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S. Asian Architecture and Sculpture, 13th to 18th centuries

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Mar 15th, 2018
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  1. Introduction
  2. By the 13th century, the South Asian subcontinent was populated by diverse ethnic and religious groups and the land was divided into multiple kingdoms. Hindus, those adhering to Brahmanical beliefs, were dominant, but Jains also flourished. Followers of Buddhism, once strong in the east and west, died out. While Muslims had been present in South Asia since the 8th century, late in the 12th century Muslim Afghans of Turkish origins established themselves as political authorities in north India. In north India there was no real unified political authority until the establishment of Mughal power (1526–1858), while the Vijayanagara Empire (actually ruled by three different houses) unified a good portion on south India from the 14th through the late 16th century. The first half of the 17th century was a period of stability in most of north India, but in the second half of the 17th century tranquility was marred by incessant warfare, much of which was transacted in the southernmost region of the Mughal Empire, below the Narmada River. From the 17th century on, an increasing European presence was felt in the subcontinent, adding yet more players for control of India’s rich resources. Art and architecture were produced by all these groups, some for religious and some for political reasons, but often for both. Unlike earlier periods, from which only religious art and architecture have survived, commencing about the 14th century, palaces, estates, gardens, fortifications, bridges, hamams, and housing have survived, among others. While sculpture is found more often in a Hindu or Jain context, examples produced by Muslim courts do exist.
  3.  
  4. Terminology and Periodization
  5. Until relatively recently, Indian art history was divided into three distinct periods with religious appellations, Buddhist, Hindu, and Muslim, first introduced by Mills (Mills 1975). This same periodization was followed by James Fergusson (d. 1886), who wrote the first history of Indian architecture in any language and whose work was highly influential for some time (Fergusson 1967). The result was to see all artistic production from the late 12th century until the advent of the Raj as Islamic, although by the beginning of the 20th century scholars recognized Rajput painting as originating from Hindu-ruled courts. This legacy is seen to some extent in Brown 1956 and Alfieri 2000, works that focus specially on Islamic material, ignoring production done concurrently by others. In addition to this misleading and unfortunate understanding of South Asian art history, is a tendency to apply the term “medieval” not only to material produced between the 13th and 18th centuries but also to much earlier production as well. Asher and Talbot 2006 was an attempt to study non-Muslim material created during a period often considered to be dominated by Islamic rulers. Most studies on Sultanate architecture are specific to a particular dynastic period or a site. One notable exception is the three-volume tome (in Japanese) Yamamoto, et al. 1967–1970, which covers most Sultanate sites in Delhi. Volume 1 is a general survey of the sites; Volume 2 focuses on tombs and Volume 3 on Delhi’s waterworks.
  6.  
  7. Alfieri, Bianca Maria. Islamic Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. London: Laurence King, 2000.
  8.  
  9. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  10.  
  11. This is a beautifully illustrated, well-written text that covers the Islamic architecture of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh from the late 12th century through the 19th century.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15. Asher, Catherine B., and Cynthia Talbot. India before Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  16.  
  17. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  18.  
  19. A recent attempt to understand the diverse multicultural history and art history of India from the 13th to the 18th century.
  20.  
  21. Find this resource:
  22.  
  23. Brown, Percy. Indian Architecture (Islamic Period). Bombay: Taraporevala, 1956.
  24.  
  25. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  26.  
  27. This is the second volume of Brown’s work on Indian architecture, the first volume covering what he terms as Buddhist and Hindu periods. This general introduction to India’s Muslim buildings has been revised and reprinted often.
  28.  
  29. Find this resource:
  30.  
  31. Fergusson, James, ed. History of Indian and Eastern Architecture. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1967.
  32.  
  33. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  34.  
  35. Originally published in 1910. The first work on Indian architecture. The text follows Mill’s periodization. Revised by James Burgess and Richard P. Spiers.
  36.  
  37. Find this resource:
  38.  
  39. Mills, James. The History of British India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975.
  40.  
  41. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  42.  
  43. Originally published in 1818. This influential history was written by Mills, who had never been to India and maintained a staunch belief in British superiority.
  44.  
  45. Find this resource:
  46.  
  47. Yamamoto, Tatsura, Matsuo Ara, and Takisfusa Tsukiniowa. Delhi: Architectural Remains of the Delhi Sultanate Period. 3 vols. Tokyo: The Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 1967–1970.
  48.  
  49. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  50.  
  51. This is a near-exhaustive list of Sultanate architecture in Delhi with copious illustrations and plans. Many of the structures included are no longer extant.
  52.  
  53. Find this resource:
  54.  
  55. Islam in the Subcontinent before c. 1200
  56. As early as 711, Umayyad troops under the command of Muhammad bin Qasim were able to take control of Sind (today southern Pakistan) up to the Punjabi city of Multan. They never expanded their power base eastward but did continue to rule this swath of modern Pakistan. Ruins of what are believed to be Qasim’s headquarters at Banbhore have been described by Khan 1963. Tombs built between the 10th and 12th centuries have been analyzed by Edwards 1990. Elsewhere on the subcontinent, Muslims, originally from Iran or the Persian Gulf, were present as sea traders, horse merchants, and even mystics, leaving behind inscriptions and buildings as testimony to their presence, as evidenced by Shokoohy and Shokoohy 1988 and Flood 2009.
  57.  
  58. Edwards, Holly F. “The Genesis of Islamic Architecture in the Indus Valley.” PhD diss., Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, 1990.
  59.  
  60. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  61.  
  62. This remains the sole study of the corpus of pre–13th-century Muslim architecture in Pakistan.
  63.  
  64. Find this resource:
  65.  
  66. Flood, Finbarr B. Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval “Hindu-Muslim” Encounter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.
  67.  
  68. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  69.  
  70. In this major work, Flood has examined important and largely ignored material from Sind as well as areas to the north and east.
  71.  
  72. Find this resource:
  73.  
  74. Khan, F. A. Banbhore: A Preliminary Report on the Recent Archaeological Excavations at Banbhore. Karachi: Department of Archaeology and Museums, Ministry of Education and Information, Government of Pakistan, 1963.
  75.  
  76. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  77.  
  78. This is a detailed report of what is probably the earliest Muslim port city in the subcontinent.
  79.  
  80. Find this resource:
  81.  
  82. Shokoohy, Mehrdad, and Natalie Shokoohy. Bhadresvar: The Oldest Islamic Monuments in India. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1988.
  83.  
  84. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  85.  
  86. A detailed descriptive study of India’s oldest surviving mosques.
  87.  
  88. Find this resource:
  89.  
  90. North India: The Delhi Sultanate, c. 1200–1398
  91. Muslim authority in north India between the late 12th and the early 16th century was marked by a series of short-lived houses and thus is commonly called the Delhi Sultanate. In spite of this appellation, which suggests a sort of unity of rule, this was not the case. Here, I cover the initial years until Delhi’s sack by Timur in 1398, and then after covering concurrent events in south India, I return to north India’s governance largely but not entirely by Muslim powers from the 15th century until the beginning of Mughal rule in 1526. Just as each of these dynasties were unique, so too the architecture and sculpture produced by each of them bear distinctive signatures.
  92.  
  93. Early Sultanate and Khaljis (c. 1200–1324)
  94. By the late 12th century, the Afghanistan-based Ghorid dynasty was able to take Lahore, Ajmer, Delhi, and a number of key north Indian cities. Unlike their predecessor Mahmud of Ghazni (d. 1030), who sacked Indian cities but then returned home, the Ghorids established political authority, establishing Delhi as their headquarters. By 1206, Aibek, the Ghorid agent, declared himself an independent sultan. The stability of this early dynasty was on shaky ground, as shown by the essay Shokoohy and Shokoohy 1987, and eventually the Khaljis usurped power. The first work analyzing the most significant of these early Sultanate sites was Page 1926. Here, Page presented plans, photos, and translations of inscriptions. Analytical scholarship on the largely architectural remains of this period tends to fall into two camps. One school of thought, represented in Welch, et al. 2002, presents the new Muslim rulers as oppressors of conquered Indians who tried to force conversion to Islam, while works such as Flood 2009, Meister 1972, and Kumar 2001 present much more nuanced views. Eaton 2000, which discusses temple destruction by Muslims from the 12th through the 18th century, is a study that argues for a considerable degree of Hindu-Muslim toleration. The study Kumar 2000 focuses on an issue that remains an important one even today in the subcontinent, that is, the tension resulting from the differing agendas between religious and political authorities.
