, there is no separate subcategory of works on the sociopolitical control function of the hukou system, but works on the function of the hukou system (Wang 2004) and on the hukou system in general (see General Overviews) have addressed it. Wang 2004 summarizes the four major functions of the hukou system. Aird 1983 is one of the earliest works to document statistically, whereas Yang 2008 is perhaps the richest report on the horrific socioeconomic and political consequences of the hukou system during and after the Great Leap Forward. Both provide vivid background that helps advance understanding of the power of the hukou system.
  694.  
  695. Aird, John Aird. “The Preliminary Results of China’s 1982 Census.” China Quarterly 96 (1983): 613–640.
  696.  
  697. DOI: 10.1017/S0305741000024358Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  698.  
  699. This is an early work, based on PRC official data, describing the Great Famine of 1958–1962, which was directly related to the hukou system.
  700.  
  701. Find this resource:
  702.  
  703. Wang, Fei-Ling. “Reformed Migration Control and New Targeted People.” China Quarterly 177 (2004): 115–132.
  704.  
  705. DOI: 10.1017/S0305741004000074Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  706.  
  707. This article summarizes the key functions, reforms, and changes as well as the profound continuities of the hukou system after a quarter century of economic reform.
  708.  
  709. Find this resource:
  710.  
  711. Yang Jisheng 杨继绳. Mubei: Zhongguo liushi niandai jihuang jishi (墓碑：中国六十年代饥荒纪实). Hong Kong, China: Tiandi shudian, 2008.
  712.  
  713. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  714.  
  715. This book, by a former PRC senior journalist, has the richest documentation of the Great Famine caused by the Great Leap Forward, which led to the death of more than thirty-seven million people in three peaceful years. The hukou system, particularly its discrimination against the majority rural population, in terms of food-rationing and restricted internal migration, was directly responsible for the great man-made famine under Mao Zedong’s regime.
  716.  
  717. Find this resource:
  718.  
  719. Labor Market
  720. The impact of the hukou system on the formation and development of the Chinese labor market has been fairly extensively examined by many. The publications in Chinese cited here report on the clear presence and power of the hukou system. Zhao 1997, Wang 1998, and Xu 2011 discuss the role of the hukou system in Chinese labor allocation and labor market development.
  721.  
  722. Beijing shifandaxue laodongli shichang yanjiu zhongxin 北京师范大学劳动力市场研究中心. 2012 Zhongguo laodongli shichang baogao (2012中国劳动力市场报告). Beijing: Beijing shifang daxue chubanshe, 2012.
  723.  
  724. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  725.  
  726. The inaugural issue of an annual publication, this text collects the research of Chinese economists on the Chinese labor market, offering rich information about the status and development of the supply and demand of labor under the existing, but changing, hukou system.
  727.  
  728. Find this resource:
  729.  
  730. Cai Fang 蔡昉, Du Yang 都阳, and Wang Meiyan 王美艳. “Huji zhidu yu laodongli shichang baohu” (户籍制度与劳动力市场保护). Working Paper No. 13. Institute for Demography and Labor Economics, 2001.
  731.  
  732. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  733.  
  734. This widely cited research paper concisely covers the impact of the PRC hukou system on the function and development of the Chinese labor market.
  735.  
  736. Find this resource:
  737.  
  738. Guowuyuan fazhan yanjiu zhongxin 国务院发展研究中心. Zhongguo nongcun laodongli zhuanyi zhidu huanjing yanjiu (中国农村劳动力转移制度环境研究). Beijing: Guowuyuan fazhan yanjiu zhongxin, 2005.
  739.  
  740. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  741.  
  742. This official publication looks at the influence of the hukou system on the development of Chinese labor allocation, especially the transferring out and absorption of the rural “surplus” labor force.
  743.  
  744. Find this resource:
  745.  
  746. Wang, Fei-Ling. From Family to the Market: Labor Allocation in Contemporary China. Lanham, MD: Rowman and LittleField, 1998.
  747.  
  748. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  749.  
  750. Wang describes and analyzes the various patterns of labor allocation in China, particularly during the post-Mao PRC era, which was heavily influenced by the hukou system.
  751.  
  752. Find this resource:
  753.  
  754. Xu, Feng. Looking for Work in Post-Socialist China: Governance, Active Job Seekers and the New Chinese Labour Market. London: Routledge, 2011.
  755.  
  756. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  757.  
  758. This sociological study of the Chinese labor market and job- seekers contains useful information about the impact of the hukou system on Chinese labor allocation in the early 21st century.
  759.  
  760. Find this resource:
  761.  
  762. Zhao, Yaohui. “Labor Migration and Returns to Rural Education in China.” American Journal of Agricultural Economics 79.4 (1997): 1278–1287.
  763.  
  764. DOI: 10.2307/1244284Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  765.  
  766. This study reports on a specific segment of the Chinese labor force during the Mao and post-Mao eras.
  767.  
  768. Find this resource:
  769.  
