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Bonampak (Art History)

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  1. Introduction
  2. The murals of Bonampak are the most extensive and complete wall paintings of the ancient Maya, remarkable discoveries since 1990 at San Bartolo, Calakmul, and Xultun notwithstanding. With dates of 790 and 791 embedded in the paintings themselves, the murals are among the last major programs executed by the lowland Maya. Painted at roughly half to two-thirds life size, they wrap around the interiors of three rooms, with dozens of individual painted figures, some of which are repeated from room to room; King Yahaw Chan Muwan appears only in Room 2, on both the north and south walls. Carved and painted lintels frame each room, featuring Yahaw Chan Muwan over the doorway of Room 1, and King Shield Jaguar of neighboring Yaxchilan over Room 2. Good general overviews of the Maya include information about the site, its carved stone monuments, and its architecture, in addition to commentary about the paintings of Structure 1. The small site, which lay within the sphere of Yaxchilan, is also the home to three important stelae and a number of wall panels. A significant tomb was discovered in 2010 within Structure 1, in the bench of Room 2.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. The late 8th-century Maya wall paintings of Bonampak have been treated in both specialized and general works since their discovery in 1946. One should always start with the first substantive publications: Villagra Caleti 1949 and Ruppert, et al. 1955. Long the standard publication of the murals, Ruppert, et al. 1955 included the reconstructions of Antonio Tejeda, well known and widely reproduced because of their presence at Harvard’s Peabody Museum. Thompson’s strong opinions about Maya civilization led him to make many misjudgments about the paintings. The most recent and comprehensive considerations can be found in Miller and Brittenham 2013 and de la Fuente and Staines Cicero 1998: they both fully supersede all previous publication. Espinosa, et al. 1988 were the first to report on the paintings following the 1985–1986 cleaning by INAH (Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia). General works to be consulted include Coe and Houston 2015 and Miller and O’Neil 2014. Miller 2002 in RES is a good short overview of the paintings and their meaning.
  6.  
  7. Coe, Michael D., and Stephen Houston. The Maya. London: Thames and Hudson, 2015.
  8.  
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  10.  
  11. Coe’s general book on the Maya has long provided ample attention to Maya art; the new edition with Houston expands its coverage to the murals of Bonampak.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15. de la Fuente, Beatriz, and Leticia Staines Cicero, eds. La Pintura Mural Prehispánica en México II: Área Maya—Bonampak. 2 vols. México City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones, 1998.
  16.  
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  18.  
  19. Comprehensive volume with iconographic and architectural studies by many scholars associated with the Instituto de Investigaciones Esteticas. Includes foldouts that reconstruct the paintings photographically and map them into the architecture of Bonampak’s Structure 1.
  20.  
  21. Find this resource:
  22.  
  23. Espinosa, Augustín, Mauricio Rosas Kifuri, Beatriz Sandoval, and Abelardo Venegas. Bonampak. México City: Citicorp, Citibank Mexico, 1988.
  24.  
  25. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  26.  
  27. Excellent color photographs and fresh readings based on the cleaned paintings.
  28.  
  29. Find this resource:
  30.  
  31. Houston, Stephen D., David Stuart, and Karl A. Taube. The Memory of Bones: Body, Being, and Experience among the Classic Maya. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988.
  32.  
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  34.  
  35. This study of Maya thought includes interpretations and readings based on the Bonampak paintings, although not organized by site.
  36.  
  37. Find this resource:
  38.  
  39. Miller, Mary. “The Willfulness of Art: The Case of Bonampak.” Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics 42 (2002): 8–23.
  40.  
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  42.  
  43. A good short essay on the paintings and their meanings.
  44.  
  45. Find this resource:
  46.  
  47. Miller, Mary, and Claudia Brittenham. The Spectacle of the Late Maya Court: Reflections on the Paintings of Bonampak. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2013.
  48.  
  49. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  50.  
  51. Including large-scale foldouts of color reconstructions by Heather Hurst and Leonard Ashby, this volume incorporates the work of the Bonampak Documentation Project, which conducted archaeological research and novel imaging techniques at the site in 1996.
  52.  
  53. Find this resource:
  54.  
  55. Miller, Mary, and Megan O’Neil. Maya Art and Architecture. 2d ed. London: Thames and Hudson, 2014.
  56.  
