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History of Crime in the United Kingdom (Criminology)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Historical study of crime in the United Kingdom encompasses a large literature of books and articles. While the history of crime has been around for some time, particularly in the sense of legal history, much of the framework for historical criminology has grown out of the wave of scholarship that began in the 1970s. Starting with a conference of the Labour History Society in 1972, there emerged a social history of crime that extended the interpretation beyond the legal sphere to cultural, political, and economic contexts. The conference led to E. P. Thompson’s study of England’s “bloody code” and a collection of essays by Douglas Hay and others about “criminal” activities ranging from riots to smuggling. These studies not only led to debates about crime, law, and justice in 18th-century England but promoted criminological study of history. Because they drew on the social theory of Marx, they crossed over to criminology and critique of contemporary criminal justice. Foucault’s work on the prison, which also appeared in the 1970s, inspired historical study as well. It provided a set of issues for investigation in connection with prisons, criminology, and social control. Since then, historians and criminologists have taken the historical study of crime and criminal justice in diverse areas, reflecting both trends in social history and current issues in criminology. The range of research includes forms of criminality; the administration of criminal law; crime trends and levels of violence; women, crime, and justice; and criminological theory. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, historical analyses have looked at British criminal justice history in relation to the British Empire and “globalization.”
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. There are several synthetic histories of crime and criminal justice in Britain and a number of valuable edited collections. Clive Emsley has produced a number of widely read accounts; Emsley 2010 and Emsley 2007 offer readable text and useful references. Rawlings 1999 and Taylor 1998 emphasize particular aspects of this history; Godfrey and Lawrence 2005 makes connections to criminology. The edited collections Godfrey and Dunstall 2005, Becker and Wetzell 2006, and Kilday and Nash 2010 offer samples of the range of topics within historical study of crime. Godfrey and Dunstall 2005 brings together work about crime, prisons, and police in colonial contexts; the contributions to Becker and Wetzell 2006 range across Europe; and Kilday and Nash 2010 covers a variety of crimes in England connected with morality.
  6.  
  7. Becker, Peter, and Richard F. Wetzell, eds. 2006. Criminals and their scientists: The history of criminology in international perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  8.  
  9. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139052405Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  10.  
  11. Evocative essays about a range of topics in crime that demonstrate the value of comparative methodology in historical study of crime.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15.  
  16. Emsley, Clive. 2007. Crime, police, and penal policy: European experiences, 1750–1940. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  17.  
  18. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199202850.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19.  
  20. Good overview of changes in penal policy and policing in England from the mid-18th century to the mid-20th century. Emsley situates England in the European context, presenting English policies alongside those of Germany, France, and Italy.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24.  
  25. Emsley, Clive. 2010. Crime and society in England, 1750–1900. 4th ed. Harlow, UK: Longman.
  26.  
  27. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  28.  
  29. Readable survey of historical research on the changing social context of crime from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century.
  30.  
  31. Find this resource:
  32.  
  33.  
  34. Godfrey, Barry, and Graeme Dunstall, eds. 2005. Crime and empire, 1840–1940: Criminal justice in local and global context. Cullompton, UK: Willan.
  35.  
  36. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  37.  
  38. Crime, and the response to crime, across a range of colonial contexts including Australia, India, and South Africa.
  39.  
  40. Find this resource:
  41.  
  42.  
  43. Godfrey, Barry, and Paul Lawrence, eds. 2005. Crime and justice, 1750–1950. Cullompton, UK: Willan.
  44.  
  45. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  46.  
  47. Guide to crime trends and criminal justice developments for social scientists interested in history. Includes a timetable of significant events.
  48.  
  49. Find this resource:
  50.  
  51.  
  52. Kilday, Anne-Marie, and David Nash. 2010. Histories of crime: Britain, 1600–2000. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  53.  
  54. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-137-04321-4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  55.  
  56. Morality, adultery, infanticide, rape, fraud, and white-collar crime over three centuries.
  57.  
  58. Find this resource:
  59.  
  60.  
  61. Rawlings, Philip. 1999. Crime and power: A history of criminal justice 1688–1988. London: Longman.
  62.  
  63. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  64.  
  65. Charts changes in criminal justice policy from the late 17th century to the late 20th century, including the shift from volunteer to professional decision-makers.
  66.  
  67. Find this resource:
  68.  
  69.  
  70. Taylor, David. 1998. Crime, policing and punishment in England, 1750–1914. New York: St. Martin’s.
  71.  
  72. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  73.  
  74. The rise of criminal justice administration from the mid-18th century and notions of the “criminal” on which it was based.
  75.  
  76. Find this resource:
  77.  
  78.  
