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- In the
- United States Court of Appeals
- For the Seventh Circuit
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- MICHAEL MOORE, et al., and
- MARY E. SHEPARD, et al.,
- Plaintiffs-Appellants,
- v.
- LISA MADIGAN, ATTORNEY GENERAL
- OF ILLINOIS, et al.,
- Defendants-Appellees.
- Appeals from the United States District Courts for the
- Central District of Illinois and the Southern District of Illinois.
- Nos. 3:11-cv-3134-SEM-BGC and 3:11-cv-405-WDS-PMF—
- Sue E. Myerscough and William D. Stiehl, Judges.
- ARGUED JUNE 8, 2012—DECIDED DECEMBER 11, 2012
- Before POSNER, FLAUM, and WILLIAMS, Circuit Judges.
- POSNER, Circuit Judge. These two appeals, consolidated
- for oral argument, challenge denials of declaratory and
- injunctive relief sought in materially identical suits under
- the Second Amendment. An Illinois law forbids a person,
- with exceptions mainly for police and other security
- personnel, hunters, and members of target shooting clubs,
- 2 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- 720 ILCS 5/24-2, to carry a gun ready to use (loaded,
- immediately accessible—that is, easy to reach—and
- uncased). There are exceptions for a person on his
- own property (owned or rented), or in his home (but if
- it’s an apartment, only there and not in the
- apartment building’s common areas), or in his fixed
- place of business, or on the property of someone who
- has permitted him to be there with a ready-to-use gun.
- 720 ILCS 5/24-1(a)(4), (10), -1.6(a); see People v.
- Diggins, 919 N.E.2d 327, 332 (Ill. 2009); People v. Laubscher,
- 701 N.E.2d 489, 490–92 (Ill. 1998); People v. Smith,
- 374 N.E.2d 472, 475 (Ill. 1978); People v. Pulley, 803
- N.E.2d 953, 957–58, 961 (Ill. App. 2004). Even
- carrying an unloaded gun in public, if it’s uncased
- and immediately accessible, is prohibited, other than to
- police and other excepted persons, unless carried
- openly outside a vehicle in an unincorporated area
- and ammunition for the gun is not immediately accessible.
- 720 ILCS 5/24-1(a)(4)(iii), (10)(iii), -1.6(a)(3)(B).
- The appellants contend that the Illinois law violates
- the Second Amendment as interpreted in District of Columbia
- v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008), and held applicable to
- the states in McDonald v. City of Chicago, 130 S. Ct.
- 3020 (2010). Hel l e r held that t he Second
- Amendment protects “the right of law-abiding,
- responsible citizens to use arms in defense of hearth
- and home.” 554 U.S. at 635. But the Supreme Court has
- not yet addressed the question whether the
- Second Amendment creates a right of self-defense
- outside the home. The district courts ruled that it does
- not, and so dismissed the two suits for failure to state
- a claim.
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 3
- The parties and the amici curiae have treated us
- to hundreds of pages of argument, in nine briefs.
- The main focus of these submissions is history. The
- supporters of the Illinois law present historical evidence
- that there was no generally recognized private right
- to carry arms in public in 1791, the year the Second
- Amendment was ratified—the critical year for determining
- the amendment’s historical meaning, according to McDonald
- v. City of Chicago, supra, 130 S. Ct. at 3035 and n. 14.
- Similar evidence against the existence of an eighteenthcentury
- right to have weapons in the home for purposes
- of self-defense rather than just militia duty had
- of course been presented to the Supreme Court in
- the Heller case. See, e.g., Saul Cornell, A Well-Regulated
- Militia 2–4, 58–65 (2006); Lois G. Schwoerer, “To Hold and
- Bear Arms: The English Perspective,” 76 Chi.-Kent L. Rev.
- 27, 34–38 (2000); Don Higginbotham, “The Second Amendment
- in Historical Context,” 16 Constitutional Commentary
- 263, 265 (1999). The District of Columbia had
- argued that “the original understanding of
- the Second Amendment was neither an individual right
- of self-defense nor a collective right of the states, but rather
- a civic right that guaranteed that citizens would be able
- to keep and bear those arms needed to meet their legal
- obligation to participate in a well-regulated militia.”
- Cornell, supra, at 2; see also Paul Finkelman, “ ’A Well
- Regulated Militia’: The Second Amendment in Historical
- Perspective,” 76 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 195, 213–14 (2000);
- Don Higginbotham, “The Federalized Militia Debate:
- A Neglected Aspect of Second Amendment Scholarship,”
- 55 William & Mary Q. 39, 47–50 (1998); Roy G. Weatherup,
- 4 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- “Standing Armies and Armed Citizens: An Historical
- Analysis of the Second Amendment,” 2 Hastings Constitutional
- L.Q. 961, 994–95 (1975).
- The Supreme Court rejected the argument. The
- appellees ask us to repudiate the Court’s historical analysis.
- That we can’t do. Nor can we ignore the implication
- of the analysis that the constitutional right of armed selfdefense
- is broader than the right to have a gun
- in one’s home. The first sentence of the McDonald
- opinion states that “two years ago, in District of
- Columbia v. Heller, we held that the Second Amendment
- protects the right to keep and bear arms for the purpose
- of self-defense,” McDonald v. City of Chicago, supra, 130 S.
- Ct. at 3026, and later in the opinion we read
- that “Heller explored the right’s origins, noting that the
- 1689 English Bill of Rights explicitly protected a right
- to keep arms for self-defense, 554 U.S. at 593, and that
- by 1765, Blackstone was able to assert that the right
- to keep and bear arms was ‘one of the fundamental rights
- of Englishmen,’ id. at 594.” 130 S. Ct. at 3037. And immediately
- the Court adds that “Blackstone’s assessment
- was shared by the American colonists.” Id.
- Both Heller and McDonald do say that “the need
- for defense of self, family, and property is most acute”
- in the home, id. at 3036 (emphasis added); 554 U.S. at
- 628, but that doesn’t mean it is not acute outside the home.
- Heller repeatedly invokes a broader Second
- Amendment right than the right to have a gun in
- one’s home, as when it says that the amendment
- “guarantee[s] the individual right to possess and
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 5
- carry weapons in case of confrontation.” 554 U.S. at 592.
- Confrontations are not limited to the home.
- The Second Amendment states in its entirety that “a
- well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security
- of a free State, the right of the people to keep and
- bear Arms, shall not be infringed” (emphasis added).
- The right to “bear” as distinct from the right to “keep”
- arms is unlikely to refer to the home. To speak of “bearing”
- arms within one’s home would at all times have been
- an awkward usage. A right to bear arms thus implies
- a right to carry a loaded gun outside the home.
- And one doesn’t have to be a historian to realize that
- a right to keep and bear arms for personal self-defense
- in the eighteenth century could not rationally
- have been limited to the home. Suppose one lived in
- what was then the wild west—the Ohio Valley for example
- (for until the Louisiana Purchase the Mississippi
- River was the western boundary of the United States),
- where there were hostile Indians. One would
- need from time to time to leave one’s home to
- obtain supplies from the nearest trading post, and en
- route one would be as much (probably more) at risk
- if unarmed as one would be in one’s home unarmed.
- The situation in England was different—there was
- no wilderness and there were no hostile Indians and
- the right to hunt was largely limited to
- landowners, Schwoerer, supra, at 34–35, who were
- few. Defenders of the Illinois law reach back to the
- fourteenth-century Statute of Northampton, which provided
- that unless on King’s business no man could “go nor
- 6 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- ride armed by night nor by day, in Fairs, markets, nor in
- the presence of the Justices or other Ministers, nor in no
- part elsewhere.” 2 Edw. III, c. 3 (1328). Chief Justice Coke
- interpreted the statute to allow a person to possess weapons
- inside the home but not to “assemble force, though he
- be extremely threatened, to go with him to church,
- or market, or any other place.” Edward Coke, Institutes of
- the Laws of England 162 (1797). But the statute enumerated
- the locations at which going armed was thought
- dangerous to public safety (such as in fairs or
- in the presence of judges), and Coke’s reference to “assemble
- force” suggests that the statutory limitation of the
- right of self-defense was based on a concern with armed
- gangs, thieves, and assassins rather than with indoors
- versus outdoors as such.
- In similar vein Sir John Knight’s Case, 87 Eng. Rep. 75,
- 76 (K.B. 1686), interpreted the statute as punishing
- “people who go armed to terrify the King’s subjects.”