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  58.  
  59. Miller and O’Neil devote a chapter of this edition to Maya murals.
  60.  
  61. Find this resource:
  62.  
  63. Ruppert, Karl, J. Eric S. Thompson, and Tatiana Proskouriakoff. Bonampak, Chiapas, Mexico. Publication 602. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1955.
  64.  
  65. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  66.  
  67. Long the standard publication of the murals, this volume includes the well-known reconstructions of Antonio Tejeda, well known and widely reproduced because of their presence at Harvard’s Peabody Museum. Maps and photographs document architecture and sculpture
  68.  
  69. Find this resource:
  70.  
  71. Villagra Caleti, Agustin. Bonampak: La ciudad de los muros pintados. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Secretaría de Educación Pública, 1949.
  72.  
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  74.  
  75. Augustín Villagra Caleti made one of the first sets of reconstructions, working alongside Antonio Tejeda, and they appear as foldouts in this short book. Working under the guidance of Alfonso Caso, Villagra precociously recognized war, constellations, and a likely historical meaning of hieroglyphic captions.
  76.  
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  78.  
  79. Hieroglyphic Inscriptions
  80. What scholars have thought about the Bonampak paintings has been shaped by hieroglyphic readings, starting with Villagra Caleti 1949 and Ruppert, et al. 1955 (both cited under General Overviews); Ruppert et al.’s views on inscriptions did not advance the study, and so investigation languished until Mathews 1980 and Adams and Aldrich 1980 developed new interest in Bonampak inscriptions, subsequently leading to Houston 1984 and Carrasco Vargas 1985, among others. In 1991, Schele summed up what was known of inscriptions in the Maya west. Houston’s most recent contributions may well be the most important, with an emphasis on youths and youth culture, the latest of his seminal contributions to the study of Bonampak.
  81.  
  82. Adams, Richard E. W., and Robert C. Aldrich. “A Reevaluation of the Bonampak Murals: A Preliminary Statement on the Paintings and Texts.” In Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, 1978, Part 2. Edited by M. G. Robertson and D. C. Jeffers, 45–59. Monterrey, Mexico: Pre-Columbian Art Research Center, 1980.
  83.  
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  85.  
  86. Adams and Aldrich provide the numeration and labeling of all figures and texts used today.
  87.  
  88. Find this resource:
  89.  
  90. Carrasco Vargas, Ramon. “La Señora Cimi: Señora de la familia de la Luna en las inscripciones Tardias de Yaxchilan y Bonampak.” In Fifth Palenque Round Table, 1983. Edited by V. M. Fields, 85–96. San Francisco: Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, 1985.
  91.  
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  93.  
  94. Highlights family connections between Yaxchilan and Bonampak.
  95.  
  96. Find this resource:
  97.  
  98. Houston, Stephen D. “A Quetzal Feather Dance at Bonampak, Chiapas, Mexico.” Journal de la Société des Américanistes 70 (1984): 127–138.
  99.  
  100. DOI: 10.3406/jsa.1984.2241Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  101.  
  102. Recognizes important verbal statements among the Room 1 dancers.
  103.  
  104. Find this resource:
  105.  
  106. Houston, Stephen D. “A Splendid Predicament: Young Men in Classic Maya Society.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 19.2 (2009): 149–178.
  107.  
  108. DOI: 10.1017/S0959774309000250Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  109.  
  110. Drawing heavily on the Bonampak inscriptions for his interpretations and providing new readings, Houston looks at the roles of young men in the Bonampak paintings and elsewhere.
  111.  
  112. Find this resource:
  113.  
  114. Houston, Stephen D. “The Good Prince: Transition, Texting and Moral Narrative in the Murals of Bonampak, Chiapas, Mexico.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 22.2 (2012): 153–175.
  115.  
  116. DOI: 10.1017/S0959774312000212Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  117.  
  118. The most important work on the Bonampak inscriptions.
  119.  
  120. Find this resource:
  121.  
  122. Martin, Simon, and Nikolai Grube. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. 2d ed. London: Thames and Hudson, 2008.
  123.  
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  125.  
  126. Martin and Grube pay close attention to Maya political allegiances, including the Bonampak ruling family.
  127.  
  128. Find this resource:
  129.  