  95.  
  96. Eaton, Richard M. “Temple Destruction and the Indo-Muslim States.” In Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia. Edited by David Gilmartin and Bruce B. Lawrence, 246–281. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2000.
  97.  
  98. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99.  
  100. Eaton argues, unlike many in India today, that temple destruction was minimal and only politically motivated. Reprint editions available.
  101.  
  102. Find this resource:
  103.  
  104. Flood, Finbarr B. Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval “Hindu-Muslim” Encounter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.
  105.  
  106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107.  
  108. This is a major contribution toward understanding the interaction between Hindus and Muslims and their resulting artistic practice from the 9th through the 13th century.
  109.  
  110. Find this resource:
  111.  
  112. Kumar, Sunil. “Assertations of Authority: A Study of the Discursive Statements of Two Sultans of Delhi: ‘Ala al-Din Khalji and Nizam al-Din Auliya.’” In The Making of Indo-Persian Culture: Indian and French Studies. Edited by Muzaffar Alam, Francoise “Nalini” Delvvoye, and Marc Gabborieau, 37–65. Delhi: Manohar, 2000.
  113.  
  114. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  115.  
  116. This important study focuses on the often unresolvable tension between royal authority as represented by the Khalji Sultan and the extremely popular and influential Muslim spiritual leader of Delhi, Nizam al-Din.
  117.  
  118. Find this resource:
  119.  
  120. Kumar, Sunil. “Qutb and Modern Memory.” In The Partitions of Memory: The Afterlife of the Division of India. Edited by Suvir Kaul, 140–182. New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001.
  121.  
  122. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123.  
  124. Focusing on the multiple phases of the first mosque built in Delhi, Kumar argues for greater intercommunity understanding than does Welch.
  125.  
  126. Find this resource:
  127.  
  128. Meister, Michael. “The Two-and-a-Half Day Mosque.” Oriental Art 18.1 (1972): 57–63.
  129.  
  130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131.  
  132. This study probes which parts of Adhai-din ka Jhonpra mosque were made from spolia and what was carved anew as well as why.
  133.  
  134. Find this resource:
  135.  
  136. Page, J. A. A Historical Memoir on the Qutb: Delhi. Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India 22. Calcutta: Government of India Central Publications Branch, 1926.
  137.  
  138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139.  
  140. This is a thorough description of the complex, the buildings and inscriptions.
  141.  
  142. Find this resource:
  143.  
  144. Shokoohy, Mehrdad, and Natalie H. Shokoohy. “The Architecture of Baha al-Din Tughrul in the Region of Bayana, Rajasthan.” Muqarnas 4 (1987): 114–132.
  145.  
  146. DOI: 10.2307/1523099Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147.  
  148. This study indicates that the Delhi sultans had serious rivals who also claimed sovereignty and built major mosques. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  149.  
  150. Find this resource:
  151.  
  152. Welch, Anthony, Hussein Keshani, and Alexandra Bain. “Epigraphs, Scripture and Architecture in the Early Delhi Sultanate.” Muqarnas 19 (2002): 12–43.
  153.  
  154. DOI: 10.2307/1523314Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155.  
  156. These authors argue that the Ghorids and their successors relentlessly oppressed local Hindus by their imposition of religious, cultural, and building practices. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  157.  
  158. Find this resource:
  159.  
  160. The Tughluqs
  161. Due to the large number of remains, some of which served secular purposes, the architecture of the Tughluq period has appealed to several scholars. Invaluable are the writings Ibn Battuta 1953, of a 14th-century Moroccan traveler, who lived for some time in Tughluq Delhi. Husain 1963 is an extensive history of the dynasty including a consideration of architecture. Jackson 1999 not only discusses Tughluq history in relation to that of their predecessors but also examines the increased fortification of Delhi and the temporary move of the Tughluq capital to south India. Welch and Crane 1983 is the first survey of Tughluq architecture, although it focuses largely on Delhi. Shokoohy and Shokoohy 2007 is a descriptive monograph on the first Tughluq fort of Tughluqabad, and these authors also produced another on the military/residential complex at Hisar (Shokoohy and Shokoohy 1988). Welch 1996 focused on an important religious site in Delhi, and Eaton 2011 extended its author’s study of the Tughluqs to the Deccan, explaining Muhammad bin Tughluq’s seemingly contradictory policy of supporting the construction of some temples, while destroying others.
  162.  
  163. Eaton, Richard M. “Muhammad bin Tughluq and the Temples of the Deccan, 1321–26.” In Sultans of the South: Arts of India’s Deccan Courts, 1323–1687. Edited by Navina Najat Haidar and Marika Sardar, 178–187. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011.
  164.  
  165. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  166.  
  167. This important essay differentiates between the Islamic policy of destroying property of defeated enemies and the protection of the property of Hindu citizens outside the former royal sphere who paid a required tax.
  168.  
  169. Find this resource:
  170.  
  171. Husain, Agha Mahdi. Tughluq Dynasty. Calcutta: Thacker, Spink, 1963.
  172.  
  173. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  174.  
  175. A detailed history of this dynasty, including the construction of architecture and public works projects.
  176.  
  177. Find this resource:
  178.  
  179. Ibn Battuta. The Rehla of Ibn Batutta (India, Maldive Islands and Ceylon). Translated by Agha Mahdi Husain. Baroda, India: Oriental Institute, 1953.
  180.  
  181. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  182.  
  183. This is a 14th-century traveler’s account of Tughluq Delhi. Reprint editions are available.
  184.  
  185. Find this resource:
  186.  
  187. Jackson, Peter. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  188.  
  189. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  190.  
  191. This careful study of Delhi’s military includes a discussion of Muhammad bin Tughluq’s decision to shift the capital to the south, even though Delhi contained a number of massive fortifications.
  192.  
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195. Shokoohy, Mehrdad, and Natalie H. Shokoohy. Hisar-i Firuza: Sultanate and Early Mughal Architecture in the District of Hisar, India. South Asian Series. London: Monographs on Art Archaeology and Architecture, 1988.
  196.  
  197. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  198.  
  199. This provides a detailed description along with many plans of this major site.
  200.  
  201. Find this resource:
  202.  
  203. Shokoohy, Mehrdad, and Natalie H. Shokoohy. Tughluqabad: A Paradigm for Indo-Islamic Urban Planning and Its Architectural Components. London: Araxus, 2007.
  204.  
  205. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  206.  
  207. This is a descriptive study of this massive military complex.
  208.  
  209. Find this resource:
  210.  
  211. Welch, Anthony. “A Medieval Center of Learning in India: The Hauz Khass Madrasa in Delhi.” Muqarnas 13 (1996): 165–190.
  212.  
  213. DOI: 10.2307/1523258Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  214.  
  215. This is a study of an important religious institution in Delhi that also housed the Sultan’s tomb and an important source of water for Delhi’s population. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  216.  
  217. Find this resource:
  218.  
  219. Welch, Anthony, and Howard Crane. “The Tughluqs: Master Builders of the Delhi Sultanate.” Muqarnas 1 (1983): 123–166.
  220.  
  221. DOI: 10.2307/1523075Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  222.  
  223. This is an overview of Tughluq architectural patronage. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  224.  
  225. Find this resource:
  226.  
  227. Tughluqs and Ancient Pillars
  228. The Tughluqs understood the political value of linking themselves not only with past Muslim powers but also with India’s ancient past. Firuz Shah Tughluq did this by re-erecting very old massive pillars. McKibben 1994 and Flood 2003 analyze Firuz Shah Tughluq’s policy of moving and re-erecting ancient pillars. The movement of one of these pillars is described in a 14th-century text that is included in the description of the Kotla Firuz Shah in Page 1937.
  229.  
  230. Flood, Finbarr B. “Pillars, Palimpsests, and Princely Practices: Translating the Past in Sultanate Delhi.” RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 43 (2003): 95–116.
  231.  
  232. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  233.  
  234. An examination of the reuse of ancient pillars in Sultanate India including the Tughluq period. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  235.  
  236. Find this resource:
  237.  
  238. McKibben, William Jeffrey. “The Monumental Pillars of Firuz Shah Tughluq.” Ars Orientalis 24 (1994): 105–118.
  239.  
  240. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241.  
  242. A fine analysis of this ruler’s reuse of Ashokan pillars in various venues. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  243.  
  244. Find this resource:
  245.  
  246. Page, J. A. A Memoir on Kotla Firoz Shah, Delhi, with a Translation of Sirat-i-Firozshahi. Translated by Mohammad Hamid Kuraishi. Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India 52. Delhi: Manager of Publications, 1937.