  770. Rural–Urban Gap and Spatial Inequality
  771. A key impact of the hukou system has been the much noted creation and continuation of stark rural–urban gaps and regional spatial inequality. The scholarship on this has been relatively well developed. Bian 1994 is a study on Chinese urban life. Liu 2005 presents the hukou system as a major contributing factor to rural–urban inequality. Zhao 1999; Li and Tang 2000; Lin, et al. 2004; and Wu and Treiman 2004 examine the rural–urban gap and regional inequality under the hukou system. Brown 2012 reports on developments in the study of this issue. Chen and Wu 2004 is an influential field report on the hardships of Chinese rural life in the early 21st century.
  772.  
  773. Bian, Yanjie. Work and Inequality in Urban China. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
  774.  
  775. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  776.  
  777. This sociological study looks at some of the most important social consequences of the hukou system.
  778.  
  779. Find this resource:
  780.  
  781. Brown, Jeremy. City versus Countryside in Mao’s China: Negotiating the Divide. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  782.  
  783. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139162197Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  784.  
  785. The study documents over time the great gap and lasting inequality between the privileged city dwellers and disadvantaged rural population in the PRC, separated by the hukou system.
  786.  
  787. Find this resource:
  788.  
  789. Chen Guidi 陈桂棣 and Wu Chuntao 吴春桃. Zhongguo nongmin diaocha (中国农民调查). Beijing: Remin wenxue chubanshe, 2004.
  790.  
  791. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  792.  
  793. This greatly influential book reveals the deep rural–urban gap and the miserable lives endured by the Chinese peasants under the hukou system. Compared with similar Chinese publications, this text is rich in empirical observation, fairly complete regional data, and passionate analysis. An English edition, Will the Boat Sink the Water? The Life of China’s Peasants, translated by Zhu Hong (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), is available.
  794.  
  795. Find this resource:
  796.  
  797. Li, Si-ming, and Wing-shing Tang, eds. China’s Regions, Polity, and Economy: A Study of Spatial Transformation in the Post-Reform Era. Hong Kong, China: Chinese University Press, 2000.
  798.  
  799. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  800.  
  801. This book explores a major consequence of the hukou system in late-20th-century PRC history: regional and spatial inequalities and their implications.
  802.  
  803. Find this resource:
  804.  
  805. Lin, Justin Yifu, Gewei Wang, and Yaohui Zhao. “Regional Inequality and Labor Transfers in China.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 52.3 (2004): 587–603.
  806.  
  807. DOI: 10.1086/421481Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  808.  
  809. This article, by some of the leading economists in the PRC, analyzes regional inequality and labor mobility issues in China under the hukou system.
  810.  
  811. Find this resource:
  812.  
  813. Liu, Zhiqiang. “Institution and Inequality: The hukou System in China.” Journal of Comparative Economics 33.1 (2005): 133–157.
  814.  
  815. DOI: 10.1016/j.jce.2004.11.001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  816.  
  817. Liu deals with the influence of the hukou system, through its control of internal migration, on social and economic outcomes at the individual level, concluding that the system is a major contributing factor to rural–urban inequality.
  818.  
  819. Find this resource:
  820.  
  821. Lu Ming陆铭 and Chen Zhao 陈钊. “Chengshihua, chengshi qingxiang de jingji zhengce yu chengxiang shouru chaju” (城市化、城市倾向的经济政策与城乡收入差距). Jingji yanjiu (经济研究) 4 (2004): 50–58.
  822.  
  823. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  824.  
  825. Using extensive official data, this study, the work of PRC scholars, discusses the clear impact of the hukou system on the stubborn and enlarging rural–urban gap in China.
  826.  
  827. Find this resource:
  828.  
  829. Wu, Xiaogang, and Donald J. Treiman. “The Household Registration System and Social Stratification in China, 1955–1996.” Demography 41.2 (2004): 363–384.
  830.  
  831. DOI: 10.1353/dem.2004.0010Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  832.  
  833. This article, using PRC official data, finds that the hukou system was chiefly responsible for the large social gaps between the cities and especially between rural and urban residents in many areas, including income, health care, and education.
  834.  
  835. Find this resource:
  836.  
  837. Zhao, Yaohui. “Labor Migration and Earnings Differences: The Case of Rural China.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 47.4 (1999): 767–782.
  838.  
  839. DOI: 10.1086/452431Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  840.  
  841. This study examines the rural labor force and migrant laborers, stressing their institutionally disadvantaged compensation.
  842.  
  843. Find this resource:
  844.  
  845. Internal Migration
  846. A main function of the hukou system, and one that has drawn considerable scholarly attention, is the regulation and control of internal migration. Hao 1996 is an empirical report on the floating population in the PRC, shaped by the hukou system. Huang 1997 considers rural–urban migration and how it is regulated by the system. Sun and Fan 2011 offers a typological study on PRC internal migration. Wu 2004 and Li and Zhang 2011 examine how the hukou system affects internal migration through its implementation of housing discrimination and other disadvantageous policies against migrants.
  847.  
  848. Hao Zaijing 郝在今. Baqianwan liumin buluo (八千万流民部落). Beijing: Zhongguo shehui chubanshe, 1996.
  849.  