  130. Mathews, Peter. “Notes on the Dynastic Sequence of Bonampak, Part 1.” In Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, 1978, Part 2. Edited by M. G. Robertson and D. C. Jeffers, 60–73. Monterrey, Mexico: Pre-Columbian Art Research Center, 1980.
  131.  
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  133.  
  134. Foundational study in the modern consideration of Bonampak; includes drawings of the lintels, stelae, and other carved monuments.
  135.  
  136. Find this resource:
  137.  
  138. Schele, Linda. “An Epigraphic History of the Western Maya Region.” In Classic Maya Political History: Hieroglyphic and Archaeological Evidence. Edited by T. P. Culbert, 72–101. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
  139.  
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  141.  
  142. Draws together the relationships among Palenque, Yaxchilan, Piedras Negras, and Bonampak.
  143.  
  144. Find this resource:
  145.  
  146. Stuart, David. “Jade and Chocolate: Bundles of Wealth in Classic Maya Economics and Ritual.” In Sacred Bundles: Ritual Acts of Wrapping and Binding in Mesoamerica. Edited by J. Guernsey and F. K. Reilly, 127–144. Barnardsville, NC: Boundary End Archaeology Research Center, 2006.
  147.  
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  149.  
  150. Commentary on the named bundles in the Bonampak paintings.
  151.  
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  153.  
  154. Regional Studies of the Usumacinta and Maya West
  155. Bonampak is often studied within a regional context, epigraphically, noted in the previous section, architecturally (Garcia Moll 2003, Miller 1998), and archaeologically (Golden, et al. 2008; Houston, et al. 2001; Scherer and Golden 2009). The archaeology will be addressed below; regional studies spelled out here focus on Piedras Negras and Yaxchilan, often with attention to warfare, material culture, and the interplay among the larger polities within which Bonampak played a role (Mathews 2000).
  156.  
  157. Garcia Moll, Roberto. La arquitectura de Yaxchilan. México City: CONACULTA and Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 2003.
  158.  
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  160.  
  161. Garcia Moll reviews architectural plans at Yaxchilan, some of which form the basis for Structure 1 at Bonampak, which houses the famous paintings.
  162.  
  163. Find this resource:
  164.  
  165. Golden, Charles, Andrew Scherer, A. Rene Muñoz, and Rosaura Vasquez. “Piedras Negras and Yaxchilan: Divergent Political Trajectories in Adjacent Maya Polities.” Latin American Antiquity 19.3 (2008): 249–274.
  166.  
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  168.  
  169. Looks for the evidence on the ground to see how Bonampak and other small sites of the region make allegiances.
  170.  
  171. Find this resource:
  172.  
  173. Houston, Stephen D., Hector L. Escobedo, Mark Child, Charles Golden, and A. Rene Muñoz. “Crónica de una muerte anunciada: Los años finales de Piedras Negras.” In Reconstruyendo la ciudad Maya: El urbanismo en las sociedades antiguas. Edited by A. Ciudad Ruíz, M. J. Iglesias Ponce de Leon, and M. Martínez Martínez, 65–94. Madrid: Sociedad Española de Estudios Mayas, 2001.
  174.  
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  176.  
  177. Convulsive warfare, of the sort depicted at Bonampak, afflicted the last years of Piedras Negras, as dealt with in this book.
  178.  
  179. Find this resource:
  180.  
  181. Mathews, Peter. “Guerra en las tierras bajas occidentales mayas.” In La guerra entre los antiguos mayas: Memoria de la Primera Mesa Redonda de Palenque. Edited by S. Trejo, 125–155. México City: CONACULTA, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 2000.
  182.  
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  184.  
  185. How Yaxchilan teamed up with Bonampak lords in the late 8th century.
  186.  
  187. Find this resource:
  188.  
  189. Miller, Mary Ellen. “A Design for Meaning in Maya Architecture.” In Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture. Edited by S. D. Houston, 187–222. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1998.
  190.  
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  192.  
  193. Architectural and sculptural relationships in the western Maya region, often based in warfare and tribute.
  194.  
  195. Find this resource:
  196.  
  197. Scherer, Andrew, and Charles Golden. “Tecolote, Guatemala: Archaeological Evidence for a Fortified Late Classic Maya Political Border.” Journal of Field Archaeology 34.3 (2009): 285–305.