  247.  
  248. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  249.  
  250. This is a detailed description of the site along with a 14th-century account of the removal of the ancient pillar from afar and its re-erection in Delhi.
  251.  
  252. Find this resource:
  253.  
  254. 14th–16th-Century South India
  255. With the loss of Tughluq hold over south India, two states emerged about concurrently. One was a Muslim-run state controlled by the Bahmani sultans and the other a state ruled by Hindus today known as a Vijayanagara Empire, although the swath of land under Vijayanagara control was actually ruled by three separate dynasties. Both of these states were multiethnic, but irresolvable disputes between foreign-born and local elites in the end were part of Bahmani demise.
  256.  
  257. Bahmanis
  258. The Bahmanis were Tughluq successors, so it is hardly surprising that Bahmani architecture was initially close in appearance to Tughluq structures; over time, however, the appearance became more Persianate, particularly under the influence of an Iranian-born prime minister (Merklinger 1981, Michell and Zebrowski 1999, Yazdani 1995). Philon 2011 argues that what is usually considered an early mosque is a ceremonial hall of the Bahmanids. Rotzer 2011 is one of the few concerned with the fortifications of Sultanate Deccan. Rotzer and Sohani 2012 deals with Bidar’s extensive waterworks system.
  259.  
  260. Merklinger, Elizabeth S. Indian Islamic Architecture: The Deccan 1374–1686. Warminster, UK: Aris & Philips, 1981.
  261.  
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263.  
  264. This is an inventory of Deccani architecture, including that of the Bahmanis, that considers buildings not as a whole but according to their individual components.
  265.  
  266. Find this resource:
  267.  
  268. Michell, George, and Mark Zebrowski. The Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  269.  
  270. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521563215Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271.  
  272. Bahmani material is included in this overview of Deccani art and architecture.
  273.  
  274. Find this resource:
  275.  
  276. Philon, Helen. “The Solah Khumba Mosque at Bidar as a Ceremonial Hall of the Bahmanis.” In Sultans of the South: Arts of India’s Deccan Courts, 1323–1687. Edited by Navina Najat Haidar and Marika Sardar, 188–203. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011.
  277.  
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279.  
  280. The author argues convincingly that this mosque was originally a royal hall. The essay is well illustrated with color plates and maps.
  281.  
  282. Find this resource:
  283.  
  284. Rotzer, Klaus. “Fortifications and Gunpowder in the Deccan, 1368–1687.” In Sultans of the South: Arts of India’s Deccan Courts, 1323–1687. Edited by Navina Najat Haidar and Marika Sardar, 204–217. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011.
  285.  
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287.  
  288. This is an important study of fortification types and the introduction of improved cannons.
  289.  
  290. Find this resource:
  291.  
  292. Rotzer, Klaus, and Pushkar Sohani. “Nature, Dams, Wells and Gardens: The Route of Water in and around Bidar.” In Garden and Landscape Practices in Pre-Colonial India: Histories from the Deccan. Edited by Daud Ali and Emma J. Flatt, 54–73. Delhi: Routledge, 2012.
  293.  
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295.  
  296. This is the only detailed study of water technologies enabling the construction of sophisticated irrigation systems and formal gardens.
  297.  
  298. Find this resource:
  299.  
  300. Yazdani, Ghulam. Bidar: Its History and Monuments. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1995.
  301.  
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303.  
  304. Originally published in 1947. This detailed survey of the second Bahmani capital includes many illustrations and plans.
  305.  
  306. Find this resource:
  307.  
  308. Vijayanagara
  309. The Vijayanagara Empire was the most significant of the Hindu-ruled states of the subcontinent during the 14th and 15th centuries. This was in part because the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire were highly successful incorporating administrators from various cultural backgrounds. In spite of this inclusive state policy, until relatively recently, Vijayanagara, thanks to the work of Sewell 1900, was viewed as a Hindu state ruled by Hindu rulers for Hindu subjects as a bulwark against neighboring Muslim neighbors. While scholars increasingly realized that this view was untenable, the essay Wagoner 1996 is a landmark in re-evaluating the Vijayanagara kings’ attitudes toward kingship and their multicultural subjects. Since the 1980s, interest in Vijayanagara has escalated, with numerous publications on this vast archaeological site, including the monograph Michell 1995, which looks at architecture, urban planning, and sculpture, and Michell and Wagoner 2001, a three-volume architectural inventory of the site. Michell, et al. 1984 was instrumental in understanding the site as both royal and divine. Malville 2001 discusses the site’s cosmological orientation. Focused studies on individual temples and sculptural imagery are found in Dallapiccola 1992 and Dallapiccola and Verghese 1998.
  310.  
  311. Dallapiccola, Anna L. The Ramachandra Temple at Vijayanagara. New Delhi: Manohar, American Institute of Indian Studies, 1992.
  312.  
  313. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  314.  
  315. This monograph is a detailed study of one of Vijayanagara’s major temples.
  316.  
  317. Find this resource:
  318.  
  319. Dallapiccola, Anna L., and Anila Verghese. Sculpture at Vijayanagara: Iconography and Style. New Delhi: Manohar, American Institute of Indian Studies, 1998.
  320.  
  321. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  322.  
  323. This is an analysis of the style and meaning of carved imagery at Vijayanagara.
  324.  
  325. Find this resource:
  326.  
  327. Malville, John McKim. “Cosmic Landscape and Urban Layout.” In New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara. Edited by John Fritz and George Michell, 112–125. Mumbai: Marg, 2001.
  328.  
  329. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  330.  
  331. This essay by an astronomer links the city’s layout with the movement of the cosmos.
  332.  
  333. Find this resource:
  334.  
  335. Michell, George. The New Cambridge History of India. Vol. 6, Architecture and Art of Southern India: Vijayanagara and the Successor States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  336.  
  337. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  338.  
  339. This is an important overview of all the arts at Vijayanagara.
  340.  
  341. Find this resource:
  342.  
  343. Michell, George, and Phillip Wagoner. Vijayanagara: Architectural Inventory of the Sacred Centre. 3 vols. New Delhi: Manohar, American Institute of Indian Studies, 2001.
  344.  
  345. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  346.  
  347. This is a detailed presentation of all structures at Vijayanagara.
  348.  
  349. Find this resource:
  350.  
  351. Michell, George, John Fritz, and M. S. Najaraja Rao. Where Gods and Kings Meet: The Royal Centre at Vijayanagara, India. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1984.
  352.  
  353. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  354.  
  355. This monograph marks the first attempt to divide the city into specific zones. Most scholars still follow this demarcation of the site.
  356.  
  357. Find this resource:
  358.  
  359. Sewell, Robert. A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagara): A Contribution to the History of India. London: S. Sonnenschein, 1900.
  360.  
  361. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  362.  
  363. While this history presenting Vijayanagara as a stronghold against its Muslim neighbors is outmoded, the author does include translations of texts written by Portuguese travelers who visited Vijayanagara in the 16th century. Reprint editions available.
  364.  
  365. Find this resource:
  366.  
  367. Wagoner, Phillip. “‘Sultan among Hindu Kings’: Dress, Titles, and the Islamicization of Hindu Culture at Vijayanagara.” Journal of Asian Studies 55.4 (November 1996): 851–880.
  368.  
  369. DOI: 10.2307/2646526Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370.  
  371. This is an outstanding analysis of the Vijayanagara rulers’ positive investment in both local and international Muslim culture. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  372.  
  373. Find this resource:
  374.  
  375. The Development of Regional States in North India, 14th–15th Centuries
  376. As central authority from Delhi begin to crumble, independent Muslim states emerged in the east, west, and north, as well as the one already discussed in the south. States ruled by Hindu kings, never completely under the thumb of Delhi, maintained independence during the 14th and 15th centuries. Architecture in most these regional states is covered in the edited volume Lambah and Patel 2006.
  377.  
  378. Lambah, Abha Narain, and Alka Patel, eds. The Architecture of the Indian Sultanates. Mumbai: Marg, 2006.
  379.  
  380. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  381.  
  382. This edited volume contains recent essays on states that broke from Delhi, including Gujarat, Bengal, Jaunpur, and Malwa.
  383.  
  384. Find this resource:
  385.  