- Some weapons do not terrify the public (such
- as well-concealed weapons), and so if the statute was (as
- it may have been) intended to protect the public
- from being frightened or intimidated by the
- brandishing of weapons, it could not have applied to
- all weapons or all carriage of weapons. Blackstone’s
- summary of the statute is similar: “the offence of riding
- or going armed, with dangerous or unusual weapons, is
- a crime against the public peace, by terrifying the good
- people of the land.” 4 Commentaries on the Law of England
- 148–49 (1769) (emphasis added). Heller treated
- Blackstone’s reference to “dangerous or unusual weapons”
- as evidence that the ownership of some types of
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 7
- firearms is not protected by the Second Amendment,
- 554 U.S. at 627, but the Court cannot have thought all
- guns are “dangerous or unusual” and can be banned,
- as otherwise there would be no right to keep a handgun
- in one’s home for self-defense. And while another
- English source, Robert Gardiner, The Compleat Constable
- 18–19 (3d ed. 1707), says that constables “may seize
- and take away” loaded guns worn or carried by persons
- not doing the King’s business, it does not specify
- the circumstances that would make the exercise of
- such authority proper, let alone would warrant a prosecution.
- Blackstone described the right of armed self-preservation
- as a fundamental natural right of Englishmen, on
- a par with seeking redress in the courts or petitioning
- the government. 1 Blackstone, supra, at 136,
- 139–40. The Court in Heller inferred from this that
- eighteenth-century English law recognized a right
- to possess guns for resistance, self-preservation, selfdefense,
- and protection against both public and
- private violence. 554 U.S. at 594. The Court said that
- American law was the same. Id. at 594–95. And in
- contrast to the situation in England, in less peaceable
- America a distinction between keeping arms for selfdefense
- in the home and carrying them outside the home
- would, as we said, have been irrational. All this is debatable
- of course, but we are bound by the Supreme
- Court’s historical analysis because it was central
- to the Court’s holding in Heller.
- 8 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- Twenty-first century Illinois has no hostile Indians.
- But a Chicagoan is a good deal more likely to be
- attacked on a sidewalk in a rough neighborhood than in
- his apartment on the 35th floor of the Park Tower.
- A woman who is being stalked or has obtained a
- protective order against a violent ex-husband is more
- vulnerable to being attacked while walking to or from
- her home than when inside. She has a stronger self-defense
- claim to be allowed to carry a gun in public than
- the resident of a fancy apartment building (complete with
- doorman) has a claim to sleep with a loaded gun under
- her mattress. But Illinois wants to deny the former claim,
- while compelled by McDonald to honor the latter.
- That creates an arbitrary difference. To confine
- the right to be armed to the home is to divorce the Second
- Amendment from the right of self-defense described
- in Heller and McDonald. It is not a property right—a right
- to kill a houseguest who in a fit of aesthetic fury tries
- to slash your copy of Norman Rockwell’s painting
- Santa with Elves. That is not self-defense, and this case
- like Heller and McDonald is just about self-defense.
- A gun is a potential danger to more people if carried
- in public than just kept in the home. But the other
- side of this coin is that knowing that many law-abiding
- citizens are walking the streets armed may make criminals
- timid. Given that in Chicago, at least, most murders
- occur outside the home, Chicago Police Dep’t, Crime at
- a Glance: District 1 13 (Jan.–June 2010), the net effect
- on crime rates in general and murder rates in particular
- of allowing the carriage of guns in public is
- uncertain both as a matter of theory and empirically.
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 9
- “Based on findings from national law assessments, crossnational
- comparisons, and index studies, evidence is
- insufficient to determine whether the degree or intensity
- of firearms regulation is associated with decreased (or
- increased) violence.” Robert A. Hahn et al., “Firearms
- Laws and the Reduction of Violence: A Systematic Review,”
- 28 Am. J. Preventive Med. 40, 59 (2005); cf.
- John J. Donohue, “The Impact of Concealed-Carry Laws,”
- in Evaluating Gun Policy Effects on Crime and Violence
- 287, 314–21 (2003). “Whether the net effect of relaxing
- concealed-carry laws is to increase or reduce the
- burden of crime, there is good reason to believe that the
- net is not large…. [T]he change in gun carrying appears
- to be concentrated in rural and suburban areas
- where crime rates are already relatively low, among people
- who are at relatively low risk of victimization—white,
- middle-aged, middle-class males. The available data
- about permit holders also imply that they are at fairly
- low risk of misusing guns, consistent with the relatively
- low arrest rates observed to date for permit holders.
- Based on available empirical data, therefore, we
- expect relatively little public safety impact if courts
- invalidate laws that prohibit gun carrying outside
- the home, assuming that some sort of permit system
- for public carry is allowed to stand.” Philip J. Cook,
- Jens Ludwig & Adam M. Samaha, “Gun Control After
- Heller: Threats and Sideshows from a Social Welfare
- Perspective,” 56 UCLA L. Rev. 1041, 1082 (2009); see
- also H. Sterling Burnett, “Texas Concealed Handgun
- Car r i e r s ; Law-Abiding Public Benefa c to r s , ”
- www.ncpa.org/pdfs/ba324.pdf (visited Oct. 29, 2012).
- But we note with disapproval that the opening brief
- 10 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- for the plaintiffs in appeal no. 12-1788, in quoting the
- last sentence above from the article by Cook and
- his colleagues, deleted without ellipses the last
- clause—“assuming that some sort of permit system
- for public carry is allowed to stand.”
- If guns cannot be carried outside the home, an
- officer who has reasonable suspicion to stop and
- frisk a person and finds a concealed gun on him can
- arrest him, as in United States v. Mayo, 361 F.3d 802, 804-
- 08 (4th Cir. 2004), and thus take the gun off the
- street before a shooting occurs; and this is argued
- to support the ban on carrying guns outside the home. But
- it is a weak argument. Often the officer will have
- no suspicion (the gun is concealed, after all). And a state
- may be able to require “open carry”—that is,
- require persons who carry a gun in public to carry
- it in plain view rather than concealed. See District of
- Columbia v. Heller, supra, 554 U.S. at 626; James
- Bishop, Note, “Hidden or on the Hip: The Right(s) to
- Carry After Heller,” 97 Cornell L. Rev. 907, 920–21
- (2012). Many criminals would continue to conceal the
- guns they carried, in order to preserve the element
- of surprise and avoid the price of a gun permit; so
- the police would have the same opportunities (limited
- as they are, if the concealment is effective and the
- concealer does not behave suspiciously) that they do
- today to take concealed guns off the street.
- Some studies have found that an increase in gun ownership
- causes an increase in homicide rates. Mark
- Duggan’s study, reported in his article “More Guns, More
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 11
- Crime,” 109 J. Pol. Econ. 1086, 1112 (2001), is
- exemplary; and see also Philip J. Cook & Jens
- Ludwig, “The Social Costs of Gun Ownership,” 90 J.
- Pub. Econ. 379, 387 (2006). But the issue in this case
- isn’t ownership; it’s carrying guns in public.
- Duggan’s study finds that even the concealed
- carrying of guns, which many states allow, doesn’t lead
- to an increase in gun ownership. 109 J. Pol. Econ.
- at 1106–07. Moreover, violent crime in the United
- States has been falling for many years and so
- has gun ownership, Patrick Egan, “The Declining Culture
- o f Gun s an d Vi o l e n c e in t h e Un i t e d
- States,” www.themonkeycage.org/blog/2012/07/21/thedeclining-
- culture-of-guns-and-violence-in-the-unitedstates
- (visited Oct. 29, 2012); see also Tom W.
- Smith, “Public Attitudes Towards the Regulation
- of Firearms” 10 (University of Chicago Nat’l
- Op i n i o n R e s e a r c h Cen t e r , Ma r . 2 0 0 7 ) ,
- h t t p : / / i c p g v .o r g /pdf/NORCP o l l .pd f (v i s i t e d
- Oct. 29, 2012)—in the same period in which gun laws
- have become more permissive.
- A few studies find that states that allow concealed
- carriage of guns outside the home and impose minimal
- restrictions on obtaining a gun permit have experienced
- increases in assault rates, though not in homicide
- rates. See Ian Ayres & John J. Donohue III, “More Guns,
- Less Crime Fails Again: The Latest Evidence From
- 1977–2006,” 6 Econ. J. Watch 218, 224 (2009). But it has
- not been shown that those increases persist.
- Of another, similar paper by Ayres and Donohue, “Shooting
- Down the ‘More Guns, Less Crime’ Hypothesis,”
- 12 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- 55 Stan. L. Rev. 1193, 1270–85 (2003), it has been said
- that if they “had extended their analysis by one more year,
- they would have concluded that these laws
- [laws allowing concealed handguns to be carried
- in public] reduce crime.” Carlisle E. Moody & Thomas B.
- Marvell, “The Debate on Shall-Issue Laws,” 5 Econ. J.
- Watch 269, 291 (2008). Ayres and Donohue disagree
- that such laws reduce crime, but they admit that
- data and modeling problems prevent a strong claim
- that they increase crime. 55 Stan. L. Rev. at 1281–82, 1286–87;
- 6 Econ. J. Watch at 230–31.