  850. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  851.  
  852. This is one of the better-researched reportages published in the PRC since the 1990s addressing the massive internal migration that resulted from the market-oriented economic reform and ensuing changes to the hukou system.
  853.  
  854. Find this resource:
  855.  
  856. Huang Ping 黄平, ed. Xunqiu shenchun: Dangdai Zhongguo nongcun waichu renkou de shehuixue yanjiu (寻求生存). Kunming, China: Yunnan renmin chubanshe, 1997.
  857.  
  858. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859.  
  860. This is a Chinese sociological study of rural-to-urban migrant workers in the 1990s, providing useful anecdotal information about the impacts, problems, and reforms of the hukou system.
  861.  
  862. Find this resource:
  863.  
  864. Li, Bingqin, and Yongmei Zhang. “Housing Provision for Rural–Urban Migrant Workers in Chinese Cities: The Roles of the State, Employers and the Market.” Social Policy and Administration 45.66 (2011): 694–713.
  865.  
  866. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  867.  
  868. Using data from three metropolitan areas, this article examines the highly discriminatory housing provisions for rural and urban residents in the PRC, mostly caused by the hukou system, which creates disadvantages for the rural–urban migrants.
  869.  
  870. Find this resource:
  871.  
  872. Sun, Mingjie, and C. Cindy Fan. “China’s Permanent and Temporary Migrants: Differentials and Changes, 1990–2000.” Professional Geographer 63.1 (2011): 92–112.
  873.  
  874. DOI: 10.1080/00330124.2010.533562Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  875.  
  876. This article covers the formation of two kinds of migrants under the hukou system and how they are differentiated in compensation, rewards, and social status.
  877.  
  878. Find this resource:
  879.  
  880. Wu, Weiping. “Sources of Migrant Housing Disadvantage in Urban China.” Environment and Planning 36.7 (2004): 1285–1304.
  881.  
  882. DOI: 10.1068/a36193Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  883.  
  884. This article explores the housing disadvantages of migrants in PRC cities, chiefly caused by hukou-related income disparity and administrative barriers. This in turn has profoundly affected internal migration in China.
  885.  
  886. Find this resource:
  887.  
  888. Migrant Workers
  889. Migrant workers, workers who do not have legal approval for hukou reallocation, more than two hundred million strong in the early 21st century, often are permanent “outsiders” and are treated as secondary citizens in their own country. This is a very peculiar and consequential phenomenon in the Chinese political economy and social life, directly caused by the hukou system. Zheng, et al. 2009 analyzes lthe large number of migrant workers in the PRC. Gaetano and Jacka 2004, Ngai 2005, and Lin 2013 study the migrant workers, with a focus on gender. Li and Tian 2011 reports on the new generation of migrant workers in the early 21st century. Murphy 2002 examines the impact of the migrant workers who have returned to their hometowns and home villages. Howell and Fan 2011 is a rare study on the minority migrants in Xinjiang. Loyalka 2012 and Pai and Benton 2012 are two vivid and accessible accounts of the life of the migrant worker in the PRC.
  890.  
  891. China Labour Bulletin. Falling through the Floor: Migrant Women Workers’ Quest for Decent Work in Dongguan, China. Hong Kong, China: China Labour Bulletin, 2006.
  892.  
  893. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  894.  
  895. A critical examination of the status of the migrant female worker in the Pearl River delta, under the hukou system.
  896.  
  897. Find this resource:
  898.  
  899. Gaetano, Arianne M., and Tamara Jacka. On the Move: Women and Rural-to-Urban Migration in Contemporary China. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.
  900.  
  901. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  902.  
  903. Gaetano and Tamara explore the impact of migration on the identities, values, worldviews, and social positions of migrant women in modern-day China. A good source on how the hukou system shapes the life chances and minds of the millions of migrant women in China.
  904.  
  905. Find this resource:
  906.  
  907. Howell, Anthony, and C. Cindy Fan. “Migration and Inequality in Xinjiang: A Survey of Han and Uyghur Migrants in Urumqi.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 52.1 (2011): 119–139.
  908.  
  909. DOI: 10.2747/1539-7216.52.1.119Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  910.  
  911. This case study looks at the issues of migration and social inequality that resulted from the hukou system in the minority autonomous region of Xinjiang.
  912.  
  913. Find this resource:
  914.  
  915. Li Peiliin 李培林 and Tian Feng 田丰. “Zhongguo xinshengdai nongmin gong: Shehui taidu he xingwei xuanze (中国新生代农民工：社会态度和行为选择).” Shehui (社会) 31.3 (2011): 1–23.
  916.  
  917. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  918.  
  919. This article reports on the new generation of migrant workers in the PRC and their social attitudes, behavior patterns, and choices.
  920.  
  921. Find this resource:
  922.  
  923. Lin, Xiaodong. Gender, Modernity and Male Migrant Workers in China: Becoming a “Modern” Man. New York: Routledge, 2013.
  924.  
  925. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  926.  