  386. Bengal
  387. Bengal in eastern India was the first to claim independence. All the Muslim architecture of Bengal was first inventoried by Dani 1961. Alamgir 2011 and Hasan 1979 focused on pre-Mughal Bengali material, while Hasan 2007 discussed the early Muslim architecture of Bangladesh. The important sites of Gaur and Pandua were first described by Ali Khan 1931. These structures among others are analyzed by Eaton 1993 for their political meaning, while Banerji 2002, on the Adina Mosque at Pandua, argues for Sufi meanings to the mosque’s visual imagery. Ghosh 2006 is one of the few essays to consider Hindu patronage during this period in Muslim-ruled Bengal.
  388.  
  389. Alamgir, Khoundkar. Sultanate Architecture of Bengal: An Analysis of Architectural and Decorative Elements. New Delhi: Kaveri Books, 2011.
  390.  
  391. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  392.  
  393. A stylistic study of this material with many plates and plans.
  394.  
  395. Find this resource:
  396.  
  397. Ali Khan, A. Abid. Memoirs of Gaur and Pandua. Calcutta: Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, 1931.
  398.  
  399. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  400.  
  401. This volume presents detailed descriptions of Gaur and Pandua, important Sultanate sites. Reprint editions available.
  402.  
  403. Find this resource:
  404.  
  405. Banerji, Naseem Ahmed. The Architecture of the Adina Mosque in Pandua, India: Medieval Tradition and Innovation. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2002.
  406.  
  407. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  408.  
  409. The author convincingly argues for a Sufi or mystic meaning to motifs on the mosque.
  410.  
  411. Find this resource:
  412.  
  413. Dani, Ahmad Hasan. Muslim Architecture in Bengal. Dacca, East Pakistan: Asiatic Society of Pakistan, 1961.
  414.  
  415. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  416.  
  417. This remains the only complete survey of Bengali Muslim architecture in what is today India and Bangladesh.
  418.  
  419. Find this resource:
  420.  
  421. Eaton, Richard M. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
  422.  
  423. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  424.  
  425. This book uses architectural, epigraphic, and historical evidence to argue for a significant political meaning to Bengal’s early Muslim monuments.
  426.  
  427. Find this resource:
  428.  
  429. Ghosh, Pika. “Problems of Reconstructing Bengali Architecture of the 14th–16th Centuries.” In The Architecture of the Indian Sultanates. Edited by Abha Narain Lambeh and Alka Patel, 92–103. Mumbai: Marg, 2006.
  430.  
  431. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  432.  
  433. This important essay argues for a culturally rich and diverse building tradition wherein not only Muslim patrons but also Hindus were engaged in producing architecture as a means of exerting power.
  434.  
  435. Find this resource:
  436.  
  437. Hasan, Perween. Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh. London: Tauris, 2007.
  438.  
  439. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  440.  
  441. In addition to describing all early Muslim architecture in Bangladesh, Hasan gives a careful explanation for the evolution of this style from its pre-Muslim origins.
  442.  
  443. Find this resource:
  444.  
  445. Hasan, Sayed Mahmudul. Mosque Architecture of Pre-Mughal Bengal. Dacca, Bangladesh: University Press, 1979.
  446.  
  447. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  448.  
  449. The author describes monuments by categorizing them into formal structural types.
  450.  
  451. Find this resource:
  452.  
  453. Jaunpur and Malwa
  454. To the east of Bengal lay Sharqi territory, with Jaunpur as the capital. Fuhrer, et al. 1971 made detailed descriptions and plans of Sharqi mosques. Analysis of this material was the focus of the dissertation Sloan 2001, while Lambah 2006 provides further insight into Sharqi architecture. In this same volume, Brand 2006 covers the architectural production of Malwa, a region west of Delhi.
  455.  
  456. Brand, Michael. “The Sultanate of Malwa.” In The Architecture of the Indian Sultanates. Edited by Abha Narain Lambeh and Alka Patel, 80–91. Mumbai: Marg, 2006.
  457.  
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459.  
  460. This is the only early-21st-century essay on Malwa’s Sultanate architecture. Based on the extant structures and a critical Persian history, Brand evaluates these structures in terms of their contemporary significance as well as their impact on later building traditions.
  461.  
  462. Find this resource:
  463.  
  464. Fuhrer, Alois Anton, Edmund W. Smith, and James Burgess. 1971. The Sharqi Architecture of Jaunpur; With Notes on Zafarabad, Sahet-Mahet and Other Places in the North-Western Province and Oudh. Varanasi, India: Indological Book House.
  465.  
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467.  
  468. Originally published in 1889. A detailed description of Jaunpur’s monuments, including ground plans and elevations.
  469.  
  470. Find this resource:
  471.  
  472. Lambah, Abha Narain. “The Sharqis of Jaunpur: Inheritors of the Tughluq Legacy.” In The Architecture of the Indian Sultanates. Edited by Abha Narain Lambah and Alka Patel, 42–55. Mumbai: Marg, 2006.
  473.  
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475.  
  476. This is a beautifully illustrated survey of Sharqi architecture.
  477.  
  478. Find this resource:
  479.  
  480. Sloan, Anna. “The Atala Mosque: Between Polity and Culture in Medieval Jaunpur.” PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2001.
  481.  
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483.  
  484. Sloan’s analysis of this mosque’s motives reveals a sophisticated awareness on the part of the Sharqis not only of various Indian visual practices but also of those beyond India in the larger Islamic world.
  485.  
  486. Find this resource:
  487.  
  488. Gujarat
  489. Gujarat, on India’s western borders, during the 15th and 16th centuries was the home of a powerful sultanate. Early surveys of monuments include Burgess 1994, while Jain-Neubauer 1981, on step wells, expands coverage of largely religious material to public works projects. The capital of the Gujarat sultans was initially Ahmadabad but later shifted to Champaner, the focus of the site study University of Illinois 2003. To date, much literature on Gujarati architecture is descriptive, but Patel 2004 and Patel 2006 provide important analysis of material built from the 13th through the 16th century. University of Illinois 2003 has provided a cultural study of the Champaner-Pavagadh area, one that was important to both Hindus and Muslims.
  490.  
  491. Burgess, James. On the Muhammadan Architecture of Bharoch, Cambay, Dholka, Champaner and Mahmudabad in Gujarat. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1994.
  492.  
  493. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  494.  
  495. Originally published in 1896. The first attempt to describe Gujarat’s early Muslim architecture.
  496.  
  497. Find this resource:
  498.  
  499. Jain-Neubauer, Jutta. The Stepwells of Gujarat in Art-Historical Perspective. New Delhi: Abhinav, 1981.
  500.  
  501. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  502.  
  503. While this work focuses heavily on Hindu material prior to the 12th century, it does give important consideration to Muslim-patronized step wells as well.
  504.  
  505. Find this resource:
  506.  
  507. Patel, Alka. Building Communities in Gujarat: Architecture and Society during the Twelfth through Fourteenth Centuries. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
  508.  
  509. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  510.  
  511. This is an important and welcome analysis of affirmative Hindu-Muslim interaction in building communities during this early period.
  512.  
  513. Find this resource:
  514.  
  515. Patel, Alka. “From Province to Sultanate: The Architecture of Gujarat during the 12th through 16th Centuries.” In The Architecture of the Indian Sultanates. Edited by Abha Narain Lambah and Alka Patel, 68–79. Mumbai: Marg, 2006.
  516.  
  517. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  518.  
  519. This essay considers reuse of architectural materials in the architecture of Gujarat.
  520.  
  521. Find this resource:
  522.  
  523. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Champaner-Pavagadh Cultural Sanctuary: Gujarat, India. Urbana-Champaign: Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Illinois, 2003.
  524.  
  525. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  526.  
  527. Rich with illustrations and plans, this volume analyzes the site of Champaner-Pavagadh, important to Hindus and Muslims alike.
  528.  
  529. Find this resource:
  530.  
  531. Sisodiyas
  532. During the 15th century, the most important dynasty in western India ruled by Hindus was the Sisodiyas, headquartered in the hill fort of Chittor in modern Rajasthan. Surveys of this massive site are Shastri 1928 and Nath 1984. This site saw considerable building activity before the 15th century, but during the reign of Rana Kumbha (1433–1468), remarkable structures were built, including palaces discussed by Tillotson 1987 and a victory tower discussed by Nath 1999. Dorje and Dimri 2008 discusses a massive fort known as Kumbhalgarh provided by Rana Kumbha about ninety miles to the northeast. Within Sisodiya territory are also major Jain temples discussed by Rajawat 2002 and Clermont 1998.
  533.  
  534. Clermont, Lothar. Jainism and the Temples of Mount Abu and Ranakpur. New Delhi: Prakash Book Depot, 1998.
  535.  