  79. Concepts and Methods
  80. The relationship between crime and historians has been productive. Godfrey, et al. 2008 argues that social history of crime and criminological study of history are merging into a single field of inquiry. This may be optimistic, because although criminologists are interested in history, they have particular expectations about the use of social theory and its relevance to the present (Knepper and Johansen 2016). Historians bring particular expertise to the study of crime. For an introduction to issues of time, interpretation of sources, and other aspects of historical study, consult Emsley and Knafla 1996, Emsley 2007, European Committee on Crime Problems 1985, and Sharpe 1999. Emsley and Knafla 1996 brings together a collection of essays that address enduring debates in the study of crime. European Committee on Crime Problems 1985 examines what general lessons for criminology can be obtained from studying the past, including an interesting chapter on the use of historical knowledge for policymaking. Sharpe 1999 takes on large questions in historical interpretation about the place and extent of crime in past societies and changes that have occurred over time. Monkkonen 2002 is largely concerned with the United States, and Muir and Ruggiero 1994 with Italy, but both include important discussions of methods and concepts. Knepper 2016 covers leading methodologies and theories for studying crime.
  81.  
  82. Emsley, Clive. 2007. Historical perspectives on crime. In The Oxford handbook of criminology. 4th ed. Edited by Mike Maguire, Rod Morgan, and Robert Reiner, 122–138. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  83.  
  84. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  85.  
  86. Introduction to how historians approach crime: use of theory, statistical sources, human agency, change and continuity.
  87.  
  88. Find this resource:
  89.  
  90.  
  91. Emsley, Clive, and Louis Knafla, eds. 1996. Crime history and histories of crime: Studies in the historiography of crime and criminal justice in modern history. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
  92.  
  93. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  94.  
  95. Guide to concepts and methods in historical study of crime with a focus on comparative analyses.
  96.  
  97. Find this resource:
  98.  
  99.  
  100. European Committee on Crime Problems. 1985. Historical research on crime and criminal justice: Reports presented to the sixth Criminological Colloquium (1983). Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.
  101.  
  102. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103.  
  104. Important collection of essays concerned with concepts and methods in the historical study of crime drawing on examples across Europe.
  105.  
  106. Find this resource:
  107.  
  108.  
  109. Godfrey, Barry, Paul Lawrence, and Chris A. Williams. 2008. History and crime. London: SAGE.
  110.  
  111. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  112.  
  113. An argument for the “convergence” of work by historians of crime and criminologists interested in history.
  114.  
  115. Find this resource:
  116.  
  117.  
  118. Knepper, Paul. 2016. Writing the history of crime. London: Bloomsbury.
  119.  
  120. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199352333.013.2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  121.  
  122. The historiography of crime, including legal, quantitative, cultural, Marxist, and women’s history as well as psychohistory and history of empire.
  123.  
  124. Find this resource:
  125.  
  126.  
  127. Knepper, Paul, and Anja Johansen, eds. 2016. The Oxford handbook of the history of crime and criminal justice. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  128.  
  129. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  130.  
  131. Leading scholars examine the history of crime and criminal justice, illustrating the interaction between history and social science perspectives.
  132.  
  133. Find this resource:
  134.  
  135.  
  136. Monkkonen, Eric. 2002. Crime, justice, history. Columbus: Ohio State Univ.
  137.  
  138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139.  
  140. Reprints of key articles and essays including an essay comparing the historiography of crime in the United States with that in the United Kingdom.
  141.  
  142. Find this resource:
  143.  
  144.  
  145. Muir, Edward, and Guido Ruggiero. 1994. History from crime. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
  146.  
  147. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  148.  
  149. A range of cases, including homicide, which demonstrate how court records reveal wider issues in cultural history.
  150.  
  151. Find this resource:
  152.  
  153.  
  154. Sharpe, J. A. 1999. Crime in early modern England, 1550–1750. 2d ed. London: Longman.
  155.  
  156. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  157.  
  158. Explains the methods and sources for the study of crime from the mid-16th century to the mid-18th century.
  159.  
  160. Find this resource:
  161.  
  162.  
  163. Criminality
  164. To engage in any serious study of the history of crime, it is necessary to explore specific forms of crime rather than crime in the abstract or general sense. There are studies about a range of criminality, examining its extent and significance in previous eras and changes in patterns over time. For drugs the place to start is Berridge 1999; for gangs, Davies 2007; for delinquency, Pearson 1983 and Shore 1999; and for white-collar crime, Robb 1992. Berridge 1999 describes the development of drug culture in England and the framework for regulation and control. Davies 2007 explores the concern about crime in a Scottish city, drawing a distinction between gangs and organized crime. Pearson 1983 examines the response to youth crime and the tendency for concerns about crime and disorder to overlap with anxieties about ethnic populations such as the Irish. Shore 2010 explores the experience of youth crime in the city with reference to enduring images of Victorian times circulated in literature. Some concepts cross over between history and criminology. Godfrey, et al. 2007 performs quantitative analysis to explore family and marriage issues in relation to criminal careers. Shore 2010 defends the “underworld” as a worthwhile concept in history of crime, particularly urban crime. The “criminal class” has been subject to long debate. Philips 1977 argues that the working class ought not be confused with a criminal class. Churchill 2015 discusses the role of the commercial security industry in defining professional crime.
  165.  
  166. Berridge, Virginia. 1999. Opium and the people: Opiate use and drug control policy in nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century England. London: Free Association.
  167.  