  927. This book deals with the life of China’s male migrant workers from the countryside, under the mighty force of the hukou system. The work covers men’s experience of rural–urban migration and their status as an emerging sector of the urban, second-class working population.
  928.  
  929. Find this resource:
  930.  
  931. Loyalka, Michelle. Eating Bitterness: Stories from the Front Lines of China’s Great Urban Migration. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012.
  932.  
  933. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  934.  
  935. This work chronicles the tough life of the two-hundred-million-strong migrant rural laborers in the PRC cities, directly and extensively affected by the hukou system.
  936.  
  937. Find this resource:
  938.  
  939. Murphy, Rachel. How Migrant Labor Is Changing Rural China. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
  940.  
  941. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511550003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  942.  
  943. This book examines sociologically the impact of migrant workers on their hometowns and villages, indirectly and directly (through the capital, skill, and ideas brought back with their return).
  944.  
  945. Find this resource:
  946.  
  947. Ngai, Pun. Made in China: Women Factory Workers in a Global Workplace. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005.
  948.  
  949. DOI: 10.1215/9780822386759Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  950.  
  951. Ngai addresses the life and work of China’s large army of female migrant workers, under the the hukou system. He narrates the unique experiences and sufferings of those factory women from the countryside.
  952.  
  953. Find this resource:
  954.  
  955. Pai, Hsiao-Hung, and Gregor Benton. Scattered Sand: The Story of China’s Rural Migrants. New York: Verso, 2012.
  956.  
  957. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  958.  
  959. This journalistic work discusses the large number of rural migrant workers in China, marginalized and excluded by the hukou system.
  960.  
  961. Find this resource:
  962.  
  963. Zheng, Siqi, Fenjie Long, C. Cindy Fan, and Yizhen Gu. “Urban Villages in China: A 2008 Survey of Migrant Settlements in Beijing.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 50.4 (2009): 425–446.
  964.  
  965. DOI: 10.2747/1539-7216.50.4.425Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  966.  
  967. This article attends to the status of rural migrants living in major Chinese cities, particularly Beijing, as permanent “temporary” residents, or urban villagers, a peculiar consequence of the hukou system.
  968.  
  969. Find this resource:
  970.  
  971. Reforms and Changes
  972. A great deal has been published on the reform of and prospects for the hukou system, in both Chinese and English. Besides frequent official statements and announcements, there are specific and useful academic works available on these topics. Much of the literature published in China, however, consists of op-eds and opinion papers, especially in the nontraditional media, such as online websites and discussionforums. Cai and Zhang 2000– is an authoritative People’s Republic of China (PRC) annual report on Chinese demography and contains rich information about the changes to the hukou system. Wang 1997 is an official study that has largely served as the road map for China’s reform of the system. Wu 1994, Guang 2001, and Ma 2001 describe the stages and events of hukou reform. The Souhu website compiles related documents and reports that are very useful but that require careful scrutiny.
  973.  
  974. Cai Fang 蔡昉 and Zhang Chewei 张车伟, eds. Zhongguo renkou yu laodong wenti baogao (中国人口问题报告). 12 vols. Beijing: Zhongguo shihue kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2000–.
  975.  
  976. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  977.  
  978. This multivolume, semiofficial annual report, by a team led by a leading PRC demographer and economist, traces the issues, proposed solutions, and actions taken concerning the Chinese population, labor, and internal migration, with reference to reforming the hukou system.
  979.  
  980. Find this resource:
  981.  
  982. Guang, Lei. “Reconstructing the Rural–Urban Divide: Peasant Migration and the Rise of ‘Orderly Migration’ in Contemporary China.” Journal of Contemporary China 10–28 (2001): 471–493.
  983.  
  984. DOI: 10.1080/10670560120067144Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  985.  
  986. This article assesses how rural–urban migration has been affected by the changes to the hukou system, emphasizing the need for reform to be gradual, orderly, and controlled.
  987.  
  988. Find this resource:
  989.  
  990. Ma Fuyun 马福云. “Dangdai Zhongguo huji zhidu bianqian yanjiu” (当代中国户籍制度变迁研究). PhD diss., Zhongguo shihue kexueyuan boshi lunwen, 2001.
  991.  
  992. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  993.  
  994. This doctoral thesis, the work of a PRC scholar, provides useful background information about the hukou system and early proposals for its reform.
  995.  
  996. Find this resource:
  997.  
  998. Souhu Website. Zhongguo huji gaige zhilu (中国户籍改革之路).
  999.  
  1000. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1001.  
  1002. For many years, this officially censored PRC website has been displaying a large number of news reports and op-eds as well as official announcements about the hukou system, especially its reform. With its learned research and analysis, this is useful source of information about the state and the prospects for the reform of the hukou system.
  1003.  
  1004. Find this resource:
  1005.  
  1006. Wang Taiyuan 王太元, ed. Huzheng yu renkou guanli lilun yanjiu zongshu (户政与人口管理理论研究综述). Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 1997.
  1007.  
  1008. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1009.  