  536. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  537.  
  538. This beautifully illustrated book provides an introduction to Jainism and these white marble temples.
  539.  
  540. Find this resource:
  541.  
  542. Dorje, C., and D. N. Dimri. Kumbhalgarh: The Pride of the Maharanas of Mewar. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2008.
  543.  
  544. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  545.  
  546. This survey of the massive fortress and its buildings contains many plans and illustrations.
  547.  
  548. Find this resource:
  549.  
  550. Nath, R. Antiquities of Chittorgadh. Jaipur, India: The Historical Research Documentation Programme, 1984.
  551.  
  552. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  553.  
  554. This slim volume focuses on Chittorgadh’s temples.
  555.  
  556. Find this resource:
  557.  
  558. Nath, R. Chittorgadh Kirtti-stambha of Maharana Kumbha: The Idea and the Form, 1440–60 A.D. New Delhi: Abhinav, 1999.
  559.  
  560. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  561.  
  562. This detailed study of what is often called a victory tower includes lengthy inscriptions and many illustrations.
  563.  
  564. Find this resource:
  565.  
  566. Rajawat, Daulat Singh. Jainism and the Magnificent Ranakpur Temple. Jaipur, India: Delta, 2002.
  567.  
  568. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  569.  
  570. This volume is more useful for its copious illustrations than its text.
  571.  
  572. Find this resource:
  573.  
  574. Shastri, Shobhalal. Chittorgarh. Udaipur, India: State Printing Press Udaipur, 1928.
  575.  
  576. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577.  
  578. Shastri describes all the major buildings within this massive hill fort.
  579.  
  580. Find this resource:
  581.  
  582. Tillotson, G. H. R. The Rajput Palaces: The Development of an Architectural Style, 1450–1750. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987.
  583.  
  584. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  585.  
  586. This remains the most significant study of Chittor’s palaces.
  587.  
  588. Find this resource:
  589.  
  590. North India: Delhi’s Revival in the 15th and 16th Centuries
  591. After Timur’s sack of Delhi, the city lost its cultural and political significance for some time, but by the middle of the 15th century, Delhi began to regain some of its former glory under the Lodi dynasty, whose elite were originally from Afghanistan. Relatively little has been written on Lodi material. The volumes of Yamamoto, et al. 1967–1970, cited under Terminology and Periodization, are the best sources for plans and illustrations. Islam 1961 describes Lodi architecture generally, while the essays Ara 1982a and Ara 1982b focus on Lodi mosques and tombs. Digby 1975 focuses on the identification of key monuments in today’s Lodi Gardens, once the royal burial grounds.
  592.  
  593. Ara, Matsuo. “The Lodhi Rulers and the Construction of Tomb-Buildings in Delhi.” Acta Asiatica: Bulletin of the Institute of Eastern Culture 43 (1982a): 61–80.
  594.  
  595. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  596.  
  597. This is an analytical study of tomb construction as status symbols on the part of the Lodi nobility.
  598.  
  599. Find this resource:
  600.  
  601. Ara, Matsuo. “Mosques of the Later Sultanate Period and the Lodhi Ruling Class.” Tokyo Daiguku 68 (1982b): 1–32.
  602.  
  603. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  604.  
  605. This is a careful study of Lodi mosques and their elite patrons.
  606.  
  607. Find this resource:
  608.  
  609. Digby, Simon. “The Tomb of Buhlul Lodi.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 38.3 (1975): 178–194.
  610.  
  611. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  612.  
  613. In spite of the pedestrian title of this essay, it is a major study identifying the important structures of the Lodi royal necropolis. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  614.  
  615. Find this resource:
  616.  
  617. Islam, Muhammad Siraju’l. “The Lodi Phase of Indo-Islamic Architecture (1451–156 A.D.).” PhD diss., Freie Universitat Berlin, 1961.
  618.  
  619. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  620.  
  621. This study is an overview of Lodi architectural output.
  622.  
  623. Find this resource:
  624.  
  625. The Mughals and Rajputs
  626. The Mughals are a Central Asian house descended from both Timur and Genghis Khan. They established themselves in north India in 1526 after defeating the last Lodi sultan and lasted until 1858. Many consider their artistic and architectural output, especially of the 16th and 17th centuries, to be among South Asia’s most impressive creations. The following works cover the entire Mughal period: Asher 1992, Koch 1991, Nath 1982–2005, Schimmel 2004, and Ziad 2002. Sculpture under the Mughals is discussed by Nath 1997. Parihar 2008 covers the Mughal transport system and resulting monuments in the subcontinent’s northwest. Mughal gardens are covered in Wescoat and Wolschke-Bulmahn 1996. Rajput houses as they made alliances with Mughal royals began to flourish as never before, although some such as the Sisodiyas refused to acknowledge Mughal authority. Unique styles developed at each of the many courts, although scholars are only slowly beginning to study individual courts. A general survey of Rajput palace architecture is in Tillotson 1987 (cited under Development of Regional States in North India, 14th–15th Centuries: Sisodiyas).
  627.  
  628. Asher, Catherine B. The Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  629.  
  630. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521267281Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631.  
  632. This text covers not only imperial architectural production but also monuments in the provinces. Included is an annotated bibliography organized by ruling monarchs for easy consultation.
  633.  
  634. Find this resource:
  635.  
  636. Koch, Ebba. Mughal Architecture: An Outline of Its History and Development, 1526–1858. Munich: Prestel Verlag, 1991.
  637.  
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639.  
  640. This work covers architecture of Mughal India in both the imperial centers and the provinces. The text includes a number of useful ground plans. The bibliography should be consulted for further references.
  641.  
  642. Find this resource:
  643.  
  644. Nath, R. History of Mughal Architecture. 4 vols. New Delhi: Abhinav, 1982–2005.
  645.  
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647.  
  648. This text is best avoided by the novice researcher, for the author makes a number of unsupportable claims and assumptions. His citations are often garbled, thus making his arguments difficult to follow.
  649.  
  650. Find this resource:
  651.  
  652. Nath, R. Mughal Sculpture: A Study of Stone Sculptures of Birds, Beasts, Mythical Animals, Human Beings, and Deities in Mughal Architecture. New Delhi: APH Publications, 1997.
  653.  
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655.  
  656. Although poorly written and marred by a misunderstanding of the so-called Muslim prohibition of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic imagery, this book is the sole one to consider sculpture on a corpus of imperial monuments.
  657.  
  658. Find this resource:
  659.  
  660. Parihar, Subash. Land Transport in Mughal India: Agra-Lahore Mughal Highway and Its Architectural Remains. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2008.
  661.  
  662. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663.  
  664. This volume documents in detail the inns (serais), mile markers, bridges, and other Mughal structures built on the major trade route linking two capitals, Lahore and Agra.
  665.  
  666. Find this resource:
  667.  
  668. Schimmel, Annemarie. The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  669.  
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671.  
  672. This volume embraces all the Mughal arts.
  673.  
  674. Find this resource:
  675.  
  676. Wescoat, James L., Jr., and Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn, eds. Mughal Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations, and Prospects. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1996.
  677.  
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679.  
  680. This is a collection of useful essays on Mughal gardens from the time of Babur through the reign of Shah Jahan.
  681.  
  682. Find this resource:
  683.  
  684. Ziad, Zeenut, ed. The Magnificent Mughals. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  685.  
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687.  
  688. Each chapter in this text is dedicated to a single artistic form including architecture.
  689.  
  690. Find this resource:
  691.  
  692. The Early Mughals and the Sur Interregnum
  693. The foundations of Mughal rule as well as architectural production were laid by Babur (r. 1526–1530) and his son, Humayun (r. 1530–1540; 1555–1556). Much is known about Babur’s personal life, including his penchant for the construction of formal gardens, from his own memoirs (Babur 1996). Babur’s gardens have caught the imagination of a number of authors, including those of Moynihan 1988, Wescoat 1989, and Asher 1991. Crane 1987 focused not only on the gardens but also on Babur’s mosque architecture. The patronage of Humayun is discussed in Asher 1992 and Koch 1991 (both cited under the Mughals and Rajputs). This monarch temporarily lost his hold over India when the Afghan upstart Sher Shah Sur ousted him from the throne. Sher Shah’s focus on propagandistic construction is discussed by Asher 1988 and Asher 2006.
  694.  
  695. Asher, Catherine B. “Legacy and Legitimacy: Sher Shah’s Patronage of Imperial Mausolea.” In Shari‘at Ambiguity in South Asian Islam. Edited by Katherine P. Ewing, 79–97. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
  696.  