- Concealed carriage of guns might increase the death
- rate from assaults rather than increase the number
- of assaults. But the studies don’t find that laws
- that allow concealed carriage increase the death
- rate from shootings, and this in turn casts doubt on
- the finding of an increased crime rate when concealed
- carriage is allowed; for if there were more confrontations
- with an armed criminal, one would expect more shootings.
- Moreover, there is no reason to expect Illinois
- to impose minimal permit restrictions on carriage
- of guns outside the home, for obviously this is not a state
- that has a strong pro-gun culture, unlike the
- states that began allowing concealed carriage before Heller
- and MacDonald enlarged the scope of Second Amendment
- rights.
- Charles C. Branas et al., “Investigating the Link
- Between Gun Possession and Gun Assault,” 99 Am. J.
- of Pub. Health 2034, 2037 (2009), finds that assault
- victims are more likely to be armed than the rest
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 13
- of the population is, which might be thought evidence
- that going armed is not effective self-defense. But
- that finding does not illuminate the deterrent effect
- of knowing that potential victims may be armed.
- David Hemenway & Deborah Azrael, “The Relative
- Frequency of Offensive and Defensive Gun Uses:
- Results from a National Survey,” 15 Violence & Victims
- 257, 271 (2000), finds that a person carrying a gun
- is more likely to use it to commit a crime than
- to defend himself from criminals. But that is like saying
- that soldiers are more likely to be armed than civilians.
- And because fewer than 3 percent of gun-related
- deaths are from accidents, Hahn et al., supra, at
- 40, and because Illinois allows the use of guns in hunting
- and target shooting, the law cannot plausibly be defended
- on the ground that it reduces the accidental
- death rate, unless it could be shown that allowing guns to
- be carried in public causes gun ownership to increase,
- and we have seen that there is no evidence of that.
- In sum, the empirical literature on the effects
- of allowing the carriage of guns in public fails to establish
- a pragmatic defense of the Illinois law. Bishop,
- supra, at 922–23; Mark V. Tushnet, Out of Range: Why the
- Constitution Can’t End the Battle over Guns 110–11
- (2007). Anyway the Supreme Court made clear
- in Heller that it wasn’t going to make the right to bear
- arms depend on casualty counts. 554 U.S. at 636.
- If the mere possibility that allowing guns to be carried
- in public would increase the crime or death rates
- sufficed to justify a ban, Heller would have been
- decided the other way, for that possibility was as great
- in the District of Columbia as it is in Illinois.
- 14 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- And a ban as broad as Illinois’s can’t be upheld
- merely on the ground that it’s not irrational. Ezell
- v. City of Chicago, 651 F.3d 684, 701 (7th Cir.
- 2011); United States v. Yancey, 621 F.3d 681, 683 (7th
- Cir. 2010) (per curiam); see also Heller v. District of Columbia,
- supra, 554 U.S. at 628 n. 27; United States v. Chester,
- 628 F.3d 673, 679–80 (4th Cir. 2010). Otherwise
- this court wouldn’t have needed, in United States v.
- Skoien, 614 F.3d 638, 643–44 (7th Cir. 2010) (en banc),
- to marshal extensive empirical evidence to justify the
- less restrictive federal law that forbids a person “who
- has been convicted in any court of a misdemeanor crime
- of domestic violence” to possess a firearm in
- or affecting interstate commerce. 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(9).
- In Skoien we said that the government had to make a
- “strong showing” that a gun ban was vital to
- public safety—it was not enough that the ban was “rational.”
- 614 F.3d at 641. Illinois has not made that
- strong showing—and it would have to make a stronger
- showing in this case than the government did
- in Skoien, because the curtailment of gun rights was
- much narrower: there the gun rights of persons convicted
- of domestic violence, here the gun rights of the entire lawabiding
- adult population of Illinois.
- A blanket prohibition on carrying gun in public
- prevents a person from defending himself anywhere
- except inside his home; and so substantial a curtailment
- of the right of armed self-defense requires a
- greater showing of justification than merely that the
- public might benefit on balance from such a curtailment,
- though there is no proof it would. In contrast,
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 15
- when a state bans guns merely in particular places, such
- as public schools , a person can preserve
- an undiminished right of self-defense by not
- entering those places; since that’s a lesser burden, the
- state doesn’t need to prove so strong a need. Similarly,
- the state can prevail with less evidence when, as
- in Skoien, guns are forbidden to a class of
- persons who present a higher than average risk of misusing
- a gun. See also Ezell v. City of Chicago, supra, 651 F.3d
- at 708. And empirical evidence of a public safety concern
- can be dispensed with altogether when the ban is
- limited to obviously dangerous persons such as felons
- and the mentally ill. Heller v. District of Columbia,
- supra, 554 U.S. at 626. Illinois has lots of options for protecting
- its people from being shot without having to eliminate
- all possibility of armed self-defense in public.
- Remarkably, Illinois is the only state that maintains
- a flat ban on carrying ready-to-use guns outside
- the home, though many states used to ban
- carrying concealed guns outside the home, Bishop,
- supra, at 910; David B. Kopel, “The Second Amendment
- in the Nineteenth Century,” 1998 BYU L. Rev. 1359,
- 1432–33 (1998)—a more limited prohibition than Illinois’s,
- however. Not even Massachusetts has so flat a ban
- as Illinois, though the District of Columbia does, see D.C.
- Code §§ 22-4504 to -4504.02, and a few states did
- during the nineteenth century, Kachalsky v. County
- of Westchester, Nos. 11-3642, -3962, 2012 WL 5907502, at
- *6 (2d Cir. Nov. 27, 2012)—but no longer.
- It is not that all states but Illinois are indifferent to
- the dangers that widespread public carrying of guns
- 16 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- may pose. Some may be. But others have decided
- that a proper balance between the interest in self-defense
- and the dangers created by carrying guns in public is
- to limit the right to carry a gun to responsible persons
- rather than to ban public carriage altogether, as Illinois
- with its meager exceptions comes close to doing. Even
- jurisdictions like New York State, where officials have
- broad discretion to deny applications for gun
- permits, recognize that the interest in self-defense
- extends outside the home. There is no suggestion
- that some unique characteristic of criminal activity
- in Illinois justifies the state’s taking a different approach
- from the other 49 states. If the Illinois approach
- were demonstrably superior, one would expect at least
- one or two other states to have emulated it.
- Apart from the usual prohibitions of gun ownership
- by children, felons, illegal aliens, lunatics, and in
- sensitive places such as public schools, the propriety
- of which was not questioned in Heller (“nothing in
- this opinion should be taken to cast doubt on longstanding
- prohibitions on the possession of firearms by felons
- and the mentally ill, or laws forbidding the carrying
- of firearms in sensitive places such as schools and
- government buildings,” 554 U.S. at 626), some
- states sensibly require that an applicant for a
- handgun permit es t abl i s h his competence
- in handling firearms. A person who carries a
- gun in public but is not well trained in the use of firearms
- is a menace to himself and others. See Massad
- Ayoob, “The Subtleties of Safe Firearms Handling,”
- Backwoods Home Magazine, Jan./Feb. 2007, p.
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 17
- 30; Debra L. Karch, Linda L. Dahlberg & Nimesh
- Patel, “Surveillance for Violent Deaths—National
- Violent Death Reporting System, 16 States, 2007,” Morbidity
- a n d M o r t a l i ty W e e k l y R e p o r t , p . 1 1 ,
- www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/ss/ss5904.pdf (visited Oct.
- 29, 2012). States also permit private businesses and
- other private institutions (such as churches) to ban
- guns from their premises. If enough private
- institutions decided to do that, the right to carry a
- gun in public would have much less value and might
- rarely be exercised—in which event the invalidation of
- the Illinois law might have little effect, which opponents of
- gun rights would welcome.
- Recently the Second Circuit upheld a New York state
- law that requires an applicant for a permit to carry
- a concealed handgun in public to demonstrate
- “proper cause” to obtain a license. Kachalsky v. County
- of Westchester, supra. This is the inverse of laws
- that forbid dangerous persons to have handguns;
- New York places the burden on the applicant to show
- that he needs a handgun to ward off dangerous persons.
- As the court explained, 2012 WL 5907502, at *13, New
- York “decided not to ban handgun possession, but to
- limit it to those individuals who have an actual
- reason (’proper cause’) to carry the weapon. In this
- vein , licensing is orient ed to the Second
- Ame n dme n t ’ s pr o t e c t i o ns…. [I ] n s t e ad of
- forbidding anyone from carrying a handgun in
- public, New York took a more moderate approach
- to fulfilling its important objective and reasonably concluded
- that only individuals having a bona fide reason
- 18 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- to possess handguns should be allowed to introduce
- them into the public sphere.”