  1010. This internal publication, edited by a senior PRC hukou scholar-official, summarizes rather candidly the rationale behind and proposals for the reforming, retooling, and strengthening of the PRC hukou system. Much of the Chinese discourse and debate about the hukou system in the early 21st century is still the same as what was reported in this book more than years ago.
  1011.  
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013.  
  1014. Wu, Harry Xiaoying. “Rural to Urban Migration in the People’s Republic of China.” China Quarterly (1994): 668–696.
  1015.  
  1016. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1017.  
  1018. This academic work reports on the reform of the hukou system especially its regulation of China’s rural–urban migration and its decreased role in resource allocation in the 1990s.
  1019.  
  1020. Find this resource:
  1021.  
  1022. Critiques and Ideas
  1023. With the PRC, a great many critiques of the hukou system, emphasizing its negative impact on the labor market and social equality, have been published, together with significant proposals for amending, reforming, and improving the system. Ding 1989, Ding 1999, Cao 2001, and Li 2010 are representative and influential critiques of the hukou system, especially its negative impact on the Chinese economy. Zhong 2001 puts forth a radical critique by a PRC economist. Fei 1985 and Fei 1986 are semiofficial critiques of and proposals for reforming the hukou system. Li 2012 offers the latest PRC official thinking on the reform of the system.
  1024.  
  1025. Cao Jingchun 曹景春. “Jiaqiang huji gaige, cujin renkou qianyi he chengzhenhua jincheng” (加强户籍改革，促进人口迁移和城镇化进程). Renkou yanjiu (人口研究) 25.5 (2001): 9–17.
  1026.  
  1027. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1028.  
  1029. This article is one of many written by PRC scholars and officials, advocating reforming the hukou system to relax internal migration and promote urbanization.
  1030.  
  1031. Find this resource:
  1032.  
  1033. Ding Shuimu 丁水木. “Huji guanli yu shehui kongzhi: Xianxing huji guanli zhidu zaiyi” (户籍管理与社会控制，现行户籍管理制度再议). Shehui (社会) 3 (1989): 26–29.
  1034.  
  1035. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1036.  
  1037. This article is an early work by a senior PRC sociologist, maintaining the need for reforming the hukou system, particularly its role in internal migration control, and providing suggestions for how to do so.
  1038.  
  1039. Find this resource:
  1040.  
  1041. Ding Shuimu 丁水木. “Yong jingji shouduan tiaojie renkou liuxiang” (用经济手段调节人口流向). Ershiyi shiji (二十一世纪) 5 (1999): 12.
  1042.  
  1043. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1044.  
  1045. This article, by a senior PRC sociologist, suggests the use of economic means, the so-called entry conditions later in practice, rather than administrative quotas to regulate China’s internal migration and thus reform and enhance the hukou system.
  1046.  
  1047. Find this resource:
  1048.  
  1049. Fei, Hsiao Tung (Fei Xiaotong费孝通). Small Towns in China: Functions, Problems and Prospects. Beijing: New World, 1986.
  1050.  
  1051. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1052.  
  1053. English translation of Chenzhen siji, originally published in 1985 (Beijing: Xinhua). This updated and expanded edition was translated into English by the Chinese government, for external propaganda purposes.
  1054.  
  1055. Find this resource:
  1056.  
  1057. Fei Xiaotong 费孝通. Xiao chenzhen siji (小城镇四记). Beijing: Xinhua, 1985.
  1058.  
  1059. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1060.  
  1061. This collection of essays, by a senior PRC scholar-official, proposes reforming the hukou system’s regulation of internal migration by promoting a “Chinese style” urbanization in which small towns are expanded. This influential work has served as justification of the official policy of promoting urbanization, mostly at the small city level.
  1062.  
  1063. Find this resource:
  1064.  
  1065. Li Keqiang 李克强. “Tuijin chengzhenhua xuyao shenru yanjiiu de zhongda wenti” (推进城镇化需要深入研究的重大问题). Xingzheng guanli gaige (行政管理改革) (2012): 4–10.
  1066.  
  1067. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1068.  
  1069. This article, by the PRC premier and reproduced and elaborated by several Chinese officials, media, and scholars, calls for deeper reform of the hukou system in order to facilitate and accelerate a “scientific” urbanization in China and reach the urbanization level of developed countries, an effort seen as a key source of rapid economic growth.
  1070.  
  1071. Find this resource:
  1072.  
  1073. Li Zhide 李志德. “Zhongguo huji zhidu bainqian de lujing xuanze” (中国户籍制度变迁的路径选择). Jingji tizhi gaige (经济体制改革) (2010): 25–29.
  1074.  
  1075. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1076.  
  1077. This article, by a PRC economist, addresses the “walls” of the hukou system and the “scarcity” of urban hukou in China as well as ways to utilize the scaity of urban hukou to better regulate internal migration for economic growth.
  1078.  
  1079. Find this resource:
  1080.  
  1081. Zhong Dajun 仲大军. “Huji zhidu shifou yi chengwei Zhongguo shehui fazhan de zuli” (户籍制度是否已成为中国社会发展的阻力). Zhongguo guoqing guoli (中国国情国力) 98 (2001): 14–17.