  198.  
  199. DOI: 10.1179/009346909791070907Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  200.  
  201. Scherer and Golden find evidence of paintings at a fortified site that marked the border between Yaxchilan and Piedras.
  202.  
  203. Find this resource:
  204.  
  205. Painting Style and Comparisons
  206. Any serious student of Maya painting should start by consulting both Miller and Brittenham 2013 and de la Fuente and Staines Cicero 1998 (both cited under General Overviews). Lombardo de Ruiz 1974 has looked at the reading order of the rooms, with attention to stylistic differences first pointed out by Proskouriakoff in Ruppert, et al. 1955 (cited under General Overviews); Graulich 1995 picks up on some of Lombardo de Ruiz’s points, providing further argument for a Room 2 first reading of the paintings. Herring 2005 offers insights into Maya calligraphy, as does Montgomery 1995. Miller 2006 provides an overview of Maya painting that covers an entire millennium.
  207.  
  208. Graulich, Michel. “Bonampak, la lógica de la pinturas.” In Religión y sociedad en el área maya. Edited by C. Varela Torrecilla, J. L. Bonor Villarejo, and Y. Fernández Marquínez, 43–50. Madrid: Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana, 1995.
  209.  
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  211.  
  212. Graulich argues for a consistent reading order of painted walls.
  213.  
  214. Find this resource:
  215.  
  216. Herring, Adam. Art and Writing in the Maya Cities, A.D. 600–800: A Poetics of Line. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  217.  
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  219.  
  220. Herring provides theoretical insights into the relationship between the scribal arts, from writing to painting to sculpture.
  221.  
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  223.  
  224. Lombardo de Ruiz, Sonia. “Análisis formal de las pinturas de Bonampak.” Proceedings of the International Congress of Americanists (41 session, Mexico, 1974): 365–379.
  225.  
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  227.  
  228. Lays out an argument for reading order within the paintings. Volume 2 published in 1975.
  229.  
  230. Find this resource:
  231.  
  232. Lombardo de Ruíz, Sonia. “Los estilos en la pintura mural maya.” In La Pintura Mural Prehispánica en México II: Área Maya—Tomo III: Estudios. Edited by B. de la Fuente and L. Staines Cicero, 85–154. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, 2001.
  233.  
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  235.  
  236. Lombardo de Ruíz addresses the big picture of Maya painting here, framing regional styles.
  237.  
  238. Find this resource:
  239.  
  240. Miller, Mary. “Maya Painting, in a Major and Minor Key.” Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas 28.89 (2006): 59–70.
  241.  
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  243.  
  244. A good overview of Maya painting, from its earliest days until the Spanish invasion, with attention to stylistic development.
  245.  
  246. Find this resource:
  247.  
  248. Montgomery, John. “Sculptors of the Realm: Classic Maya Artists’ Signatures and Sculptural Style during the Reign of Piedras Negras Ruler 7.” PhD diss., University of New Mexico, 1995.
  249.  
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  251.  
  252. Montgomery’s unpublished dissertation looks at sculptural styles based on artists’ signatures, with relevance for Bonampak.
  253.  
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  255.  
  256. Scientific Inquiry of the Murals
  257. Since the 1940s, scholars have sought to understand the materiality of the Bonampak, in the recognition that some aspect of facture may have contributed to their survival. Pigments and binders have been of particular interest, especially to the author of Magaloni Kerpel 1998, Magaloni Kerpel 2001, and Magaloni Kerpel 2004; these studies have led to the recognition of the use of a broader palette at Bonampak than on any other pre-Hispanic painting. Giles Healey demonstrated in the 1940s that infrared photography could reveal lost or faded black outline of the Bonampak paintings; several of his infrared photographs of that period have been reproduced in Ruppert, et al. 1955 and Miller and Brittenham 2013 (both cited under General Overviews). Two important projects, one at Bonampak and the other at La Pasadita (where the same painters may have worked late in the 8th century) have demonstrated the effectiveness of both digital infrared and multispectral imaging in mural documentation (Ware, et al. 2002; Kamal, et al. 1999). The technology of corbeled vaults has also been considered in terms of the painting process of the murals (Ramirez Hernández 1998).
  258.  