  168. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  169.  
  170. The starting place for understanding the origins and development of illicit drugs in the United Kingdom. Berridge examines the introduction of drug control and the formation of addict culture against the wider economic, political, and cultural history of British society.
  171.  
  172. Find this resource:
  173.  
  174.  
  175. Churchill, David. 2015. The spectacle of security: Lock-picking competitions and the security industry in mid-Victorian Britain. History Workshop Journal 80.1: 52–74.
  176.  
  177. DOI: 10.1093/hwj/dbv018Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  178.  
  179. The role of the security industry in shaping popular conceptions of crime with a focus of demonstrations staged by lock manufacturers.
  180.  
  181. Find this resource:
  182.  
  183.  
  184. Davies, Andrew. 2007. The Scottish Chicago? From “hooligans” to “gangsters” in interwar Glasgow. Cultural and Social History 4:511–527.
  185.  
  186. DOI: 10.2752/147800407X243505Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187.  
  188. Concerns about gangs and urban crime occasioned by wider anxieties of “Americanization.” Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  189.  
  190. Find this resource:
  191.  
  192.  
  193. Godfrey, Barry, David Cox, and Stephen Farrall. 2007. Criminal lives: Family life, employment, and offending. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  194.  
  195. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199217205.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  196.  
  197. Brings 21st-century concepts and methods in criminology to criminal records for 101 offenders in an English town from the 1870s to the 1940s.
  198.  
  199. Find this resource:
  200.  
  201.  
  202. Pearson, Geoffrey. 1983. Hooligan: A history of respectable fears. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
  203.  
  204. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-349-17076-0Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  205.  
  206. Demonstrates the “relevance” of history by showing how myths of youth crime in the mid-20th century echoed those of the mid-19th century.
  207.  
  208. Find this resource:
  209.  
  210.  
  211. Philips, David. 1977. Crime and authority in Victorian England: The Black Country 1835–1860. London: Croom Helm.
  212.  
  213. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  214.  
  215. No “criminal class” existed in conjunction with the working class. By the mid-19th century, workers recognized the legitimacy of the rule of law and often became prosecutors in criminal cases.
  216.  
  217. Find this resource:
  218.  
  219.  
  220. Robb, George. 1992. White-collar crime in modern England: Financial fraud and business morality, 1845–1929. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  221.  
  222. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511522789Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223.  
  224. How the transformation of the economy and inadequate financial regulation in the 19th century brought opportunities for fraud. Includes the railway mania, stock swindles, and banking fraud.
  225.  
  226. Find this resource:
  227.  
  228.  
  229. Shore, Heather. 1999. Artful dodgers: Youth and crime in early nineteenth-century London. Rochester, NY: Royal Historical Society.
  230.  
  231. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  232.  
  233. Moves from the invention of juvenile crime from the late 18th century to debates about the extent to which youth crime was a genuine concern in the 19th century.
  234.  
  235. Find this resource:
  236.  
  237.  
  238. Shore, Heather. 2010. Criminality, deviance and the underworld since 1750. In Histories of crime: Britain, 1600–2000. Edited by Anne-Marie Kilday and David Nash, 120–140. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  239.  
  240. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-137-04321-4_7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241.  
  242. A good introduction to the idea of the “underworld,” a concept which has figured prominently in understanding urban crime from the 18th century to the present.
  243.  
  244. Find this resource:
  245.  
  246.  
  247. Gender
  248. The emergence of women’s history, and the elaboration of feminist perspectives in social history, has expanded the study of crime and criminal justice. These works not only provide a more balanced account of the past, but show how the overemphasis on men in historical study of crime has produced an inaccurate and misleading picture of the causes of crime, and response to crime, in society. D’Cruze and Jackson 2009 brings together an essential discussion of issues related to women, crime, and history. Jackson 2005 discusses gender in relation to crime policies and welfare policies. Ballinger 2000 provides the starting place for gender in relation to the death penalty. Wiener 2004 looks at the long-term relationship between violence and masculine identity. Bartley 2000, D’Cruze 1998, and Walkowitz 1992 explore sexual violence. Bartley 2000 and Laite 2011 cover debates about prostitution and women’s sexuality. D’Cruze 1998 offers a look at crimes against women in the Victorian era, informed by themes from Foucault and feminist theory. Walkowitz 1992 explains the “ripper” phenomenon by situating it within wider anxieties about the place of women in society. See also Logan 2008. Whitlock 2014 examines masculinity in gender history.
  249.  
  250. Ballinger, Anette. 2000. Dead woman walking: Executed women in England and Wales, 1900–1995. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
  251.  
  252. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  253.  
  254. The lives, crimes, and trials of fifteen women executed in England and Wales in the 20th century.
  255.  
  256. Find this resource:
  257.  
  258.  
  259. Bartley, Paula. 2000. Prostitution: Prevention and reform in England, 1860–1914. London: Routledge.
  260.  
  261. DOI: 10.4324/9780203453032Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  262.  
  263. Attempts to remove prostitution from England, including early legal reforms and social purity campaigns.
  264.  