  1082.  
  1083. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1084.  
  1085. Like many similar publications by Chinese scholars, especially economists, this article argues that the hukou system has become a major obstacle to China’s social and economic development.
  1086.  
  1087. Find this resource:
  1088.  
  1089. Reform Actions
  1090. A substantial body of literature, in both Chinese and English, is available on the measures taken regarding the reform of the hukou system since the 1980s. Chan and Li 1999 is a good summary of the hukou reform, especially its regulation of internal migration. Ding 1992, Yang 1993, Wong 1994, Goldstein and Feng 1996, Fitzpatrick 1999, Zhang 2000, and Wu 2012 report the stages and progress of hukou reform since the past 1990s.
  1091.  
  1092. Chan Kam Wing and Li Zhang. “The Hukou System and Rural–Urban Migration in China: Processes and Changes.” China Quarterly 160 (1999): 818–855.
  1093.  
  1094. DOI: 10.1017/S0305741000001351Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1095.  
  1096. This article summarizes hukou system reform in the 1990s, especially regarding rural-to-urban migration control.
  1097.  
  1098. Find this resource:
  1099.  
  1100. Ding Shuimu 丁水木. “Xianxing huji zhidu de gongneng jiqi gaige zouxiang” (现行户籍制度的功能及其改革走向). Shehuixue yanjiu (社会学研究) 5 (1992): 100–104.
  1101.  
  1102. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1103.  
  1104. This article, by a senior PRC sociologist, discusses key suggestions for reforming the hukou system’s multiple roles. Some of the ideas presented here are still being debated in the early 21st century.
  1105.  
  1106. Find this resource:
  1107.  
  1108. Fitzpatrick, Stephen, ed. Work and Mobility: Recent Labour Migration Issues in China. Wollongaong, Australia: Centre for Asia Pacific Social Transformation Studies, 1999.
  1109.  
  1110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1111.  
  1112. This work reports on and examines the hukou-related reforms governing migration and labor issues in the 1980s and 1990s.
  1113.  
  1114. Find this resource:
  1115.  
  1116. Goldstein, Alice, and Wang Feng. China: The Many Facets of Demographic Change. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996.
  1117.  
  1118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1119.  
  1120. Goldstein considers demographic changes in China, with useful information about and analysis of hukou reform in the 1980s and 1990s.
  1121.  
  1122. Find this resource:
  1123.  
  1124. Wong, Linda. “China’s Urban Migration: The Public Policy Change.” Pacific Affairs 67.3 (1994): 335–355.
  1125.  
  1126. DOI: 10.2307/2760415Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1127.  
  1128. This article presents hukou reform as a public policy change to internal migration in the PRC.
  1129.  
  1130. Find this resource:
  1131.  
  1132. Wu Pengseng 吴鹏森. “Da chengshi shiyou renkou guanli de nandian jiqi pojie” (大城市实有人口管理的难点及其破解). Shanghai: Renwen zazhi (人文杂志) 5 (2012): 169–177.
  1133.  
  1134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1135.  
  1136. Using the example of Shanghai, this article deals with how to mange the actual, as opposed to hukou-based, population in major cities, proposing oversight of real estate ownership and housing units as a means of improving the management of temporary residents under the hukou system.
  1137.  
  1138. Find this resource:
  1139.  
  1140. Yang, Xiushi. “Household Registration, Economic Reform and Migration.” International Migration Review 27 (1993): 796–820.
  1141.  
  1142. DOI: 10.2307/2546913Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1143.  
  1144. Looking at the early rounds of hukou reform as a part of overall economic reform in China, this article offers useful analysis of the changes in Chinese internal migration in the 1980s and 1990s.
  1145.  
  1146. Find this resource:
  1147.  
  1148. Zhang Ping 张平 “Shichang jingji de fazhan yu woguo huji zhidu de gaige” (市场经济的发展与我国户籍制度的改革). Renkou yu jingji (人口与经济) (2000): 35–41.
  1149.  
  1150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1151.  
  1152. This article, like many similar ones published in the PRC since, contends that hukou reform should allow freer human resource flow to engender a more mature market economy and better economic growth.
  1153.  
  1154. Find this resource:
  1155.  
  1156. Assessing the Reform
  1157. Numerous attempts have been made to assess the reform of the hukou system, mostly the changes regarding internal migration and social equality issues. Chen 1993, Ying and Yu 1996, Ban and Zhu 2000, Duan 2011, Yan 2012, and Zhao 2012 represent PRC scholar-officials’ assessment of the hukou reform. Zhao and Li 2006 and Wang 2013 are non-PRC scholars’ assessments.
  1158.  
  1159. Ban Maosheng (班茂盛) and Zhu Chengsheng 祝成生. “Huji gaige de yanjiu zhuankuang ji shiji jingzhan” (户籍改革的研究状况及实际进展). Renkou yu jingji (人口与经济) 118 (2000): 46–51.
  1160.  
  1161. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1162.  