  259. Kamal, Omar S., Gene A. Ware, Stephen D. Houston, D. M. Chabries, R. W. Christiansen, J. Brady, and Ian Graham. “Multispectral Image Processing for Detail Reconstruction and Enhancement of Maya Murals from La Pasadita, Guatemala.” Journal of Archaeological Science 26.11 (1999): 1391–1397.
  260.  
  261. DOI: 10.1006/jasc.1999.0415Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  262.  
  263. Proof of concept for multispectral imaging at a site not far from Bonampak.
  264.  
  265. Find this resource:
  266.  
  267. Magaloni Kerpel, Diana Isabel. “El arte en el hacer: técnica pictórica y color en las pinturas de Bonampak.” In La Pintura Mural Prehispánica en México II: Área Maya—Bonampak—Tomo II: Estudios. Edited by B. de la Fuente and L. Staines Cicero, 49–80. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, 1998.
  268.  
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  270.  
  271. Magaloni studies painting sections to learn how the Bonampak painters applied pigments, simultaneously documenting the pigments and materials themselves.
  272.  
  273. Find this resource:
  274.  
  275. Magaloni Kerpel, Diana Isabel. “La técnica pictórica en la pintura mural maya.” In La pintura mural prehispánica en México II: El Área Maya, book III Estudios. Edited by B. de la Fuente, 155–198. Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, 2001.
  276.  
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  278.  
  279. Here Magaloni examines Maya painting broadly, with particular attention to the invention and deployment of Maya blue.
  280.  
  281. Find this resource:
  282.  
  283. Magaloni Kerpel, Diana Isabel. “Technique, Color, and Art at Bonampak.” In Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya. Edited by M. E. Miller and S. Martin, 250–252. San Francisco and New York: Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco and Thames & Hudson, 2004.
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  286.  
  287. In a concise note, Magaloni Kerpel focuses on the most important discoveries of the scientific study conducted of the Bonampak paintings.
  288.  
  289. Find this resource:
  290.  
  291. Ramirez Hernández, Gerardo A. 1998. “¿Cómo se pinta la arquitectura en la arquitectura? Una posible respuesta al caso del Cuarto 3 del Edificio de las Pinturas de Bonampak.” In La Pintura Mural Prehispánica en México II: Área Maya—Bonampak—Tomo II: Estudios. Edited by B. de la Fuente and L. Staines Cicero, 103–130. México City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas.
  292.  
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  294.  
  295. An intriguing study that proposes how the Maya actually made the paintings and the technology of the particular corbel of Structure 1.
  296.  
  297. Find this resource:
  298.  
  299. Ware, G., S. Houston, M. Miller, K. Taube, and B. de la Fuente. “Infrared Imaging of Precolumbian murals at Bonampak, Chiapas, Mexico.” Antiquity 76 (2002): 325–326.
  300.  
  301. DOI: 10.1017/S0003598X00090347Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  302.  
  303. Proof of concept for modern infrared technology.
  304.  
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  306.  
  307. Archaeology
  308. Until the 1990s, most archaeology at the site of Bonampak focused on Structure 1 (and its conservation), because of the famous paintings preserved within, although extensive mapping has contributed to a larger understanding of the region (Paillés 1987; Martos López 2005; Pincemin Deliberos and Rosas Kifuri 1994; Tovalín Ahumada and Ortíz Villareal 1999; Tovalín Ahumada and Velázquez de Leon Collins 2002; Tovalín Ahumada, et al. 1999) More recently, lead archaeologist Alejandro Tovalín of Mexico’s Instituto Nacional de Antropologia has explored the surrounding structures, developing a sense of the regional development. Small tombs and caches have been found across the Acropolis. However, the single most dramatic archaeological discovery was made in 2010 (INAH 2010, Roach 2010), when a tomb came to light in the bench under Room 2 of Structure 1. Most scholars (Miller and Brittenham 2013 [cited under General Overviews]) believe that this late 8th-century tomb belongs to the patron of the murals.
  309.  
  310. INAH. “Descubren entierro.” INAH boletín. 2010.
  311.  
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  313.  
  314. News flash of the tomb in Structure 1.
  315.  
  316. Find this resource:
  317.  
  318. Martos López, Luis Alberto. “Plan de Ayutla: Un centro político del Alto Usumacinta.” Lakamha’ 3.14 (2005): 3–8.
  319.  