- The New York gun law upheld in Kachalsky, although
- one of the nation’s most restrictive such laws (under
- the law’s “proper cause” standard, an applicant for a
- gun permit must demonstrate a need for self-defense
- greater than that of the general public, such as being
- the target of personal threats, id. at *3, *8), is less restrictive
- than Illinois’s law. Our principal reservation about
- the Second Circuit ’s analy s i s (apart from
- disagreement, unnecessary to bore the reader with,
- with some of the historical analysis in the opinion—
- we regard the historical issues as settled by Heller)
- is its suggestion that the Second Amendment should
- have much greater scope inside the home than
- outside simply because other provisions of the Constitution
- have been held to make that distinction. For example,
- the opinion states that “in Lawrence v. Texas, the
- [Supreme] Court emphasized that the state’s efforts to
- regulate private sexual conduct between consenting adults
- is especially suspect when it intrudes into the home.”
- 2012 WL 5907502, at *9. Well of course—the interest in
- having sex inside one’s home is much greater than
- the interest in having sex on the sidewalk in front of
- one’s home. But the interest in self-protection is as great
- outside as inside the home. In any event the court in
- Kachalsky used the distinction between self-protection
- inside and outside the home mainly to suggest that a
- standard less demanding than “strict scrutiny” should
- govern the constitutionality of laws limiting the carrying
- of guns outside the home; our analysis is not
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 19
- based on degrees of scrutiny, but on Illinois’s failure to
- justify the most restrictive gun law of any of the 50 states.
- Judge Wilkinson expressed concern in United States
- v. Masciandaro, 638 F.3d 458, 475 (4th Cir. 2011), that
- “there may or may not be a Second Amendment right
- in some places beyond the home, but we have no
- idea what those places are, what the criteria for selecting
- them should be, what sliding scales of scrutiny
- might apply to them, or any one of a number
- of other questions. It is not clear in what
- places public authorities may ban firearms altogether
- without shouldering the burdens of litigation.
- The notion that ‘self-defense has to take place wherever
- [a] person happens to be,’ appears to us to portend
- all sorts of litigation over schools, airports,
- parks, public thoroughfares, and various additional
- government facilities…. The whole matter strikes us
- as a vast terra incognita that courts should enter only
- upon necessity and only then by small degree” (citation
- omitted). Fair enough; but that “vast terra incognita”
- has been opened to judicial exploration by Heller and
- McDonald. There is no turning back by the lower federal
- courts, though we need not speculate on the limits
- that Illinois may in the interest of public safety constitutionally
- impose on the carrying of guns in public; it
- is enough that the limits it has imposed go too far.
- The usual consequence of reversing the dismissal of
- a suit (here a pair of suits) is to remand the case for evidentiary
- proceedings preparatory to the filing of motions
- for summary judgment and if those motions fail to an
- 20 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- eventual trial. But there are no evidentiary issues in
- these two cases. The constitutionality of the challenged
- statutory provisions does not present factual questions
- for determination in a trial. The evidence marshaled in
- the Skoien case was evidence of “legislative facts,” which
- is to say facts that bear on the justification for legislation,
- as distinct from facts concerning the conduct of parties
- in a particular case (“adjudicative facts”). See Fed. R. Evid.
- 201(a); Advisory Committee Note to Subdivision (a) of
- 1972 Proposed Rule [of Evidence] 201. Only adjudicative
- facts are determined in trials, and only legislative facts
- are relevant to the constitutionality of the Illinois gun law.
- The key legislative facts in this case are the effects
- of the Illinois law; the state has failed to show
- that those effects are positive.
- We are disinclined to engage in another round of historical
- analysis to determine whether eighteenth-century
- America understood the Second Amendment to include
- a right to bear guns outside the home. The Supreme
- Court has decided that the amendment confers
- a right to bear arms for self-defense, which is as
- important outside the home as inside. The theoretical
- and empirical evidence (which overall is inconclusive)
- is consistent with concluding that a right to
- carry firearms in public may promote self-defense. Illinois
- had to provide us with more than merely a rational basis
- for believing that its uniquely sweeping ban is justified
- by an increase in public safety. It has failed to meet
- this burden. The Supreme Court’s interpretation of
- the Second Amendment therefore compels us to reverse
- the decisions in the two cases before us and remand
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 21
- them to their respective district courts for the entry
- of dec la ra tions of unconst itut ional it y and
- permanent injunctions. Nevertheless we order our mandate
- stayed for 180 days to allow the Illinois
- legislature to craft a new gun law that will
- impose reasonable limitations, consistent with the public
- safety and the Second Amendment as interpreted in
- this opinion, on the carrying of guns in public.
- REVERSED AND REMANDED, WITH DIRECTIONS;
- BUT MANDATE STAYED FOR 180 DAYS.
- WILLIAMS, Circuit Judge, dissenting. The Supreme
- Court’s decisions in Heller and McDonald made clear
- that persons in the state of Illinois (unless otherwise
- disqualified) must be allowed to have handguns
- in their homes for self-defense. But those cases
- did not resolve the question in this case—whether the
- Second Amendment also requires a state to allow persons
- to carry ready-to-use firearms in public for potential selfdefense.
- The majority opinion presents one reading
- of Heller and McDonald in light of the question presented
- here, and its reading is not unreasonable. But I
- think the issue presented is closer than the majority
- makes it out to be. Whether the Second Amendment
- 22 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- protects a right to carry ready-to-use firearms in public
- for potential self-defense requires a different analysis from
- that conducted by the Court in Heller and McDonald.
- Ultimately, I would find the result here
- different as well and would affirm the judgments of
- the district courts.
- Heller’s approach suggests that judges are to examine
- the historical evidence and then make a determination
- as to whether the asserted right, here the right to carry
- ready-to-use arms in public (in places other than
- those permitted by the Illinois statute) for potential selfdefense,
- is within the scope of the Second Amendment.
- (Heller has been criticized for reasons including that judges
- are not historians.) In making this historical inquiry,
- and in assessing whether the right was a generally recognized
- one, I agree with the majority that the relevant
- date is 1791, the date of the Second Amendment’s ratification.
- See Maj. Op. at 3. But I do not agree that the Supreme
- Court in Heller rejected the argument that the State
- makes here, nor do I think the State’s argument
- effectively asks us to repudiate Heller’s historical analysis.
- The historical inquiry here is a very different
- one. Heller did not assess whether there was a pre-existing
- right to carry guns in public for self-defense. By asking
- us to make that assessment, the State is not asking
- us to reject the Court’s historical analysis in Heller;
- rather, it is being true to it. As I see it, the State embraces
- Heller’s method of analysis and asks us to conduct it
- for the different right that is being asserted. I am not
- the only one to think that Heller did not settle the
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 23
- historical issues. The Second Circuit’s recent
- unanimous decision upholding New York’s “proper cause”
- prerequisite to obtaining a license to carry a handgun
- in publ ic r e cogn ized and dis cu ss ed the
- different historical inquiry that occurs when the
- asserted right is to possess a handgun in public.
- See Kachalsky v. County of Westchester, 2012 WL 5907502,
- at *6-7, *10-11 (2d Cir. Nov. 27, 2012). (Under the New York
- law that the Second Circuit upheld, “[a] generalized
- desire to carry a concealed weapon to protect one’s
- person and property does not constitute ‘proper cause,’ ”
- and “[g]ood moral character plus a simple desire
- to carry a weapon is not enough.” Id. at *3 (internal citations
- and quotations omitted)).
- Heller tells us that “the Second Amendment was
- not intended to lay down a novel principle
- but rather codified a right inherited from our English
- ancestors.” Heller, 554 U.S. at 599 (internal quotations
- omitted). For our English ancestors a man’s home
- was his castle, and so he had broad powers to
- defend himself there. See 4 William Blackstone, Commentaries
- on the Laws of England 223 (1769). The focus of Heller’s
- historical examination was on whether the Second Amendment
- included an individual right to bear arms
- or whether that right was limited to militia service.
- Once the Heller majority found that the Second Amendment
- was personal, the conclusion that one could
- possess ready-to-use firearms in the home for selfdefense
- there makes sense in light of the home-as-castle
- history.
- 24 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- It is less clear to me, however, that a widely
- understood right to carry ready-to-use arms in
- public for potential self-defense existed at the time of
- the founding. Cf. Heller, 554 U.S. at 605 (rejecting argument
- by dissenters and stating, “That simply does not comport
- with our longstanding view that the Bill of Rights
- codified venerable, widely understood liberties.”).
- In contrast to inside the home, where one could largely
- do what he wished, there was a long history of regulating
- arms in public. The 1328 Statute of Northampton,
- quoted by the majority on page 6, provided in relevant
- part that no man could “go nor ride armed by night
- nor by day, in Fairs, markets, nor in the presence of
- the Justices or other Ministers, nor in no part elsewhere.”