  265. Find this resource:
  266.  
  267.  
  268. D’Cruze, Shani. 1998. Crimes of outrage: Sex, violence and Victorian working women. London: Univ. College London Press.
  269.  
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271.  
  272. The significance of sexual violence in the 19th century explored through analysis of 909 legal cases covering a range of trivial and atrocious offences.
  273.  
  274. Find this resource:
  275.  
  276.  
  277. D’Cruze, Shani, and Louise Jackson. 2009. Women, crime, and justice in England since 1660. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
  278.  
  279. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-137-05720-4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  280.  
  281. Key debates and trends in the study of women and crime in Britain since the late 17th century.
  282.  
  283. Find this resource:
  284.  
  285.  
  286. Jackson, Louise. 2005. Gender, crime and culture in the twentieth century: Conversations between academics and professionals. History Workshop Journal 60:135–151.
  287.  
  288. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  289.  
  290. Gender as a category of historical interpretation and an area of history worth exploring for its relation to policies concerning crime and welfare. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  291.  
  292. Find this resource:
  293.  
  294.  
  295. Laite, Julia. 2011. Common prostitutes and ordinary citizens: Commercial sex in London, 1885–1960. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  296.  
  297. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  298.  
  299. A street view of the commercial sex trade from the late 19th century to the late 20th century.
  300.  
  301. Find this resource:
  302.  
  303.  
  304. Logan, Anne. 2008. Feminism and criminal justice: A historical perspective. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  305.  
  306. DOI: 10.1057/9780230584136Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307.  
  308. The contribution of criminal justice practices regarding women in England and Wales during the early 20th century with reference to key women’s organizations.
  309.  
  310. Find this resource:
  311.  
  312.  
  313. Walkowitz, Judith. 1992. City of dreadful delight: Narratives of sexual danger in late-Victorian London. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  314.  
  315. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226081014.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  316.  
  317. A study of the “ripper” murders related to wider issues of the fear of crime and cultural context of gender and sexuality.
  318.  
  319. Find this resource:
  320.  
  321.  
  322. Whitlock, Tammy. 2014. Masculinities and crime in historical perspective. In The Oxford handbook of gender, sex and crime. Edited by Rosemary Gartner and Bill McCarthy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  323.  
  324. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  325.  
  326. The role of gender in crime history with particular focus on male identity and criminal behavior.
  327.  
  328. Find this resource:
  329.  
  330.  
  331. Wiener, Martin J. 2004. Men of blood: Violence, manliness and criminal justice in Victorian England. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  332.  
  333. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511511547Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  334.  
  335. The law as a means of curbing violence and shaping masculine identity during the 19th century.
  336.  
  337. Find this resource:
  338.  
  339.  
  340. Criminal Law
  341. The administration of justice has been examined from wider perspectives of class, culture, emotion, identity, and ideas. Gatrell 1994 traces emotions surrounding executions in English society. Hay 1975 and Thompson 1975 examine the rule of law as a forum for the rule of class. Wiener 1990 provides an examination of legal culture within wider cultural and intellectual history. Radzinowicz and Hood 1990 documents the key ideas behind penal policy. Generally, historical study has concentrated on the period from the 16th century: historians have told the story of crime and justice against the background of the emergence of the state. Rousseau 1996, Sharpe 1982, and Spierenburg 1981 offer a glimpse into crime and criminal justice before they existed, that is, before the period in which they took on their modern meaning. Dubber and Farmer 2007 includes material about law in the colonial context.
  342.  
  343. Dubber, Markus D., and Lindsay Farmer, eds. 2007. Modern histories of crime and punishment. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.
  344.  
  345. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  346.  
  347. Analyses of legal concepts and legal practices in England and British India.
  348.  
  349. Find this resource:
  350.  
  351.  
  352. Gatrell, Vic A. C. 1994. The hanging tree: Execution and the English people, 1770–1868. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  353.  
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355.  
  356. A history of emotion that explores what the English people thought about public hanging from the late 18th century until its abolition in the late 19th century.
  357.  
  358. Find this resource:
  359.  
  360.  
  361. Hay, Douglas. 1975. Property, authority, and the criminal law. In Albion’s fatal tree: Crime and society in eighteenth-century England. Edited by Douglas Hay, Peter Linebaugh, John G. Rule, E. P. Thompson, and Cal Winslow, 17–63. London: Allen Lane.
  362.  
  363. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  364.  
  365. Discretionary justice in the 18th century. The aristocracy orchestrated the proceedings through majesty, justice, and mercy to enforce privileges of property.
  366.  
  367. Find this resource:
  368.  
  369.  
  370. Radzinowicz, Leon, and Roger Hood. 1990. The emergence of penal policy in Victorian and Edwardian England. Oxford: Clarendon.
  371.  
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373.  
  374. Key ideas and key individuals in the making of English criminal justice in the decades before the First World War, often cited as an example of “Whig history.”
  375.  
  376. Find this resource:
  377.  
  378.  