  1163. This academic article, the work of PRC scholars, summarizes and assesses the major ideas proposed and actions taken regarding hukou reform in the early 21st century.
  1164.  
  1165. Find this resource:
  1166.  
  1167. Chen Xiangyi 陈祥意. “Huji guanli mianling de kunjing yu xuanze” (户籍管理面临的困境与选择). Neibu wengao (内部文稿) 9 (1993): 7–12.
  1168.  
  1169. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1170.  
  1171. This article is one of many “internal” discussions by PRC scholar-officials, advocating reforming the hukou system so as to improve the system’s main function of socioolitical control.
  1172.  
  1173. Find this resource:
  1174.  
  1175. Duan Zhengfang 段正芳. “Pingdeng yuanze yu huji zhidu gaige” (平等原则与户籍制度改革). MA thesis, Shandong University, 2011.
  1176.  
  1177. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1178.  
  1179. Many PRC publications critique the hukou system for endangering the equal rights of Chinese citizens and creating and sustaining gross socioeconomic inequality. This is one of the academic theses produced in the PRC that attempt to bring together the literature on this type of critique and to justify reform measures.
  1180.  
  1181. Find this resource:
  1182.  
  1183. Wang Fei-Ling 王飛凌. “Huji zhidu de bianqian jiqi yinfa de chongtu yu zhengduan” (户籍制度的變遷及其引發的衝突與爭端). In Zhongguo shehui (中國社會). Edited by Elizabeth J. Perry and Mark Selden. Hong Kong, China: Chinese University Press, 2013.
  1184.  
  1185. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1186.  
  1187. This article looks at the reforms of the hukou system, with an emphasis on the sociopolitical impact on Chinese state–society relations.
  1188.  
  1189. Find this resource:
  1190.  
  1191. Yan, Shiqing 严士清. “Xin Zhongguo huji zhidu yanbian licheng yu gaige lujing yanjiu” (新中国户籍制度演变历程与改革路径研究). PhD diss., Huadong Normal University, 2012.
  1192.  
  1193. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1194.  
  1195. This doctoral thesis traces and analyzes the history of the changes in the PRC hukou system and considers the various proposals for further reform, especially concerning the issue of the consequential and controversial rural–urban dual-society in China.
  1196.  
  1197. Find this resource:
  1198.  
  1199. Ying Zhijing 殷志静 and Yu Qihong 郁奇虹. Zhongguo huji zhidu gaige (中国户籍制度改革). Beijing: Zhongguo zhengfa daxue hubanshe, 1996.
  1200.  
  1201. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1202.  
  1203. Ying summarizes the hukou reform of the 1980s and 1990s, with fairly extensive coverage of ideas proposed, measures announced, and actions taken up to the mid-1990s.
  1204.  
  1205. Find this resource:
  1206.  
  1207. Zhao, Litao, and Jianying Li. China Reforming the Hukuo System: Reducing Discrimination against Rural Population. Background Brief 284. East Asia Institute, National University of Singapore, 2006.
  1208.  
  1209. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1210.  
  1211. This brief reports on hukou reform in the early 21st century, particularly the noticeable local resistance to the proposed and decreed reform moves.
  1212.  
  1213. Find this resource:
  1214.  
  1215. Zhao Wenyuan 赵文远. “Xiandai Zhongguo hukou qianyi zhidu bainqian de jingji yinsu” (现代中国户口迁移制度变迁的经济因素). Shixue yuekan (史学月刊) 5 (2012): 96–100.
  1216.  
  1217. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1218.  
  1219. This article explores economic considerations and forces in the evolution and reform of the PRC hukou system since the late 1970s.
  1220.  
  1221. Find this resource:
  1222.  
  1223. Prospects
  1224. In the early 21st century the hukou system has largely survived the economic reform and opening of the PRC begun in 1978. The system has demonstrated both significant changes and remarkable continuities in its administration and especially its leading functions. It continues to register and identify the 1.4 billion Chinese by location and administrative categories (rural versus urban and local resident versus outsider), with profound consequences for the life chances of various populations. It also remains a key component of China’s institutional framework, playing a crucial role in determining the sociopolitical stability of the CCP (Chinese Communist Party), facilitating the PRC’s rapid but uneven economic growth, and shaping China’s socioeconomic stratification and spatial inequality. With likely further adaptations and modifications, the hukou system is fully expected to continue its functions of restricting internal migration and managing the targeted segments of the population. It is evident, however, that the effectiveness and even the fate of the system will depend on the political fortunes of the CCP and the overall development of the relationships between the Chinese state, market, and society. Oakes and Schein 2006, Knight and Song 2007, Yusuf and Saich 2008, Nyíri 2010, and Zhang 2013 discuss, from several angles, the continued and reformed role of the hukou system. Wang 2005 and Whyte 2010 explore its relevance.
  1225.  
  1226. Knight, John, and Lina Song. Towards a Labour Market in China. Studies on Contemporary China. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
  1227.  
  1228. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1229.  
  1230. Knight and Song find that China does not have a functioning labor market but that such a market is developing, with traits associated chiefly with the hukou system.