- 2 Edw. III, c. 3 (1328). If the words of a statute
- are supreme, the words of the Statute of Northampton
- expressly prohibit going or riding while “armed,” whether
- at night or in the day, whether the arms are visible
- or hidden. And the statute contains no intent requirement.
- So the Statute of Northampton, by its terms, prohibited
- going armed in public.
- This matters because the Statute of Northampton and
- its principles did not disappear after its enactment in
- 1328. The leading scholars relied upon at the time
- of our country’s founding also turned to the Statute
- of Northampton as they discussed criminal offenses
- . Massachusetts, North Carol ina, and
- Virginia incorporated the Statute of Northampton
- in the years immediately after the Constitution’s adoption.
- See Patrick J. Charles, The Faces of the Second
- Amendment Outside the Home: Historical Versus
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 25
- Ahistorical Standards of Review, 60 Clev. St. L. Rev. 1, 31-
- 32 (2012). Although the plaintiffs suggest that later generations
- did not view the Statute of Northampton
- to mean what its terms said, whether that is true
- is not obvious. William Blackstone, cited frequently
- by the Heller majority, for example, summarized the
- Statute of Northampton as he explained public
- wrongs. He wrote, “[t]he offense of riding or going armed
- with dangerous or unusual weapons, is a crime against
- the public peace, by terrifying the good people of the
- land; and is particularly prohibited by the Statute
- of Northampton, upon pain of forfeiture of the
- arms, and imprisonment during the king’s pleasure:
- in like manner as, by the laws of Solon, every Athenian
- was finable who walked about the city in armour.”
- 4 Blackstone, supra, 148-49 (internal citation omitted);
- see also Eugene Volokh, The First and Second Amendments,
- 109 Colum. L. Rev. Sidebar 97, 101 (2009) (recognizing
- that Blackstone summarized the Statute of Northampton
- in this passage).
- Some, like the plaintiffs, read Blackstone to mean that the
- Statute of Northampton was understood to
- cover only those circumstances where the carrying of
- arms was unusual and therefore terrifying. But that
- seems to be a strained reading of Blackstone’s words.
- The more natural reading is that Blackstone states
- that riding or going armed with dangerous weapons
- is an offense and is a crime against the public peace.
- He then explains why the offense of riding or
- going armed with dangerous weapons is a crime against
- the public peace—because doing so makes people terrified
- or nervous. Notably, Blackstone compares going
- 26 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- armed with dangerous weapons to the mere act of
- walking around a city in armor, which was prohibited
- in ancient Greece. The comparison suggests that just
- as seeing a person walking around a city in
- armor would cause other citizens to be nervous, regardless
- of any affirmative action, so would the reaction be
- to seeing another carrying dangerous weapons in a populated
- area.
- It is true as the majority states that Sir John Knight’s
- Case, 87 Eng. Rep. 75 (K.B. 1686), stated that the meaning
- of the Statute of Northampton “was to punish people
- who go armed to terrify the King’s subjects.” But it immediately
- followed that statement by saying that
- “[i]t is likewise a great offence at the common law, as
- if the King were not able or willing to protect
- his subjects; and therefore this Act is but an affirmance
- of that law.” The case is consistent with the idea that
- going armed in the public arena with dangerous
- weapons without government permission, by its nature,
- terrifies the people, whether the arms can be seen
- or not. See Charles, supra, at 28 (examining background
- and implications of case and explaining that persons
- who were the “King’s Officers and Ministers in doing
- their Office” were exempt from punishment under
- the Statute, which explains Sir Knight’s acquittal).
- Robert Gardiner’s The Compleat Constable, written
- for seventeenth- and eighteenth-century British
- constables, comports with the understanding that
- the Statute of Northampton’s intent was to prohibit
- the carrying of any weapon that might “endanger
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 27
- society among the concourse of the people,” Charles,
- supra, at 23, and that it was an affirmation of governmental
- police authority, as well as that “dangerous weapons”
- included guns, id. at 23-24. The Compleat
- Constable stated, with a specific reference to “guns,”
- that a British constable could arrest upon seeing
- any person ride or go armed offensively, “in Fairs or
- Markets or elsewhere, by Day or by Night, in affray of Her
- Majesties Subjects, and Breach of the Peace; or wear
- or carry any Daggers, Guns, or Pistols Charged.”
- Robert Gardiner, The Compleat Constable 18-19 (3d
- ed. 1707). The only exceptions were for persons serving
- Her Majesty, sheriffs and their officers, and those “pursuing
- Hue and Cry, in Case of Felony, and other Offences
- against the Peace.” Id. at 19.
- Sir Edward Coke also discussed the Statute
- of Northampton, and he interpreted it to allow
- persons to keep weapons inside the home, explaining
- that a man’s home was his castle. As the majority
- notes, Coke also stated that one could not assemble force to
- go out in public. But that does not necessarily mean
- that persons were free to carry arms for potential
- personal self-defense. Indeed, in Coke’s explanation of
- the Statute, he recounted the case of Sir Thomas
- Figett, who was arrested after he “went armed under
- his garments, as well as in the palace, as before
- the justice of the kings bench.” Edward Coke, Institutes of
- the Laws of England 161-62 (1797). In his defense, Figett
- said there “had been debate” between him and
- another earlier in the week, “and therefore for
- doubt of danger, and safeguard of his life, he went so
- 28 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- armed.” Id. at 162. Nonetheless, he was ordered to
- forfeit his arms and suffer imprisonment at the king’s
- pleasure. Id.
- I also note that in examining the contours of the proposed
- right, the majority looks to the perspective of
- an Ohio frontiersman. But it seems that when
- evaluating the rights originally embodied in the
- Second Amendment, looking to the margins should
- not be the inquiry. Cf Heller, 554 U.S. at 605. We have
- already observed that there were a number of laws
- in our country around the time of the founding that
- limited the discharge of firearms in public cities.
- See Ezell v. City of Chicago, 651 F.3d 684, 705 (7th Cir. 2011)
- (“The City points to a number of founding-era, antebellum,
- and Rec ons t ruc t ion state and local laws
- that limited discharge of firearms in urban environments.”);
- id. at 705-06 & nn.13-14; id. at 713-14 (Rovner, J.,
- concurring) (observing that “none of the 18th and 19th
- century jurisdictions cited by the City . . . were apparently
- concerned that banning or limiting the discharge
- of firearms within city limits would seriously impinge
- the rights of gun owners” and that some of the early
- laws’ concern with fire suppression reflected that
- “public safety was a paramount value to our ancestors”
- that sometimes trumped a right to discharge
- a firearm in a particular place). So while there are a
- variety of other sources and authorities, the ones I
- have discussed suggest that there was not a clear
- historical consensus that persons could carry guns
- in public for self-defense. See also Kachalsky, 2012
- WL 5907502, at *6 (stating that unlike the ban
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 29
- on handguns in the home at issue in Heller, “[h]istory
- and tradition do not speak with one voice” regarding
- scope of right to bear arms in public and that
- “[w]hat history demonstrates is that states often
- disagreed as to the scope of the right to bear arms
- [in public]”).
- I will pause here to state that I am not convinced
- that the implication of the Heller and McDonald decisions
- is that the Second Amendment right to have ready-to-use
- firearms for potential self-defense extends beyond
- the home. That the Second Amendment speaks
- of the “right of the people to keep and bear arms”
- (emphasis added) does not to me imply a right to carry
- a loaded gun outside the home. Heller itself
- demonstrates this. The Court interpreted “bear” to mean
- to “carry” or to “wear, bear, or carry,” upon one’s person,
- for the purpose of being armed and ready in
- case of conflict. Heller, 554 U.S. at 584. And we know
- that Heller contemplated that a gun might only be carried
- in the home because it ordered the District of Columbia
- to permit Heller to do precisely that: it directed
- that unless Heller was otherwise disqualified, the District
- must allow him “to register his handgun and
- must issue him a license to carry it in the home.” Id. at 635
- (emphasis added). Mr. Heller did not want simply
- “to keep” a gun in his closet. He wanted to be able
- “to bear” it in case of self-defense, and the Supreme
- Court said he could.
- We have warned against “treat[ing] Heller as containing
- broader holdings than the Court set out to establish:
- 30 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- that the Second Amendment creates individual rights,
- one of which is keeping operable handguns at home
- for self-defense. . . . Judicial opinions must not be
- confused with statutes, and general expressions must
- be read in light of the subject under consideration.”
- See United States v. Skoien, 614 F.3d 638, 640 (7th
- Cir. 2010) (en banc). The Supreme Court made clear in
- Heller and McDonald that its holdings only applied
- to handguns in the home for self-defense. See, e.g.,
- id.; Heller, 554 U.S. at 635 (“And whatever else it leaves
- to future evaluation, it surely elevates above all
- other interests the right of law-abiding, responsible
- citizens to use arms in defense of hearth and home.”).