  379. Rousseau, Xavier. 1996. From medieval cities to national states 1350–1850: Historiography of crime and criminal justice in Europe. In Crime history and histories of crime: Studies in the historiography of crime and criminal justice in modern history. Edited by Clive Emsley and Louis Knafla, 130–151. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
  380.  
  381. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  382.  
  383. Survey of crime and criminal justice before “crime” and “criminal justice” in the modern sense of the terms.
  384.  
  385. Find this resource:
  386.  
  387.  
  388. Sharpe, J. A. 1982. The history of crime in late medieval and early modern England: A review of the field. Social History 7:187–203.
  389.  
  390. DOI: 10.1080/03071028208567529Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391.  
  392. A workable definition of “crime” in historical study recognizes its institutional aspects and avoids becoming a monolithic social construct. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  393.  
  394. Find this resource:
  395.  
  396.  
  397. Spierenburg, Pieter. 1981. Theory and the history of criminal justice. Paper presented at the Crime and Criminal Justice Workshop, held at the Calgary Institute for the Humanities, July 1979. In Crime and criminal justice in Europe and Canada. Edited by John Hamilton Baker and Louis A. Knafla, 319–339. Waterloo, Canada: Wilfried Laurier Univ. Press.
  398.  
  399. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  400.  
  401. The emergence of the state in the 16th century; introduces the notion of “crime” in the modern sense.
  402.  
  403. Find this resource:
  404.  
  405.  
  406. Thompson, Edward Palmer. 1975. Whigs and hunters: The origin of the Black Act. London: Allen Lane.
  407.  
  408. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  409.  
  410. How England’s Black Act reveals a class bias built into the administration of criminal justice.
  411.  
  412. Find this resource:
  413.  
  414.  
  415. Wiener, Martin. 1990. Reconstructing the criminal: Culture, law, and policy in England, 1830–1914. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  416.  
  417. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  418.  
  419. An “intellectual” or “cultural” history that portrays changes in the criminal law as a reflection of the values of British society.
  420.  
  421. Find this resource:
  422.  
  423.  
  424. Crime Statistics
  425. There is a large question in the historical study of crime about whether the trends in crime statistics reflect changes in the behavior of criminals or changes in forms of control. For a general sense of what kinds of statistics are available and what kinds of questions they might answer, see Emsley 2010, Godfrey and Lawrence 2005, and Williams 2000. For a discussion of 19th-century crime statistics as a measure of criminal behavior, see Gatrell 1980. Hay 1982 argues that 18th-century statistics also reveal information about the behavior of people, not merely about practices of control. Taylor 1998, in reference to 20th-century statistics, contends that the figures are a conscious undercount of actual levels of crime. The Proceedings of the Old Bailey provides a valuable tool for researchers to examine crime in London in great detail over several centuries. (The site provided the material for the BBC television series Garrow’s Law.) See also Griffin 2005.
  426.  
  427. Emsley, Clive. 2010. Crime and society in England, 1750–1900. 4th ed. Harlow, UK: Longman.
  428.  
  429. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  430.  
  431. Includes a discussion of key sources of information about crime trends and issues of interpretation.
  432.  
  433. Find this resource:
  434.  
  435.  
  436. Gatrell, Vic A. C. 1980. The decline of theft and violence in Victorian and Edwardian England. In Crime and the law: The social history of crime in western Europe since 1500. Edited by Geoffrey Parker, Vic A. C. Gatrell, and Bruce Lenman, 284–333. London: Europa.
  437.  
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439.  
  440. The case for the reliability of 19th-century crime statistics as a measure of behavior owing to the “interest-convergence principle,” that is, the greater overlap between criminal statistics and criminal behavior.
  441.  
  442. Find this resource:
  443.  
  444.  
  445. Godfrey, Barry, and Paul Lawrence, eds. 2005. Crime and justice 1750–1950. Cullompton, UK: Willan.
  446.  
  447. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  448.  
  449. Includes a guide to the landscape of historical crime patterns with reference to contemporary crime statistics.
  450.  
  451. Find this resource:
  452.  
  453.  
  454. Griffin, Brian. 2005. Sources for the study of crime in Ireland, 1801–1921. Dublin, Ireland: Four Courts.
  455.  
  456. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  457.  
  458. Guide to sources and materials for study of English law and order in Ireland during the 19th and 20th centuries.
  459.  
  460. Find this resource:
  461.  
  462.  
  463. Hay, Douglas. 1982. War, dearth and theft in the 18th century: The record of the English courts. Past and Present 95:117–160.
  464.  
  465. DOI: 10.1093/past/95.1.117Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466.  
  467. Court statistics do measure fluctuations in behavior, such as “appropriation,” and not merely institutional practices of control. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  468.  
  469. Find this resource:
  470.  
  471.  
  472. The Proceedings of the Old Bailey: London’s Criminal Court, 1674–1913.
  473.  
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475.  
  476. Fully searchable texts detailing accounts of more than 100,000 criminal trials held at London’s Central Criminal Court.
  477.  
  478. Find this resource:
  479.  
  480.  