  1231.  
  1232. Find this resource:
  1233.  
  1234. Nyíri, Pál. Mobility and Cultural Authority in Contemporary China. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2010.
  1235.  
  1236. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1237.  
  1238. This book looks at patterns of migration and state response in the PRC, relaxation and the resistance, with the hukou system continuing to exert its influence.
  1239.  
  1240. Find this resource:
  1241.  
  1242. Oakes, Tim, and Louisa Schein, eds. Translocal China: Linkages, Identities and the Re-Imagining of Space. London: Routledge, 2006.
  1243.  
  1244. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1245.  
  1246. Using the concept of translocality, this edited volume addresses spatial change in early-21st-century China, especially the geographic mobility of its millions of migrant laborers, touching on development of the hukou system in practice.
  1247.  
  1248. Find this resource:
  1249.  
  1250. Wang, Fei-Ling. “Brewing Tensions while Maintaining Stabilities: The Dual Role of the Hukou System in Contemporary China.” Edited by Dali Yang. Interests, Institutions, and Contentions in China, Special Issue of Asian Perspectives 29.4 (2005): 85–124.
  1251.  
  1252. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1253.  
  1254. This article discusses the twin sociopolitical role of the reforming hukou system: contributing to political stability while creating resentments and grievances. The article also speculates about the prospects for hukou reform.
  1255.  
  1256. Find this resource:
  1257.  
  1258. Whyte, Martin K., ed. One Country, Two Societies: Rural–Urban Inequality in Contemporary China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010.
  1259.  
  1260. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1261.  
  1262. Focusing on the lasting and ever enlarging rural–urban gap in the PRC, many of the essays in this collection examine the various aspects of hukou system reform and the prospects for the system, in terms of shaping the Chinese political economy and society.
  1263.  
  1264. Find this resource:
  1265.  
  1266. Yusuf, Shahid, and Anthony Saich, eds. China Urbanizes: Consequences, Strategies, and Policies. World Bank, 2008.
  1267.  
  1268. DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-7211-1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1269.  
  1270. This book covers China’s urbanization in the 21st century, particularly how the more than two hundred million rural migrants are transforming the country’s economy and society.
  1271.  
  1272. Find this resource:
  1273.  
  1274. Zhang, Jun. Unfinished Reforms in the Chinese Economy. Singapore: World Scientific, 2013.
  1275.  
  1276. DOI: 10.1142/8610Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1277.  
  1278. Zhang lists some important aspects of the Chinese economy in need of further reform in China in the early 21st century, including several hukou-related issues.
  1279.  
  1280. Find this resource:
  1281.  
  1282. Chinese Predictions
  1283. The PRC publications included here provide representative Chinese predictions about the future of the hukou system. Xu 2011 summarizes and rates some key reforms. Ketizu 2012 suggests accelerated urbanization as the way to reform the hukou system. Yu 2006 calls for keeping the system for other crucial purposes. Yuan 2005 predicts the failure of the hukou system to abolish the China’s great rural–urban duality.
  1284.  
  1285. Ketizu 课题组. “Zhongguo renkou chengzhenhua zhanlue yanjiu” (中国人口城镇化战略研究). Renkou yanjiu (人口研究) 3 (2012): 3–13.
  1286.  
  1287. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1288.  
  1289. This collective study, the work of PRC scholars, outlines the future moves of the hukou reform in the PRC, proposing a Five-Year Plan that is “controlled” and “with Chinese characteristics” but that promotes rapid urbanization.
  1290.  
  1291. Find this resource:
  1292.  
  1293. Xu Jingyong 许经勇. “Woguo huji zhidu gaige de huigu yu qianzhan” (我国户籍制度改革的回顾与前瞻). Beifang Jingji (北方经济) 13 (2011): 4–6.
  1294.  
  1295. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1296.  
  1297. This article summarizes what has been proposed and acted on, regarding hukou reform, and discusses the future hukou reform in the PRC, advocating for more urbanization.
  1298.  
  1299. Find this resource:
  1300.  
  1301. Yu Jianrong 于建嵘. “Buneng jiandande feichu hukou zhidu” (不能简单地废除户口制度). Shanghai shehui kexue bao (上海社会科学报), 1 December 2006.
  1302.  
  1303. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1304.  
  1305. This article, by an influential Chinese scholar and opinion leader, calls for improving and adjusting, but not abolishing, the hukou system, on the grounds of social stability and economic development.
  1306.  
  1307. Find this resource:
  1308.  
  1309. Yuan Reng 任远. “Chengxiang tongyi de huji gaige keneng hui shibai” (城乡统一的户籍改革可能会失败) In Fudan daxue renkou yanjiu suo (复旦大学人口研究所). Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2005.
  1310.  
  1311. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1312.  
  1313. This essay, by a PRC demographer, bluntly asserts that proposed hukou reforms seeking to unite the rural–urban dual society and accelerate urbanization are likely to fail because of the lack of comprehensive reform of the whole system as well as many other aspects of the PRC.
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