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  321.  
  322. Discovery of a site with unusual architecture within the Palenque-Yaxchilan sphere.
  323.  
  324. Find this resource:
  325.  
  326. Paillés, María de la Cruz. “El nuevo mapa topográfico de Bonampak, Chiapas.” In Memorias del Primer Coloquio Internacional de Mayistas. By María de la Cruz Paillés, 277–301. México City: Centro de Estudios Mayas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1987.
  327.  
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  329.  
  330. First expanded mapping project since the original 1940s efforts, bringing to light additional groupings of elite structures.
  331.  
  332. Find this resource:
  333.  
  334. Pincemin Deliberos, Sophía, and Mauricio Rosas Kifuri. “Últimos trabajos sobre los murales de Bonampak, Chiapas.” Arqueología Mexicana 2.9 (1994): 69–75.
  335.  
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  337.  
  338. How they conducted work at the site following the 1980s cleaning.
  339.  
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  341.  
  342. Roach, John. “Headless Man’s Tomb Found under Maya Torture Mural: ‘Material Evidence’ of the Ancient Images at Mexico’s Bonampak Site?. National Geographic News, 12 March 2010.
  343.  
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  345.  
  346. Further news item about the tomb in Room 2 of Structure 1.
  347.  
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  349.  
  350. Tovalín Ahumada, Alejandro, and Víctor Manuel Ortíz Villareal. “Ofrendas de Bonampak en contextos funerarios.” In XII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1998. Edited by J. P. Laporte and H. Escobedo, 583–599. Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, 1999.
  351.  
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  353.  
  354. Reviews the offerings and caches across the site.
  355.  
  356. Find this resource:
  357.  
  358. Tovalín Ahumada, Alejandro, and José Adolfo Velázquez de Leon Collins. “Arquitectura y patrón de asentamiento en Bonampak.” In Memorias del Tercer Congreso Internacional de Mayistas. By Alejandro Tovalín Ahumada and José Adolfo Velázquez de Leon Collins, 804–822. México City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2002.
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  361.  
  362. Further exploration of the settlement pattern surrounding the central area of Bonampak.
  363.  
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  365.  
  366. Tovalín Ahumada, Alejandro, José Adolfo Velázquez de Leon Collins, and Víctor Manuel Ortíz Villareal. “Cuenco de Alabastro con Decoración Incisa Procedente de Bonampak.” Mexicon 21 (August 1999): 75–80.
  367.  
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  369.  
  370. Discovery of a finely carved bowl not far from the Bonampak site center.
  371.  
  372. Find this resource:
  373.  
  374. Iconographic Concerns
  375. Over the years, scholars have turned to the murals of Bonampak as the principal examples of many aspects of elite Maya life; Miller 1985 and Hammond 1972 have discussed musical instruments and performances Looper 2009 addresses dance; Uriarte 1998 interprets costume; Houston, et al. 2009 evaluates color. Johnston 2001 brought attention to the treatment of the fingers of captives. Few other sources can provide the range of imagery confined to a single date in Maya history as do the Bonampak murals, and accordingly, Schele 1984 looked at human sacrifice through the paintings. Miller 1985 and Miller and Houston 1987 examined architectural iconography.
  376.  
  377. Hammond, Norman. “Classic Maya Music.” Archaeology 25 (1972): 124–131, 222–228.
  378.  
  379. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  380.  
  381. The relationship between the painted instruments in Bonampak and instruments recovered archaeologically, along with those depicted in other media.
  382.  
  383. Find this resource:
  384.  
  385. Houston, Stephen D., Claudia Brittenham, Cassandra Mesick, Alexandre Tokovinine, and Christina Warinner. Veiled Brightness: A History of Ancient Maya Color. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009.
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. How the Maya thought about color, with the Bonampak murals serving as a principal example.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393. Johnston, Kevin J. “Broken Fingers: Classic Maya Scribe Capture and Polity Consolidation.” Antiquity 75 (2001): 373–381.
  394.  
  395. DOI: 10.1017/S0003598X00061020Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  396.  
  397. Johnston argues that the sort of damage inflicted on the fingers in Room 2 of Bonampak is characteristic of the treatment of elite scribes.
  398.  
  399. Find this resource:
  400.  