  697. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  698.  
  699. Here there is a focus on texts on Islamic kingship and the need to build tombs.
  700.  
  701. Find this resource:
  702.  
  703. Asher, Catherine B. “Babur and the Timurid Char Bagh: Use and Meaning.” Environmental Design 1–2 (1991): 46–55.
  704.  
  705. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  706.  
  707. This is a study of how Babur used his gardens for social and political purposes.
  708.  
  709. Find this resource:
  710.  
  711. Asher, Catherine B. “Building a Legacy: Sher Shah’s Architecture and the Politics of Propaganda.” In The Architecture of the Indian Sultanates. Edited by Abha Narain Lambah and Alka Patel, 56–67. Mumbai: Marg, 2006.
  712.  
  713. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  714.  
  715. Sher Shah’s public works and tomb architecture are examined here for their propagandistic value.
  716.  
  717. Find this resource:
  718.  
  719. Babur, Zahiruddin Muhammad. The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. Edited and translated by Wheeler M. Thackston. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
  720.  
  721. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  722.  
  723. The newest and most accessible translation of Babur’s remarkable memoirs is here.
  724.  
  725. Find this resource:
  726.  
  727. Crane, Howard. “The Patronage of Zahir al-Din Babur and the Origins of Indian Architecture.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 1 (1987): 95–110.
  728.  
  729. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  730.  
  731. This study focuses on Babur’s garden and mosque construction.
  732.  
  733. Find this resource:
  734.  
  735. Moynihan, Elizabeth B. “The Lotus Garden Palace of Zahir al-Din Muhammad Babur.” Muqarnas 5 (1988): 135–152.
  736.  
  737. DOI: 10.2307/1523114Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  738.  
  739. This is the first detailed study of Babur’s Indian garden cut from living rock. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  740.  
  741. Find this resource:
  742.  
  743. Wescoat, James L., Jr. “Picturing an Early Mughal Garden.” Asian Art 2.4 (Fall 1989): 59–78.
  744.  
  745. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  746.  
  747. The author argues that depictions of early Mughal gardens, all made long after their initial construction, may not reflect their original appearance.
  748.  
  749. Find this resource:
  750.  
  751. Akbar
  752. Akbar (r. 1556–1605), the third Mughal ruler, over time consolidated his vast empire and established a mature concept of state that actively sought tolerance for all subjects as a means of administrating justice. In the early 21st century, interest in Akbar’s patronage has been revived (Calza 2012), but most publications date to an earlier period when studying the early and mature Mughals was more fashionable. Lowry 1987 discussed the meaning of the tomb of Akbar’s father, Humayun, which the emperor provided early in his reign. While Akbar established several palaces, most of his buildings were replaced by his successors; however, his palace at Fatehpur Sikri, abandoned during his reign and hence not rebuilt, has been the focus of numerous studies. Among those are Smith 1894–1898, which meticulously recorded all major structures at the site, and Brand and Lowry 1985b and Brand and Lowry 1987, which are a compendium with all Persian sources citing the site and the proceedings of a major symposium, respectively. The authors Brand and Lowry 1985a also curated an exhibition on Akbar’s cultural achievements when at Fatehpur Sikri, which include both sculpture and architectural production. The patronage of Akbar’s highest ranking noble, a Hindu, is analyzed in Asher 1992.
  753.  
  754. Asher, Catherine B. “The Architecture of Raja Man Singh: A Study of Sub-Imperial Patronage.” In The Powers of Art: Patronage in Indian Culture. Edited by Barbara Stoler Miller, 183–201. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
  755.  
  756. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  757.  
  758. This study is an overview and analysis of Akbar’s leading noble, a Hindu, who was not only a Mughal agent but also the ruler of his own ancestral domain. Reprint edition available.
  759.  
  760. Find this resource:
  761.  
  762. Brand, Michael, and Glenn D. Lowry. Akbar’s India: Art from the Mughal City of Victory. New York: Asia Society Galleries, 1985a.
  763.  
  764. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  765.  
  766. This exhibition catalogue that includes material on architecture and sculpture was part of the Festival of India.
  767.  
  768. Find this resource:
  769.  
  770. Brand, Michael, and Glenn D. Lowry. Fatehpur-Sikri: A Sourcebook. Cambridge, MA: Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1985b.
  771.  
  772. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  773.  
  774. An invaluable text, for it pulls together the disparate original sources for the city.
  775.  
  776. Find this resource:
  777.  
  778. Brand, Michael, and Glenn D. Lowry, eds. Fatehpur-Sikri. Bombay: Marg, 1987.
  779.  
  780. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  781.  
  782. This is the proceedings of a symposium held on Fatehpur-Sikri in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on 17–19 October 1985. Papers relevant for this bibliography include Ebba Koch, “The Architectural Forms” (pp. 121–148); Glenn D. Lowry, “Urban Structures and Functions” (pp. 25–48); and Attilio Petruccioli, “The Geometry of Power: The City’s Planning” (pp. 49–64).
  783.  
  784. Find this resource:
  785.  
  786. Calza, Gian Carlo. Akbar: The Great Emperor of India. Milan: Skira, 2012.
  787.  
  788. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  789.  
  790. This exhibition catalogue on Akbar includes a section on architecture.
  791.  
  792. Find this resource:
  793.  
  794. Lowry, Glenn D. “Humayun’s Tomb: Form, Function, and Meaning in Early Mughal Architecture.” Muqarnas 4 (1987): 133–148.
  795.  
  796. DOI: 10.2307/1523100Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  797.  
  798. This remains the best study of the tomb and its purpose. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  799.  
  800. Find this resource:
  801.  
  802. Smith, Edmund W. The Mughal Architecture of Fathpur Sikri. Vols. 1–4. Archaeological Survey of India, New Imperial Series 18. Allahabad, India: Superintendent Government Press, 1894–1898.
  803.  
  804. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  805.  
  806. These four volumes carefully document the site’s buildings with descriptions and plans. Reprint editions available.
  807.  
  808. Find this resource:
  809.  
  810. The 17th Century: Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb
  811. Jahangir (r. 1605–1628) and his son, Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658), are vibrant patrons of architecture, and bibliographic material before the early 1990s is found in Asher 1992 and Koch 1991 (both cited under Mughals and Rajputs). Jahangir’s enthusiasm for architecture is recorded in his own memoirs (Jahangir 1999), although scholars tend to focus on his patronage of painting. Koch 2001 discusses the Solomonic imagery found in some gardens. The patronage of his famous wife, Nur Jahan, is appraised by Findly 1993. In the last 20th and early 21st centuries, Shah Jahan’s patronage has been dominated by the writings of Koch, many of which were compiled in a single volume: Koch 2001. Necipoglu 1993 examines Shah Jahan’s palace architecture in the context of contemporary Ottoman and Safavid practice. The patronage of Shah Jahan’s daughter, Jahanara, is examined by Bokhari 2008. A current trend in scholarship is to look at Shah Jahan’s buildings not in terms of their original function but in terms of later ones, including changes in meaning (e.g., see Kavuri-Bauer 2011). Aurangzeb’s reign, which dominated the second half of the 17th century, is not noted for its patronage, although Asher 1992 and Koch 1991 (both cited under Mughals and Rajputs) contain bibliographies. More recent observations on the nature of Aurangzeb-period buildings are in Asher 2002.
  812.  
  813. Asher, Catherine B. “Piety, Religion and the Old Social Order in the Architecture of the Later Mughals and Their Contemporaries.” In Rethinking Early Modern India. Edited by Richard B. Barnett, 193–230. New Delhi: Manohar, 2002.
  814.  
  815. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  816.  
  817. While other material is included here, this is an attempt to access late Mughal architecture, which is usually dismissed as decadent.
  818.  
  819. Find this resource:
  820.  
  821. Bokhari, Afshan. “The ‘Light’ of the Timuria: Jahan Ara Begum’s Patronage, Piety and Poetry in 17th c. Mughal India.” Marg 60.1 (2008): 52–61.
  822.  
  823. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  824.  
  825. This is one of the few scholarly discussions of female Mughal patronage.
  826.  
  827. Find this resource:
  828.  
  829. Findly, Ellison Banks. Nur Jahan: Empress of Mughal India. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
  830.  
  831. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  832.  
  833. The text includes coverage of this queen’s architectural patronage.
  834.  
  835. Find this resource:
  836.  