- The Court’s language must be read in that light.
- The plaintiffs point, for example, to Heller’s statement
- t ha t the operative clause of the Second
- Amendment guarantees “the individual right to
- possess and carry weapons in case of confrontation.”
- 554 U.S. at 592. But Heller makes this statement in
- the portion of its opinion supporting the conclusion
- that the Second Amendment included a personal right,
- as compared to one solely related to the militia. See id.
- at 592-95. The plaintiffs also point out that Heller
- stated that the need for self-defense is “most acute”
- in the home, which they argue implies that there is
- a Second Amendment right to possess ready-to-use
- firearms in places outside the home. See id. at 628. But
- the Court made this comment in the context of its conclusion
- that the District of Columbia handgun ban applied
- in the home; the fact that the need was acute in the
- home emphasized that the fatal flaw in the handgun
- ban was that it applied in the home. See id. at 628-30.
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 31
- By all this I do not mean to suggest that historical
- evidence definitively demonstrates there was not a right
- to carry arms in public for self-defense at the time
- of the founding. The plaintiffs point to other authorities
- that they maintain reveal the opposite. At best,
- the history might be ambiguous as to whether there is
- a right to carry loaded firearms for potential self-defense
- outside the home. But if that is the case, then it
- does not seem there was “a venerable, widely understood”
- right to do so. That may well mean that the right
- the plaintiffs seek here is outside the scope of the Second
- Amendment. Perhaps under Heller’s rationale
- that the Second Amendment codified a preexisting
- right, with history not seeming to clearly support a generally
- recognized right, the analysis ends right here.
- II.
- We said in Ezell that “if the historical evidence is inconclusive
- or suggests that the regulated activity is not categorically
- unprotected—then there must be a second
- inquiry into the strength of the government’s
- justification for restricting or regulating the exercise
- of Second Amendment rights.” 651 F.3d at 703. In
- doing so, we stated that “the rigor of this judicial
- review will depend on how close the law comes to the
- core of the Second Amendment right and the severity
- of the law’s burden on the right.” Id. Any right to
- carry firearms in public for potential self-defense, if
- there is one, is not at the “core” of the Second Amendment.
- See Kachalsky, 2012 WL 5907502, at *9; United States
- v. Marzzarella, 614 F.3d 85, 92 (3d Cir. 2010).
- 32 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- The Supreme Court made clear in Heller that “nothing
- in [its] opinion should be taken to cast doubt on longstanding
- prohibitions on the possession of firearms by
- felons and the mentally ill, or laws forbidding the carrying
- of firearms in sensitive places such as schools and government
- buildings . . . .” 554 U.S. at 626. McDonald
- made sure to “repeat those assurances.” McDonald, 130 S.
- Ct. at 3047. That a legislature can forbid the carrying
- of firearms in schools and government buildings
- means that any right to possess a gun for self-defense
- outside the home is not absolute, and it is not absolute
- by the Supreme Court’s own terms.
- Indeed, the Supreme Court would deem it presumptively
- permissible to outright forbid the carrying of firearms
- in certain public places, but that does not mean that a selfdefense
- need never arises in those places. The
- teacher being stalked by her ex-husband is susceptible
- at work, and in her school parking lot, and on the
- school playground, to someone intent on harming her.
- So why would the Supreme Court reassure us that
- a legislature can ban guns in certain places? It must be
- out of a common-sense recognition of the risks that
- arise when guns are around.
- Any right to carry loaded firearms outside the home for
- self-defense is, under Heller’s own terms, susceptible to a
- legislative determination that firearms should not
- be allowed in certain public places. The Supreme
- Court tells us that a state can forbid guns in schools.
- That probably means it can forbid guns not just inside
- the school building, but also in the playground and
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 33
- parking lot and grassy area on its property too. And if
- a state can ban guns on school property, perhaps it can
- ban them within a certain distance of a school too. Cf.
- 18 U.S.C. § 922(q)(2)(A). The Supreme Court also
- tells us that a state can ban guns in government buildings.
- The list of such buildings would seem to include
- post offices, courthouses, libraries, Department of Motor
- Vehicle facilities, city halls, and more. And the legislature
- can ban firearms in other “sensitive places” too.
- So maybe in a place of worship. See GeorgiaCarry.Org
- v. Georgia, 687 F.3d 1244 (11th Cir. 2012) (upholding
- ban on firearms in places of worship). Maybe too on
- the grounds of a public university. See DiGiacinto
- v. Rector & Visitors of George Mason Univ., 704 S.E.2d
- 365 (Va. 2011) (upholding regulation prohibiting possession
- of guns in university facilities and at campus events).
- Or in an airport, or near a polling place, or in a bar. And
- if the latter is true then perhaps a legislature could
- ban loaded firearms any place where alcohol is sold,
- so in restaurants and convenience stores as well.
- The resulting patchwork of places where loaded guns
- could and could not be carried is not only odd but
- also could not guarantee meaningful self-defense, which
- suggests that the constitutional right to carry ready-to-use
- firearms in public for self-defense may well not exist.
- It is difficult to make sense of what Heller means
- for carrying guns in public for another notable reason.
- Immediately before the sentence giving a presumption of
- lawfulness to bans on guns for felons and the like, Heller
- states: “Like most rights, the right secured by the Second
- Amendment is not unlimited. From Blackstone through
- 34 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- the 19th-century cases, commentators and courts routinely
- explained that the right was not a right to keep and carry
- any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for
- whatever purpose. For example, the majority of the 19thcentury
- courts to consider the question held that prohibitions on
- carrying concealed weapons were lawful under the Second
- Amendment or state analogues.” 554 U.S. at 626 (emphasis
- added and internal citations omitted). The implication of
- the Supreme Court’s statement would seem to be that
- concealed carry is not within the scope of the Second
- Amendment (or at the least that that is the presumption).
- See, e.g., Nelson Lund, The Second Amendment, Heller, and
- Originalist Jurisprudence, 56 UCLA L. Rev. 1343, 1359
- (2009) (“This appears to be an endorsement of yet
- another exception to the constitutional right.”);
- Hightower v. City of Boston, 693 F.3d 61, 73 (1st Cir.
- 2012) (interpreting this language to mean that laws prohibiting
- the carrying of concealed weapons are
- an example of presumptively lawful restrictions);
- Eugene Volokh, Implementing the Right to Keep and
- Bear Arms for Self-Defense: An Analytical Framework and
- a Research Agenda, 56 UCLA L. Rev. 1443, 1523-24 (2009).
- That would not be the first time the Supreme Court
- had made such a statement. See Robertson v. Baldwin,
- 165 U.S. 275, 281-82 (1897) (stating in dicta that
- Second Amendment right “is not infringed by laws prohibiting
- the carrying of concealed weapons”).
- If carrying concealed weapons is outside the scope
- of the Second Amendment, the consequence would
- be significant. “‘In the nineteenth century, concealed
- carry was often considered outside the scope of the
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 35
- right to bear arms. Today, it is the most common way
- in which people exercise their right to bear
- arms.’ ” Joseph Blocher, The Right Not to Keep or Bear
- Arms, 64 Stan. L. Rev. 1, 45 (2012) (quoting David B. Kopel,
- The Right to Arms in the Living Constitution, 2010 Cardozo
- L. Rev. 99, 136 (2010)). And, as the Moore plaintiffs acknowledge
- in their brief, “today, openly carrying handguns
- may alarm individuals unaccustomed to firearms.”
- The implication, as explained by Nelson
- Lund (author of the Second Amendment Foundation’s
- amicus curiae brief in Heller in support of Mr. Heller):
- “In some American jurisdictions today, for example,
- openly carrying a firearm might plausibly be thought
- to violate the ancient common law prohibition
- against ‘terrifying the good people of the land’ by
- going about with dangerous and unusual weapons.
- If courts were to conclude that open carry violates
- this common law prohibition (and thus is not within
- the preexisting right protected by the Second Amendment),
- after Heller has decreed that bans on concealed carry
- are per se valid, the constitutional right to bear
- arms would effectively cease to exist.” Lund, supra, at 1361-
- 62. (To be clear, if there is a Second Amendment right
- to carry arms outside the home for potential selfdefense
- in Illinois as my colleagues have found, I
- am not suggesting that Illinois should not implement
- concealed carry laws.)
- If there is any right to carry ready-to-use firearms
- among the public for potential self-defense,
- the plaintiffs contend the Illinois statutes must be unconstitutional
- because their ban is far-reaching. But I
- see the question as somewhat more nuanced.
- 36 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- Protecting the safety of its citizens is unquestionably a
- sign if icant sta t e intere s t. United States v.