  481. Taylor, Howard. 1998. The politics of rising crime statistics in England and Wales, 1914–1960. Crime, History and Societies 2:5–28.
  482.  
  483. DOI: 10.4000/chs.989Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  484.  
  485. Makes the case that the Home Office undercounted crime in the 20th century as a cost-savings measure associated with centralization.
  486.  
  487. Find this resource:
  488.  
  489.  
  490. Williams, Chris A. 2000. Counting crimes or counting people: Some implications of mid-nineteenth century British police returns. Crime, History and Societies 4:77–93.
  491.  
  492. DOI: 10.4000/chs.825Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  493.  
  494. Guide to British crime statistics. Arrest figures provide a better measure of crime trends than convictions for indictable offenses as only a small portion of arrests lead to convictions.
  495.  
  496. Find this resource:
  497.  
  498.  
  499. Criminologists
  500. Criminologists have taken a particular interest in their own history. The appearance of criminology from the end of the 19th century, and its organization during the course of the 20th century, has attracted historical research as a means of understanding its overall purpose. Wiener 2006 offers a look at views of crime before the appearance of criminal science. Beirne 1987, Davie 2005, and Garland 1988 show how British intellectuals pursued science as an approach to crime even while they dismissed Lombroso as mistaken in his ideas. Rock 1988 and Hood 2004 provide the history of criminology proper, that is, during the 20th century, when the discipline found its place in university study. Burney 2012 provides several examples of criminological ideas expressed in popular literature.
  501.  
  502. Beirne, Piers. 1987. Heredity versus environment: A reconsideration of Charles Goring’s The English convict (1913). British Journal of Criminology 28:315–339.
  503.  
  504. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a047732Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  505.  
  506. Examines the contribution of Charles Goring to the formation of criminology and the rise of eugenicist ideas in the early 20th century. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  507.  
  508. Find this resource:
  509.  
  510.  
  511. Burney, Elizabeth. 2012. Crime and criminology in the eye of the novelist: Trends in nineteenth-century literature. Howard Journal of Criminal Justice 51.2: 160–172.
  512.  
  513. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2311.2011.00703.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  514.  
  515. Criminological ideas as expressed in English literature “before their time” in the history of criminology.
  516.  
  517. Find this resource:
  518.  
  519.  
  520. Davie, Neil. 2005. Tracing the criminal: The rise of scientific criminology in Britain, 1860–1918. Oxford: Bardwell.
  521.  
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523.  
  524. Examines the British encounter with Lombroso against the wider development of scientific approaches to crime during the late 19th century and early 20th century.
  525.  
  526. Find this resource:
  527.  
  528.  
  529. Garland, David. 1988. British criminology before 1935. British Journal of Criminology 28:131–147.
  530.  
  531. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  532.  
  533. The founding of British criminology by Maurice Hamblin Smith, W. Norwood East, Charles Goring, and Cyril Burt. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  534.  
  535. Find this resource:
  536.  
  537.  
  538. Hood, Roger. 2004. Hermann Mannheim and Max Grünhut: Criminological pioneers in London and Oxford. British Journal of Criminology 44:469–495.
  539.  
  540. DOI: 10.1093/bjc/azh030Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  541.  
  542. Contribution of two émigrés from Hitler’s Germany to the founding of academic criminology in Britain. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  543.  
  544. Find this resource:
  545.  
  546.  
  547. Rock, Paul, ed. 1988. A history of British criminology. Oxford: Clarendon.
  548.  
  549. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  550.  
  551. Good source for learning about the development of academic criminology in the United Kingdom; the collection examines the original motivations, early debates, and persistent controversies.
  552.  
  553. Find this resource:
  554.  
  555.  
  556. Wiener, Martin J. 2006. Murderers and “reasonable men”: The “criminology” of the Victorian judiciary. In Criminals and their scientists: The history of criminology in international perspective. Edited by Peter Becker and Richard F. Wetzell, 43–60. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  557.  
  558. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139052405Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559.  
  560. Ideas of criminal behavior maintained by judges in Victorian England. Describes the development of the concept of the “reasonable man” in murder cases.
  561.  
  562. Find this resource:
  563.  
  564.  
  565. Police
  566. London’s Metropolitan Police has been, and remains, the focus of much discussion in British police history. Storch 1975 and Storch 1976 were pioneering studies of how the modern police developed in cities outside London. Analysis of what police were meant to do and what they actually did remains an exciting area of research, as can be seen in Jackson 2006, Klein 2010, and Williams 2014. Emsley 2009 and Emsley and Shpayer-Makov 2006 unpack the iconic images of “bobby” and “detective” in the British historical context. Johansen 2013 explores the idea of “model” police forces—what these meant to contemporaries at the time and to generations of historians later on. Lentz and Chaires 2007 reviews policing textbooks to show how principles of policing attributed to Peel were manufactured by the textbook writers themselves.
  567.  
  568. Emsley, Clive. 2009. The great British bobby: A history of British policing from 1829 to the present. London: Quercus.
  569.  
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571.  
  572. Overview of the British tradition of policing from the emergence of the modern police force in the 19th century to trials and tribulations of the 20th.