  837. Jahangir. The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India. Edited and translated by Wheeler M. Thackston. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  838.  
  839. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  840.  
  841. This is by far the best translation of this Mughal ruler’s personal writings.
  842.  
  843. Find this resource:
  844.  
  845. Kavuri-Bauer, Santhi. Monumental Matters: The Power, Subjectivity and Space of India’s Mughal Architecture. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011.
  846.  
  847. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  848.  
  849. The author examines the afterlives of major Mughal monuments, especially those of Shah Jahan’s time.
  850.  
  851. Find this resource:
  852.  
  853. Koch, Ebba. Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology: Collected Essays. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  854.  
  855. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  856.  
  857. Among the important essays included are “Diwan-i ‘Amm and Chihil Sutun: The Audience Halls of Shah Jahan” (pp. 229–254), which argues for associations with ancient Persian symbolism of kingship; “Jahangir and the Angeles: Recently Discovered Wall Paintings under European Influence in the Fort of Lahore” (pp. 12–37), indicating that the Mughal royals used European-style angels to showcase Mughal rulers as Solomonic in nature; “The Mughal Waterfront Garden: Mughal Palace Gardens from Babur to Shah Jahan (1526–1648)” (pp. 183–202), covering the role of gardens; and “Shah Jahan and Orphesus: The Pietre Dure Decoration and the Programme of the Throne in the Hall of Public Audiences in the Red Fort of Delhi” (pp. 61–162), developing the visual symbolism found in Shah Jahan’s throne.
  858.  
  859. Find this resource:
  860.  
  861. Necipoglu, Gulru. “Framing the Gaze in Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Palaces.” Ars Orientalis 23 (1993): 303–342.
  862.  
  863. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  864.  
  865. This essay remains the only one to look at the layout and ceremonial use of palaces of these three contemporary Muslim dynasties on a comparative basis. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  866.  
  867. Find this resource:
  868.  
  869. Mughal Tomb Architecture
  870. The Mughals produced magnificent palaces and gardens, but their huge tomb complexes are often the focus of 20th- and 21st-century admiration. Brand 1993 discusses the varied development of all the important Mughal tombs, but many studies focus on individual complexes. Lowry 1987 (cited under North India: Delhi’s Revival in the 15th and 16th Centuries: Akbar) is a discussion of Humayun’s tomb. Smith 1909 provides a detailed description of Akbar’s tomb, including the entire text of its inscriptions. More has been written on the Taj Mahal than any other Mughal structure. Koch 2006 provides the definitive discussion and is the first author to include every structure and aspect of the entire complex. Begley and Desai 1989 includes 17th-century written material for the Taj Mahal. Begley 1979, which argues that the Taj Mahal is a visual replica of God’s Throne on the Day of Judgment, is provocative but accepted by few scholars. Oak 1968 claims that the Taj Mahal is a Hindu structure. This author was a Hindu fundamentalist and his work is roundly rejected by serious scholars. One of the last large Mughal mausolea, the Bibi-ka-Maqbara, is discussed in detail by Parodi 1998.
  871.  
  872. Begley, Wayne E. “The Myth of the Taj Mahal and a New Theory of Its Symbolic Meaning.” Art Bulletin 61 (1979): 7–37.
  873.  
  874. DOI: 10.2307/3049862Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  875.  
  876. This controversial essay argues that the Taj Mahal complex represents a diagram of God’s Throne on the Day of Judgment. Scholars of Islamic and Indian art find fault with the author’s reasoning, but nonspecialists find the essay appealing.
  877.  
  878. Find this resource:
  879.  
  880. Begley, Wayne E., and Ziyuad-Din A. Desai. Taj Mahal, The Illumined Tomb: An Anthology of Seventeenth-Century Mughal and European Documentary Sources. Cambridge, MA: Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture, 1989.
  881.  
  882. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  883.  
  884. This is a useful volume that compiles Mughal and European writings on the Taj Mahal, including the full text of its lengthy inscriptions, in a single source.
  885.  
  886. Find this resource:
  887.  
  888. Brand, Michael. “Orthodoxy, Innovation, and Revival: Considerations of the Past in Imperial Mughal Tomb Architecture.” Muqarnas 10 (1993): 323–334.
  889.  
  890. DOI: 10.2307/1523197Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  891.  
  892. The essay discusses trends in the construction of Mughal royal mausolea, noting that while there are diverse variations in design, reference to the past remains a unifying constant. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  893.  
  894. Find this resource:
  895.  
  896. Hoag, John D. “The Tomb of Ulugh Beg and Abdu Razaq at Ghazni: A Model for the Taj Mahal.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 27.4 (1968): 234–246.
  897.  
  898. DOI: 10.2307/988486Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  899.  
  900. This essay traces the Central Asian Timurid origins of imperial Mughal mausolea while also discussing their Indic origins. Available online by subscription.
  901.  
  902. Find this resource:
  903.  
  904. Koch, Ebba. The Complete Taj Mahal and the Riverfront Gardens of Agra. London: Thames and Hudson, 2006.
  905.  
  906. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  907.  
  908. Rich with illustrations and plans, this book covers almost anything you might want to know about the Taj Mahal. It is also the first text to consider the multiple buildings and gardens of the entire complex and will remain the landmark source for information on the Taj Mahal for years to come.
  909.  
  910. Find this resource:
  911.  
  912. Oak, Purushottam Nagesh. The Taj Mahal Is a Hindu Palace. Bombay: Pearl Books, 1968.
  913.  
  914. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  915.  
  916. Oak was a founding member of the Institute for Rewriting Indian History, and texts such as this one are a blatant attempt to distort history. This one claims Hindu authorship of the Taj Mahal, not Muslim patronage. He does this by twisting well-known historical facts to his own agenda. His writing is popular with Hindu nationalists.
  917.  
  918. Find this resource:
  919.  
  920. Parodi, Laura E. “The Bibi-ka Maqbara in Aurangabad: A Landmark of Mughal Power in the Deccan?” East and West 48.3–4 (1998): 349–383.
  921.  
  922. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  923.  
  924. This essay on the last large imperial Mughal tomb is the most detailed and thoughtful one to date. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  925.  
  926. Find this resource:
  927.  
  928. Smith, Edmund W. Akbar’s Tomb, Sikandarah, Near Agra. New Imperial Series 35. Allahabad, India: Superintendent Government Press, 1909.
  929.  
  930. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  931.  
  932. In spite of this text’s date, it remains the sole monograph on Akbar’s tomb. It not only describes the tomb in great detail but also provides all of the complex’s lengthy epigraphs.
  933.  
  934. Find this resource:
  935.  
  936. 16th- and 17th-Century Rajputs
  937. To date, the best source for an overview of Rajput architecture is Tillotson 1987 (cited under Development of Regional States in North India, 14th–15th Centuries: Sisodiyas). Asher 1996a and Asher 1996b focus on the patronage of Raja Man Singh, a Mughal noble who was also a Rajput prince. Joffee 2005 analyzes the output of the Sisodiyas, who had an adversarial relationship with the Mughals, while Rothfarb 2012 studies Bir Singh, whose prominence rose as he sided with Jahangir. By contrast, Ghosh 2005 discusses temple production in Bengal under the Mallas, whose association with central authority is minimal.
  938.  
  939. Asher, Catherine B. “Kachhwaha Pride and Prestige: The Temple Patronage of Raja Man Singh.” In Govindadeva: A Dialogue in Stone. Edited by Margaret Case, 215–238. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 1996a.
  940.  
  941. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  942.  
  943. This essay examines Man Singh’s temple construction, notably in his own ancestral lands.
  944.  
  945. Find this resource:
  946.  
  947. Asher, Catherine B. “Gardens of the Nobility: Raja Man Singh and the Bagh-i Wah.” In The Mughal Garden: Interpretation, Conservation, and Implications. Edited by Mahmood Hussain, Abdul Rehman, and James L. Wescoat, 61–72. Lahore, Pakistan: Ferozsons, 1996b.
  948.  
  949. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  950.  
  951. Man Singh’s garden construction reveals his motives as both Mughal agent and independent prince.
  952.  
  953. Find this resource:
  954.  
  955. Ghosh, Pika. Temple to Love: Architecture and Devotion in Seventeenth-Century Bengal. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.
  956.  
  957. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  958.  
  959. A refreshing study of religious material during a period when scholarly focus has tended toward the political.
  960.  
  961. Find this resource:
  962.  
  963. Joffee, Jennifer. “Art, Architecture and Politics in Mewar, 1628–1710.” PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 2005.