  401. Looper, Matthew. To Be Like Gods: Dance in Ancient Maya Civilization. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009.
  402.  
  403. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  404.  
  405. Rooms 1 and 3 of Bonampak provide the greatest demonstration of Maya dance practice.
  406.  
  407. Find this resource:
  408.  
  409. Miller, Mary Ellen. “Architectural Backdrops of the Murals of Structure 1, Bonampak.” In Fourth Palenque Round Table. Edited by E. P. Benson, 185–190. San Francisco: Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, 1985.
  410.  
  411. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  412.  
  413. Miller maps the painted architecture within the paintings onto actual architecture at nearby sites.
  414.  
  415. Find this resource:
  416.  
  417. Miller, Mary Ellen, and Stephen D. Houston. “The Classic Maya Ballgame and Its Architectural Setting.” RES 14 (1987): 46–65.
  418.  
  419. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  420.  
  421. Miller and Houston examine depictions of steps in Maya art, along with actual inscribed stairs and the problematic relationship among steps, ballcourts, and the ballgame itself.
  422.  
  423. Find this resource:
  424.  
  425. Schele, Linda. “Human Sacrifice Among the Classic Maya.” In Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mesoamerica: A Conference at Dumbarton Oaks, October 13th and 14th, 1979. Edited by E. H. Boone, 6–48. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1984.
  426.  
  427. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  428.  
  429. Schele refocused interest in human sacrifice among the Maya, with particular attention to Bonampak.
  430.  
  431. Find this resource:
  432.  
  433. Uriarte, María Teresa. “El juego de las realidades: Análisis de los atavíos en Bonampak.” In La Pintura Mural Prehispánica en México II: Área Maya—Bonampak—Tomo II: Estudios. Edited by B. de la Fuente and L. Staines Cicero, 193–240. México City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, 1998.
  434.  
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436.  
  437. Headdresses and costume elements are carefully examined in this essay, with attention to their facture.
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441. Role in Contemporary Culture
  442. There have been important observations about the paintings in popular writings as well as investigations into the circumstances of their discovery. Newspapers in Mexico at the time carried detailed accounts of the various early expeditions to the site, especially the one in 1949 that resulted in the death of Carlos Frey, as revisited in Miles 2002. Equally interesting is the account in Baer and Baer 1969 of how the Lacandon Maya saw it. Bourne 2001 describes the discovery of the site but not discovery of the paintings. Miller 1995 describes the sense of viewing paintings after their formal cleaning in 1985–1986.
  443.  
  444. Baer, Phillip, and Mary Baer. “Discovery of Bonampak: The Lacandon View.” Tlalocan: Revista de fuentes para el conocimiento de las culturas indígenas de México 6.1 (1969): 63–67.
  445.  
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447.  
  448. This account includes the transcription in Maya of how the Lacandon Maya recall the day of discovery.
  449.  
  450. Find this resource:
  451.  
  452. Bourne, John S. Recollections of My Early Travels in Chiapas: Discoveries at Oxlahuntun (el Perro), Miguel Angel Fernandez, Bonampak and Lacanhá Mesoweb, 2001.
  453.  
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455.  
  456. John Bourne and Carlos Frey traveled to Bonampak in 1946, mapping one section of the site; nevertheless, as recounted here, they did not see the paintings.
  457.  
  458. Find this resource:
  459.  
  460. Miles, Jonathan. “The Death of Carlos Frey.” Men’s Journal, January 2002, 50–53, 86–87.
  461.  
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463.  
  464. Was Carlos Frey murdered? Journalist Miles returned to the site of the 1948 drowning of Carlos Frey, and Franco Goméz and literally tested the waters of the Lacanja River, finding little likelihood of an accidental capsizing.
  465.  
  466. Find this resource:
  467.  
  468. Miller, Mary. “Maya Masterpiece Revealed at Bonampak.” National Geographic 187.2 (1995): 50–69.
  469.  
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471.  
  472. The excitement of seeing the paintings after cleaning and an attempt at digital reconstruction.
  473.  
  474. Find this resource:
  475.  
  476. United Fruit Company. Bonampak. New York: Middle American Information Bureau, 1947.
  477.  
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479.  
  480. An unsigned pamphlet that accompanied an exhibition in New York City of some of Antonio Tejeda’s reconstructions and Giles Healey’s photographs.
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