- Salerno, 481 U.S. 739, 748 (1987); Kelley v. Johnson, 425
- U.S. 238, 247 (1976). Illinois chose to enact the statutes
- here out of concern for the safety of its citizens. See
- People v. Marin, 795 N.E.2d 953, 959-62 (Ill. App. Ct. 2003).
- Given the State’s obvious interest in regulating the safety
- of its citizens, the question is who determines the contours
- of any right to carry ready-to-use firearms for self-defense
- in public when they are unsettled as a matter
- of both original history and pol icy. The
- Heller majority concluded that “enshrinement of constitutional
- rights necessarily takes certain policy choices off
- the table . . . includ[ing] the absolute prohibition of handguns
- held and used for self-defense in the home.”
- 554 U.S. at 636. But “as we move outside the home, firearm
- rights have always been more limited, because public
- safety interests often outweigh individual interests in selfdefense.”
- United States v. Masciandro, 638 F.3d 458, 470
- (4th Cir. 2011).
- The Supreme Court has told us that we
- must “accord substant ial deference to the
- predictive judgments of [the legislature].” Turner
- Broad. Sys., Inc. v. F.C.C., 520 U.S. 180, 195 (1997). “In
- the context of firearm regulation, the legislature is
- ‘far better equipped than the judiciary’ to make
- sensitive policy judgments (within constitutional limits)
- concerning the dangers in carrying firearms
- and the manner to combat those risks.” Kachalsky,
- 2012 WL 5907502, at *12. The legislature knows the statisNos.
- 12-1269, 12-1788 37
- 1State courts that have addressed a state constitutional right to
- bear arms have used a “reasonable regulation” standard, a test
- that is more deferential than intermediate scrutiny but
- that, unlike the interest-balancing test proposed in Justice
- Breyer’s Heller dissent, does not permit states to prohibit all
- firearm ownership. See, e.g., State v. Hamdan, 665 N.W.2d 785,
- 798-801 (Wis. 2003); Adam Winkler, Scrutinizing the Second
- Amendment, 105 Mich. L. Rev. 683, 686-87 (2007) (discussing
- “hundreds” of state court opinions using this test).
- tics and is in a far better position than we are to
- weigh their import. Illinois reasonably wants to try
- to reduce the incidence of death and injury
- by firearms, both those which come from affirmative acts
- of violence and also the many deaths and injuries that
- occur accidentally, and doing so by taking them off the
- streets is a legislative judgment substantially related to
- its important governmental objective of reducing injury
- and death by firearms.1
- It is common sense, as the majority recognizes, that a
- gun is dangerous to more people when carried outside
- the home. See Maj. Op. at 8. When firearms are
- carried outside of the home, the safety of a broader
- range of citizens is at issue. The risk of being injured
- or kil led now extends to s t rangers , law
- enforcement personnel, and other private citizens
- who happen to be in the area. Cf. David
- Hemenway & Deborah Azrael, The Relative Frequency of
- Offensive and Defensive Gun Uses: Results from a National
- Survey, 15 Violence & Victims 257, 271 (2000) (finding
- that guns are used “far more often to kill and wound
- 38 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- innocent victims than to kill and wound criminals”).
- Indeed, the Illinois legislature was not just concerned
- with “crime rates” and “murder rates” when it passed
- the law. Cf. Maj. Op. at 8. It also sought to “prevent
- situations where no criminal intent existed, but criminal
- conduct resulted despite the lack of intent, e.g., accidents
- with loaded guns on public streets or the escalation
- of minor public altercations into gun battles or . . . the
- danger of a police officer stopping a car with a loaded
- weapon on the passenger seat.” See Marin, 795 N.E.2d at
- 962. The danger of such situations increases if guns may
- be carried outside the home.
- That the percentage of reported accidental gun-related
- deaths is lower as compared to suicide (which accounts for
- the majority of firearms-related deaths) and murder,
- see Robert A. Hahn et al., Firearms Laws and the Reduction
- of Violence: A Systematic Review, 28 Am. J. Preventive
- Med. 40, 40 (2005), does not make the Illinois law invalid.
- First, in those statistics, “[u]nintentional firearm-related
- deaths appear to be substantially undercounted
- (i.e., misclassified as due to another cause),” id. at 47, and
- in any event the State has a significant interest in
- reducing the risk of accidental firearms-related deaths
- as well as accidental injuries. The majority says the
- law cannot be justified on the ground that it reduces
- the accidental death rate unless it could be shown
- that allowing guns to be carried in public causes
- gun ownership to increase. See Maj. Op. at 13. But
- whether gun ownership increases is not the question. See
- id. at 10-11. It is not the number of guns owned that
- matters but where the guns are carried. Illinois already
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 39
- allows people to own and have guns in their homes;
- however, they cannot carry them in public. The Illinois
- legislature reasonably concluded that if people are allowed
- to carry guns in public, the number of guns carried in
- public will increase, and the risk of firearms-related injury
- or death in public will increase as well. Cf. Marin, 795
- N.E.2d at 959-62.
- And it is also common sense that the danger is a great
- one; firearms are lethal. Cf. Skoien, 614 F.3d at 642
- (“guns are about five times more deadly than knives,
- given that an attack with some kind of weapon has occurred”)
- (citing Franklin E. Zimring, Firearms, Violence,
- and the Potential Impact of Firearms Control, 32 J. L. Med.
- & Ethics 34 (2004)). For that reason too the focus simply
- on crime rates misses the mark. As Philip J. Cook, a
- Duke University professor cited twice by the majority,
- put it: “My research over 35 years demonstrates that
- the effect of gun availability is not to increase the
- crime rate but to intensify the crime that exists and convert
- assaults into murders.” Ethan Bronner, Other States,
- and Other Times, Would Have Posed Obstacles for
- Gunman, N.Y. Times, July 25, 2012, at A12.
- The majority’s response to the fact that guns are a
- potential lethal danger to more people when carried in
- public seems to be to say that knowing potential
- victims could be armed may have a deterrent effect
- or make criminals timid. See Maj. Op. at 8, 13. Yet even
- an article relied upon by the majority cautions that
- the effect on criminals may well be more gun use: “Twothirds
- of prisoners incarcerated for gun offenses reported
- 40 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- that the chance of running into an armed victim was
- very or somewhat important in their own choice to use a
- gun. Currently, criminals use guns in only about 25
- percent of noncommercial robberies and 5 percent of
- assaults. If increased gun carrying among potential
- victims causes criminals to carry guns more often themselves,
- or become quicker to use guns to avert armed selfdefense,
- the end result could be that street crime
- becomes more lethal.” Philip J. Cook, Jens Ludwig &
- Adam M. Samaha, Gun Control After Heller: Threats
- and Sideshows from a Social Welfare Perspective, 56 UCLA
- L. Rev. 1041, 1081 (2009).
- On the other side of the lethal danger to the
- State’s citizens is the asserted interest in carrying guns
- for self-defense, yet even the majority does not
- contend that carrying guns in public has been shown to
- be an effective form of self-defense. For example, as
- the majority acknowledges, University of Pennsylvania
- researchers found that assault victims are more likely to
- be armed than the rest of the population. See Maj. Op. at
- 12-13 (citing Charles C. Branas et al., Investigating the
- Link Between Gun Possession and Gun Assault, 99 Am. J.
- of Pub. Health 2034, 2037 (2009)). The researchers examined
- shootings in Philadelphia and concluded that
- “gun possession by urban adults was associated with a
- significantly increased risk of being shot in an assault,”
- id., which suggests, if anything, that carrying a gun is
- not effective self-defense. The researchers posited
- that possible reasons for their findings included that a
- gun may falsely empower its possessor to overreact, that
- persons with guns may increase the risk of harm by
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 41
- 2The majority cites Moody and Marvell’s 2008 paper
- suggesting that Ayres and Donohue should have extended
- their 2003 analysis by one more year. But extending their
- data is just what Ayres and Donohue did in their May
- 2009 piece, More Guns, Less Crime Fails Again: The Latest
- Evidence from 1977-2006. And after extending their state panel
- data by six additional years, they again concluded that “the
- best evidence to date suggests that [right-to-carry] laws
- at the very least increase aggravated assault.” Id. at 231.
- They also thoroughly responded to Moody and Marvell’s
- criticism that their initial 2003 analysis evaluated the trend for
- five years rather than six, explaining in part:
- “We would have thought, though, that one would want to
- be very cautious in evaluating trends beyond five years
- when 14 of the 24 states have no post-passage data
- beyond three years.” Id. at 218-19. They also criticized Moody
- and Marvell’s conclusions and demonstrated that the two
- had incorrectly graphed the estimates from Donohue’s table and
- (continued...)
- entering dangerous environments that they normally
- would have avoided, and that persons bringing guns to an
- otherwise gun-free conflict may have those guns wrested
- away and turned on them. Id. at 2037-38.