  964.  
  965. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  966.  
  967. This scholarly study argues that the art and architecture of the Sisodiyas is a response of that of the Mughals.
  968.  
  969. Find this resource:
  970.  
  971. Rothfarb, Edward Leyland. Orchha and Beyond: Design at the Court of Raja Bir Singh Bundela. Mumbai: Marg, 2012.
  972.  
  973. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  974.  
  975. Having assassinated Akbar’s closed confident at the behest of the future Jahangir, Bir Singh found that his new wealth allowed him to engage in wide-scale construction, as this study shows.
  976.  
  977. Find this resource:
  978.  
  979. South India: 16th and 17th Centuries
  980. Until the early 21st century, much scholarship focused on north India, with relatively little on south India and the Deccan, although that is changing. Even before the breakup of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, the Bahmanis were divided into a series of independent sultanates; the two most significant were the Adil Shahis of Bijapur and the Qutb Shahis, initially of Golconda and then headquartered in Hyderabad. Elsewhere in south India, a Portuguese presence was established by 1510 in Goa and a number of Catholic orders built churches in efforts to convert locals. Further to the east, former Vijayanagara nobles, known as Nayakas, founded their own kingdoms; the most notable in terms of architecture and sculpture was that of Tirumala Nayaka of Madurai (r. 1623–1659). General material is found in Michell and Zebrowski 1999 (cited under 14th–16th-Century South India: Bahmanis). More recent is Haidar and Sardar 2011, an edited volume resulting from an exhibition of the arts of the Deccani courts including material on architecture.
  981.  
  982. Haidar, Navina Najat, and Marika Sardar, eds. Sultans of the South: Arts of India’s Deccan Courts, 1323–1687. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011.
  983.  
  984. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  985.  
  986. A series of essays including those on architecture resulting from an exhibition and symposium on the Deccan.
  987.  
  988. Find this resource:
  989.  
  990. The Adil Shahis of Bijapur and the Qutb Shahis of Golconda and Hyderabad
  991. Cousens 1916 remains the only complete survey of Bijapur’s architecture, while Hutton 2006 has skillfully interpreted the meaning of important monuments. Three separate articles by Michell, Ghouchani and Wannell, and Wannell in Haidar and Sardar 2011 (cited under South India: 16th and 17th Centuries) focus on the Ibrahim Rauza. Sardar 2007 is the only recent study of Golconda, while Nayeem 2006 examines the Qutb Shahis more generally. Wagoner 2006 hones in on the symbolism of the Char Minar, and Wagoner 2012 on the gardens of the Qutb Shahis as charitable institutions.
  992.  
  993. Cousens, Henry. Bijapur and Its Architectural Remains; with an Historical Outline of the ‘Adil Shahi Dynasty.’ New Imperial Series 37. Bombay: Government Central Press, 1916.
  994.  
  995. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  996.  
  997. This remains the sole survey of the city’s historical remains.
  998.  
  999. Find this resource:
  1000.  
  1001. Hutton, Deborah S. Art of the Court of Bijapur. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.
  1002.  
  1003. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1004.  
  1005. This work is a brilliant analysis of Bijapur’s key structures, including the Ibrahim Rauza.
  1006.  
  1007. Find this resource:
  1008.  
  1009. Nayeem, M. A. The Heritage of the Qutb Shahis of Golconda and Hyderabad. Hyderabad, India: Hyderabad Publications, 2006.
  1010.  
  1011. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1012.  
  1013. Richly illustrated with numerous color plates, this volume contains detailed descriptions of the extant structures of Golconda and Hyderabad.
  1014.  
  1015. Find this resource:
  1016.  
  1017. Sardar, Marika. “Golconda through Time: A Mirror of the Evolving Deccan.” PhD diss., New York University, 2007.
  1018.  
  1019. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1020.  
  1021. This remains the only stand-alone study of Golconda’s visual heritage.
  1022.  
  1023. Find this resource:
  1024.  
  1025. Wagoner, Phillip B. “The Charminar as Chaubara: Cosmological Symbolism in the Urban Architecture of the Deccan.” In The Architecture of the Indian Sultanates. Edited by Abha Narain Lambah and Alka Patel, 104–113. Mumbai: Marg, 2006.
  1026.  
  1027. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1028.  
  1029. Wagoner argues convincingly that the designers of the Charminar understood this structure as a combination of Indic and Persianate cosmological ideals.
  1030.  
  1031. Find this resource:
  1032.  
  1033. Wagoner, Phillip B. “In Amin Khan’s Garden: Charitable Gardens in Qutb Shahi Andhra.” In Garden and Landscape Practices in Pre-Colonial India: Histories from the Deccan. Edited by Daud Ali and Emma J. Flatt, 98–126. Delhi: Routledge, 2012.
  1034.  
  1035. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1036.  
  1037. This important essay considers gardens built by the elite for charitable purposes and intended for non-elite use.
  1038.  
  1039. Find this resource:
  1040.  
  1041. The Ibrahim Rauza
  1042. This tomb, associated with Bijapur’s most important ruler, has been the focus of three works cited in this section (Ghouchani and Wannell 2011, Michell 2011, and Wannell 2011), as well as Hutton 2006 (cited under South India: 16th and 17th Centuries: Adil Shahis of Bijapur and the Qutb Shahis of Golconda and Hyderabad).
  1043.  
  1044. Ghouchani, Abdullah, and Bruce Wannell. In Sultans of the South: Arts of India’s Deccan Courts, 1323–1687. Edited by Navina Najat Haidar and Marika Sardar, 268–297. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011.
  1045.  
  1046. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1047.  
  1048. This essay provides all the tomb’s inscriptions as well as diagrams showing their locations.
  1049.  
  1050. Find this resource:
  1051.  
  1052. Michell, George. “Indic Themes in the Design and Decoration of the Ibrahim Rauza in Bijapur.” In Sultans of the South: Arts of India’s Deccan Courts, 1323–1687. Edited by Navina Najat Haidar and Marika Sardar, 236–251. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011.
  1053.  
  1054. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1055.  
  1056. The appearance of the tomb and its elements of Indian origin are analyzed.
  1057.  
  1058. Find this resource:
  1059.  
  1060. Wannell, Bruce. “The Epigraphic Program of the Ibrahim Rauza in Bijapur.” In Sultans of the South: Arts of India’s Deccan Courts, 1323–1687. Edited by Navina Najat Haidar and Marika Sardar, 252–267. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011.
  1061.  
  1062. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1063.  
  1064. Here, the meaning of the mausoleum’s inscriptions is analyzed in historical context.
  1065.  
  1066. Find this resource:
  1067.  
  1068. Goa and the Nayakas
  1069. The Christian ivories of Goa have been studied extensively by Olson 2007, and the church architecture by Pereira 1995, Pereira 2002, and Gomes 2011. Rajarajan 2008 is the most recent source for the architecture of Madurai.
  1070.  
  1071. Gomes, Paulo Varela. Whitewash, Red Stone: A History of Church Architecture in Goa. New Delhi: Yoda Press, 2011.
  1072.  
  1073. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1074.  
  1075. This recent study on Goan churches covers material from the 16th and 17th centuries. Unfortunately, the images are of poor quality.
  1076.  
  1077. Find this resource:
  1078.  
  1079. Olson, Marsha Gail. “Jesus, Mary, and All of the Saints: Indo-Portuguese Ivory Statuettes and Their Role as Mission Art in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Goa.” PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 2007.
  1080.  
  1081. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1082.  
  1083. This study covers the use and iconography of the carved ivory images of Catholic Goa.
  1084.  
  1085. Find this resource:
  1086.  
  1087. Pereira, José. Baroque Goa: The Architecture of Portuguese India. New Delhi: Books & Books, 1995.
  1088.  
  1089. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1090.  
  1091. This is an attempt to understand the Baroque architecture in Goa in terms of Portuguese territorial expansion.
  1092.  
  1093. Find this resource:
  1094.  
  1095. Pereira, José. Churches of Goa. New Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  1096.  
  1097. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1098.  
  1099. This book provides a good introduction to Goa’s church architecture.
  1100.  
  1101. Find this resource:
  1102.  
  1103. Rajarajan, R. K. K. Art of the Vijayanagara-Nayakas: Architecture and Iconography. 2 vols. Delhi: Sharada Publishing House, 2008.
  1104.  
  1105. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1106.  
  1107. This two-volume study provides detailed descriptions of Nayaka-constructed architectural projects and the sculptured imagery on them.
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