  573.  
  574. Find this resource:
  575.  
  576.  
  577. Emsley, Clive, and Haia Shpayer-Makov, eds. 2006. Police detectives in history, 1750–1950. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
  578.  
  579. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  580.  
  581. Comparative study of the detective’s role across two centuries, including the rise of the detective in London.
  582.  
  583. Find this resource:
  584.  
  585.  
  586. Jackson, Louise. 2006. Women police: Gender, welfare, and surveillance in the twentieth century. Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press.
  587.  
  588. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  589.  
  590. Examines the professional identities, roles, and activities of women in British policing between the wars.
  591.  
  592. Find this resource:
  593.  
  594.  
  595. Johansen, Anja. 2013. Lost in translation: The English bobby through a German monocle. History 98.333: 750–768.
  596.  
  597. DOI: 10.1111/1468-229X.12020Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  598.  
  599. The London police as a model of modern law enforcement with a critical analysis of what constitutes “model” and what actually transfers.
  600.  
  601. Find this resource:
  602.  
  603.  
  604. Klein, Joanne. 2010. Invisible men: The secret lives of police constables in Liverpool, Manchester, and Birmingham, 1900–1939. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool Univ. Press.
  605.  
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607.  
  608. An examination of the working lives of police in three English cities during the early 20th century.
  609.  
  610. Find this resource:
  611.  
  612.  
  613. Lentz, Susan, and Robert Chaires. 2007. The invention of Peel’s principles: A study of policing “textbook” history. Journal of Criminal Justice 35.1: 69–79.
  614.  
  615. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.11.016Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  616.  
  617. References to Peel’s principles are ubiquitous in reform literature, but Peel himself never actually wrote them down.
  618.  
  619. Find this resource:
  620.  
  621.  
  622. Storch, Robert. 1975. “The plague of blue locusts”: Police reform and popular resistance in northern England, 1840–57. International Review of Social History 20:61–90.
  623.  
  624. DOI: 10.1017/S0020859000004843Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  625.  
  626. The role of Peel’s modern police from the point of view of working-class residents of cities; people viewed the police as pests rather than a welcome means of preserving law and order.
  627.  
  628. Find this resource:
  629.  
  630.  
  631. Storch, Robert. 1976. The policeman as domestic missionary: Urban discipline and popular culture in northern England, 1850–1880. Journal of Social History 9.4: 481–511.
  632.  
  633. DOI: 10.1353/jsh/9.4.481Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  634.  
  635. Middle-class and working-class views of the role of police in urban industrial England in the 19th century.
  636.  
  637. Find this resource:
  638.  
  639.  
  640. Williams, Chris A. 2014. Police control systems in Britain 1775–1975. Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press.
  641.  
  642. DOI: 10.7228/manchester/9780719084294.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643.  
  644. The job of policing Britain from the 18th-century constable to new forces of the Metropolitan police in the 19th and 20th centuries.
  645.  
  646. Find this resource:
  647.  
  648.  
  649. Prisons
  650. Foucault inspired research into criminal justice history generally, and specifically analyses of the prison in society. Sim 1990 brings Foucault’s themes of power, discipline, and resistance to health care for prisoners. Ignatieff 1978, along with Foucault 1977, contributed to a revisionist history of the emergence and role of the prison in society. The Garland 1985 study of how science entered the administration of criminal law led to further study of how the prison enabled the appearance of criminology. Brown 2003 and Priestley 1985 show how prison experience has been shaped by prisoners. Zedner 1991 examines prison policy and practice for women. The collection of essays Morris and Rothman 1995 offers a compass for navigating any excursion into the history of the prison.
  651.  
  652. Brown, Alyson. 2003. English society and the prison: Time, culture, and politics in the development of the modern prison, 1850–1920. Woodbridge, VA: Boydell.
  653.  
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655.  
  656. Prisons in England described from the perspective of riots and disturbances; examines staff organization and resistance by prisoners.
  657.  
  658. Find this resource:
  659.  
  660.  
  661. Foucault, Michel. 1977. Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. New York: Pantheon.
  662.  
  663. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  664.  
  665. The imaginative discussion of Bentham’s model for the panopticon forms a starting point in contemporary surveillance studies.
  666.  
  667. Find this resource:
  668.  
  669.  
  670. Garland, David. 1985. Punishment and welfare: A history of penal strategies. Aldershot, UK: Gower.
  671.  
  672. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  673.  
  674. Examines the introduction of science as a basis for administration of criminal law in the early 20th century and provides the basis for Garland’s concept of the “culture of control” that appeared in the late 20th century.
  675.  
  676. Find this resource:
  677.  
  678.  
  679. Ignatieff, Michael. 1978. A just measure of pain: The penitentiary in the Industrial Revolution, 1750–1850. London: Macmillan.
  680.  
  681. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-349-16018-1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  682.  
  683. The industrial period provoked outbreaks of rebellion and prisons provided the means to subdue them.
  684.  
  685. Find this resource:
  686.  
  687.  