- Other studies have found that in states with broad
- concealed-carry laws there is an increased chance that one
- will be a victim of violent crime. Yale Law School Professors
- Ian Ayres and John J. Donohue III concluded that “the
- evidence is most supportive of the claim that [right-tocarry]
- laws increase aggravated assault.” More Guns, Less
- Crime Fails Again: The Latest Evidence from 1977-2006, 6
- Econ. J. Watch 218, 220 (May 2009).2 (Donohue is now at
- 42 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- (...continued)
- misinterpreted the estimates. Id. at 219.
- Stanford.) Similarly, another study showed that “an
- increase in gun prevalence causes an intensification
- of criminal violence–a shift toward a greater lethality,
- and hence greater harm to a community.” Philip J. Cook
- & Jens Ludwig, The Social Costs of Gun Ownership, 90 J.
- Pub. Econ. 379, 387 (2006). Other researchers have concluded
- that guns are “used far more often to intimidate
- and threaten than they are used to thwart crimes.”
- Hemenway & Azrael, supra, at 271.
- The ban on firearms in public is also an important
- mechanism for law enforcement to protect the public.
- With guns banned in public an officer with
- reasonable suspicion to stop and frisk a person can,
- upon finding a gun, take the gun off the street before
- a shooting occurs. The majority says that a state may
- be able to require “open carry,” where persons who
- carry guns in public must carry them in plain view.
- Maj. Op. at 10. Living with the open carrying of loaded
- guns on the streets of Chicago and elsewhere
- would certainly be a big change to the daily lives of Illinois
- citizens. Even the plaintiffs do not seem to want Illinois
- to take that drastic a step, recognizing that “openly carrying
- handguns may alarm individuals unaccustomed
- to firearms” and that Heller “does not force states to
- allow the carrying of handguns in a manner that may
- cause needless public alarm.” Moore Br. at 35.
- The majority also suggests that with open
- carry the police could still arrest persons who carry
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 43
- Chicago Police Dep’t A 3 nnual Report 2010, at 34, available at
- https://portal.chicagopolice.org/portal/page/portal/ClearPath
- /News/Statistical%20Reports/Annual%20Reports/10AR.pdf.
- concealed guns. This is true but seems contradictory
- to its statement two sentences earlier that in its
- view, under the current law police will often lack reasonable
- suspicion to stop a person with a concealed gun
- since it is concealed. See Maj. Op. at 10. To the latter,
- guns are not allowed now, so theoretically persons
- are attempting to conceal them. Nonetheless, Chicago’s
- Police Department made over 4,000 arrests on
- weapons violations in 2009, though some of these
- arrests could have been made in conjunction with
- other crimes as well.3 More importantly, “concealed”
- does not mean “invisible.” An officer who
- reasonably suspects he sees a gun in a car when he
- pulls someone over, or notices what he reasonably
- suspects to be a gun bulging out of someone’s
- clothes, can under the law as it currently stands arrest that
- person and take the gun off the street.
- Allowing open (or concealed) carry does not address
- the fundamental point about law enforcement’s ability
- to protect the public: if guns are not generally legal
- to have in public, officers can remove them from
- the streets before a shooting occurs whenever they
- come across a gun. Under a law like the Illinois law,
- an officer with some reasonable belief that a person
- is carrying a firearm can stop that person and remove
- the gun from the street because the officer has a
- 44 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- reasonable belief that a crime is taking place. The ability
- to use stops and arrests upon reasonably suspecting a
- gun as a law enforcement tactic to ultimately protect
- more citizens does not work if guns can be freely carried.
- To the extent the majority opinion’s studies draw
- different conclusions, the Supreme Court has made
- clear that “the possibility of drawing two inconsistent
- conclusions from the evidence” does not prevent
- a finding from being supported by substantial evidence.
- Turner Broad., 520 U.S. at 211; see also Kachalsky, 2012
- WL 5907502, at *13 (recognizing different studies concerning
- relationship between handgun access and
- violent crime, and handgun access and safety and character
- of public places, and stating, “It is the legislature’s
- job, not ours, to weigh conflicting evidence and
- make policy judgments.”). Moreover, it is not necessary
- for “the statute’s benefits” to be “first established by
- admissible evidence” or by “proof, satisfactory to a court.”
- Skoien, 614 F.3d at 641. Nor would the State need to make
- a s tronge r showing here than in S k o ien .
- Skoien concerned the prohibition on firearm possession
- by misdemeanant s wi t h domes t i c violence
- convictions, a ban that also applies to the core Second
- Amendment right of gun possession in the home. As
- such, the “strong showing” the government acknowledged
- it needed to demonstrate there made sense. See id.
- I would note too that the 2005 paper “Firearms Laws
- and the Reduction of Violence: A Systematic Review,”
- quoted by the majority for its statement that based
- on its review, evidence was insufficient to determine
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 45
- whether the degree of firearms regulation is associated
- with decreased or increased violence, Maj. Op. at 9,
- did not limit that conclusion to the degree of firearms
- regulation. The paper found the evidence available
- from identified studies “insufficient to determine” the
- effectiveness of any of the laws it reviewed, even including
- acquisition restrictions (e.g., felony convictions
- and personal histories including persons adjudicated
- as “mental defective”), and firearms registration
- and licensing—propositions that even the plaintiffs seem
- to favor. And, the paper cautioned that “[a] finding that
- evidence is insufficient to determine effectiveness
- means that we do not yet know what effect, if any, the law
- has on an outcome—not that the law has no effect on the
- outcome.” Hahn et al., supra, at 40.
- The Illinois statutes safeguard the core right to
- bear arms for self-defense in the home, as well as the carry
- of ready-to-use firearms on other private property
- when permitted by the owner, along with the corollary
- right to transport weapons from place to place. See 720
- Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/24-2; 720 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/24-
- 1.6(a)(1). Guns in public expose all nearby to risk, and
- the risk of accidental discharge or bad aim has
- lethal consequences. Allowing public carry of ready-to-use
- guns means that risk is borne by all in Illinois, including
- the vast majority of its citizens who choose not to
- have guns. The State of Illinois has a significant interest
- in maintaining the safety of its citizens and police officers.
- The legislature acted within its authority when it concluded
- that its interest in reducing gun-related
- deaths and injuries would not be as effectively
- 46 Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788
- served through a licensing system. For one, every criminal
- was once a law-abiding citizen, so strategies for
- preventing gun violence that bar prior criminals
- from having firearms do not do enough. See Philip J. Cook,
- et al., Criminal Records of Homicide Offenders, 294 J.
- Am. Med. Ass’n 598, 600 (2005) (homicide prevention
- strategies targeted toward prior offenders “leave a large
- portion of the problem untouched”). Nor could the
- State ensure that guns in public are discharged
- only, accurately, and reasonably in instances of selfdefense.
- See People v. Mimes, 953 N.E.2d 55, 77 (Ill. App.
- Ct. 2011) (“The extensive training law enforcement officers
- undergo concerning the use of firearms attests to
- the degree of difficulty and level of skill necessary
- to competently assess potential threats in public situations
- and moderate the use of force.”).
- The Supreme Court has “long recognized the role
- of the States as laboratories for devising solutions
- to difficult legal problems,” and courts “should not
- diminish that role absent impelling reason to do
- so.” Oregon v. Ice, 555 U.S. 160, 171 (2009). Indeed, “[i]t
- is one of the happy incidents of the federal system that a
- single courageous State may, if its citizens choose,
- serve as a laboratory; and try novel social and economic
- experiments without risk to the rest of the country.”
- New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann, 285 U.S. 262, 311 (1932)
- (Brandeis, J., dissenting). (And to the extent it matters,
- Illinois is not the only place that has and enforces strict
- gun laws. New York City, for example, has gun laws that
- are in effect like those of Illinois; while technically a “may
- issue” location where the city may issue permits
- Nos. 12-1269, 12-1788 47
- for handgun carry outside the home, New York City
- rarely does so and so has been characterized as maintaining
- a virtual ban on handguns. See Lawrence Rosenthal,
- Second Amendment Plumbing after Heller: Of
- Standards of Scrutiny, Incorporation, Well-Regulated Militias,
- and Criminal Street Gangs, 41 Urb. Lawyer 1, 39 (2009)).
- Reasonable people can differ on how guns should
- be regulated. Illinois has chosen to prohibit most forms
- of public carry of ready-to-use guns. It reaffirmed that
- just last year, when its legislature considered and
- rejected a measure to permit persons to carry concealed
- weapons in Illinois. See Dave McKinney, Concealed-Carry
- Measure: Shot Down in Springfield, Chicago Sun-Times,
- 2011 WLNR 9215695 (May 6, 2011). In the absence
- of clearer indication that the Second Amendment codified
- a generally recognized right to carry arms in public for self defense,
- I would leave this judgment in the hands of
- the State of Illinois.
- 12-11-12
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