  688. Morris, Norval, and David Rothman, eds. 1995. The Oxford history of the prison: The practice of punishment in Western society. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  689.  
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691.  
  692. Collection of essays about prisons in England and the United States. The contributions cover key aspects of the meaning of imprisonment in society.
  693.  
  694. Find this resource:
  695.  
  696.  
  697. Priestley, Philip. 1985. Victorian prison lives: English prison biography, 1830–1914. London: Methuen.
  698.  
  699. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  700.  
  701. Victorian prison experience revealed through individual biographies of prisoners and prison staff, including aspects of cells, diet, work, sickness, and chapel.
  702.  
  703. Find this resource:
  704.  
  705.  
  706. Sim, Joe. 1990. Medical power in prisons: The Prison Medical Service in England, 1774–1989. Buckingham, UK: Open Univ. Press.
  707.  
  708. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  709.  
  710. How a “progressive reform”—the Prison Medical Service—in reality extended the power of control and efforts to resist it.
  711.  
  712. Find this resource:
  713.  
  714.  
  715. Zedner, Lucia. 1991. Women, crime, and custody in Victorian England. Oxford: Clarendon.
  716.  
  717. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  718.  
  719. Victorian perceptions of female criminality, penal theory and policy applied to women, and the realities of confinement for women.
  720.  
  721. Find this resource:
  722.  
  723.  
  724. Empire and International
  725. Contemporary interest in “globalization” has encouraged the study of the British Empire. The significance of these colonial practices is explained in the article Sinclair and Williams 2007, which discusses the overlap of local and imperial concerns. Ellison and Smyth 2000 shows how the policing of Northern Ireland reflected the legacy of colonialism. Levine 2003 provides an example of how the empire both imposed, and absorbed, knowledge from colonial populations. Brown 2014 reviews images of criminality in colonial India, Britain’s largest and most important possession. Godfrey and Dunstall 2005 demonstrates the importance of empire vis-à-vis the nation state in the formation of criminal justice. Historical study has also turned to the role of international organizations in crime control. Drawing on the wider theory of Weber, Deflem 2002 examines the internationalization of policing. Although focused on the United States and Europe, and not the United Kingdom, the book is an essential starting point. The books Knepper 2009 and Knepper 2011 explore how the British Empire helped make crime an international issue in the late 19th century and how the League of Nations made “trafficking” an international concern.
  726.  
  727. Brown, Mark. 2014. Penal power and colonial rule. London: Routledge.
  728.  
  729. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  730.  
  731. The British experience in India from the early 19th to early 20th century from the perspective of Foucault’s philosophy.
  732.  
  733. Find this resource:
  734.  
  735.  
  736. Deflem, Mathieu. 2002. Policing world society: Historical foundations of international police cooperation. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  737.  
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739.  
  740. The creation of international crime as an organizational myth by police to justify information sharing among agencies.
  741.  
  742. Find this resource:
  743.  
  744.  
  745. Ellison, Graham, and Jim Smyth. 2000. The crowned harp: Policing Northern Ireland. London: Pluto.
  746.  
  747. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  748.  
  749. The history of the Royal Ulster Constabulary with particular emphasis on events after 1969. A good way to understand the significance of Northern Ireland in the history of crime in the United Kingdom.
  750.  
  751. Find this resource:
  752.  
  753.  
  754. Godfrey, Barry, and Graeme Dunstall, eds. 2005. Crime and empire, 1840–1940: Criminal justice in local and global context. Cullompton, UK: Willan.
  755.  
  756. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  757.  
  758. The essays in this volume show how the contexts of empire and international relations affect prison policy, policing, and court proceedings, as well as crimes by colonial authorities.
  759.  
  760. Find this resource:
  761.  
  762.  
  763. Knepper, Paul. 2009. The invention of international crime: A global issue in the making, 1881–1914. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  764.  
  765. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  766.  
  767. How and why crime became an international issue in the late 19th century. The discussion concerns organized crime, human trafficking, immigrants and crime, and terrorist attacks.
  768.  
  769. Find this resource:
  770.  
  771.  
  772. Knepper, Paul. 2011. International crime in the twentieth century: The League of Nations era, 1919–1939. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  773.  
  774. DOI: 10.1057/9780230342521Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775.  
  776. The role of the League of Nations during the interwar period in institutionalizing crime as an international issue.
  777.  
  778. Find this resource:
  779.  
  780.  
  781. Levine, Philippa. 2003. Prostitution, race, and politics: Policing venereal disease in the British Empire. New York: Routledge.
  782.  
  783. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  784.  
  785. Colonial policy around prostitution, gender, and race, including feminization of disease and deviance.
  786.  
  787. Find this resource:
  788.  
  789.  
  790. Sinclair, Georgina, and Chris A. Williams. 2007. “Home and away”: The cross-fertilisation between “colonial” and “British” policing, 1921–85. Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 35:221–238.
  791.  
  792. DOI: 10.1080/03086530701337567Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  793.  
  794. How policies and practices of domestic policing shaped, and were shaped by, practices in the colonies. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  795.  
  796. Find this resource:
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