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Guomindang (1912-1949) (Chinese Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Studies on the Chinese Nationalist Party, the Zhongguo Guomindang (GMD), have focused on some fundamental questions. The first has concerned its political and ideological roots. The GMD was built in 1912 when Sun Yat-sen directed the transformation of the Tongmenghui into a centralized, democratic political party. In 1913, however, the ex-Qing minister and general, Yuan Shikai, became the president of the Republic of China and ordered the dissolution of the GMD. In 1919 the GMD was revived by Sun, but only in 1923 did the party reaffirm its role. In the early Republic, the GMD developed in a political culture in which factions and personal connections were fundamental, causing large disagreement about its policy and ideology. In the early 1920s, Comintern representatives helped to reorganize the GMD in a Leninist-style party, setting basic approaches for bilateral cooperation, to include the recently established Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The GMD was restructured and a modern military force was created. The party’s ideology was, on the contrary, rather homegrown: the Three People’s Principles were elaborated into a political platform that targeted warlordism and imperialism. From 1926 on, the Guomindang, with the support of the Soviet advisers and the CCP, brought the warlord era to an end and, to a great extent, unified China; after Sun’s death in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi) rose to national power. The second area of investigation has concerned GMD’s performance in state building and governance. In 1928, after the end the Northern Expedition and the GMD-CCP split, Chiang and the GMD established a national government in Nanjing, which lasted about ten years (1928–1937, the so-called Nanjing decade), before the start of China’s war of resistance against Japan. The war years (1937–1945) saw the GMD-CCP United Front, which was largely ineffective; the relocation of the capital to Chongqing; and the birth of a collaborationist government headed by Wang Jingwei. In the late 1940s, a final battle between the GMD and the CCP resulted in the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 and in the retreat of the Guomindang to Taiwan. Scholars have debated on the GMD’s capacity, arguing either that the modest but definite successes in unification and a variety of modernization projects would in the long run have produced a stable and prosperous country, had not the Japanese invaded China, or, on the contrary, emphasizing how GMD regime’s authoritarianism, corruption, and incompetence as well as Chiang’s policy produced a demoralizing effect on the party and a growing dissatisfaction within society. For many decades, studies on the GMD have been informed by the Cold War–era divisions and the basic orientations of Chinese historiography during the Maoist period. Recently new trends have emerged offering deeper insights into several questions, which include a more reliable evaluation of Chiang Kai-shek’s role.
  3.  
  4. General overviews
  5. General histories of the Guomindang (GMD) are scarce in Western languages since scholars often have preferred to focus on limited periods or problems of the party’s development and historical experience, as in the GMD’s role in Chinese state building (Ch’ien 1950, cited under Guomindang as a Party State and Chinese Modern Political Culture) and in setting a blueprint for the future state developments under the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) (Bedeski 1981, also cited under Guomindang as a Party State and Chinese Modern Political Culture). The history of the GMD before the 1924 reorganization has been dealt with thoroughly in Yu 1966, which, even several decades after publication, still preserves its validity due to the richness and detailed information. On the contrary, Chinese scholars, both in Taiwan and in mainland China, have been extensively engaged in editing and producing scholarly work on the GMD’s general history. Actually, history of the party (dangshi) usually has been written by the party itself, which organized its Party History Committee (Zhongguo Guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui) in the 1940s. The Committee has been put in charge of the collection and preservation of the documents that have been the basis of standard histories and reference works about the GMD, edited by party historians, such as in Li 1994, which reflects the official chronology and interpretation of events, or illustrated histories (Zhongguo Guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui 1985), which offer rich visual material. In mainland China, historians’ interest for the GMD dates to the late 1980s when the archival resources on the Republican era began to be systematically explored. Ma, et al. 1988 is one of the 1980s works that still retains its validity. A detailed chronology on GMD history is Chen 1993, while information about GMD important figures can be found in Liu and Zhang 1991. The most important recent work on GMD’s history is the result of the cooperation of several People’s Republic of China (PRC) research centers and offers a rich perspective of PRC scholarship on the topic (Yu and Zhu 2001). Outside the sinophone scholarly sphere, Japanese historians have been among the most interested in the topic, thanks also to the huge collection of documents on the Republican era preserved in Japanese archives and libraries. Nozawa 1974 has been a pioneering work with regard to this, though it is mainly focused on the period of the national revolution.
  6.  
  7. Chen Xingtang 陳興唐, ed. Zhongguo Guomindang da shidian (中國國民黨大事典). Beijing: Zhongguo huaqiao chubanshe, 1993.
  8.  
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  10.  
  11. A very useful research tool prepared under the supervision of the Second Historical Archives of Nanjing. Provides a rather accurate and detailed chronology of the events related to the GMD and Sun Yat-sen from 1866 to 1989.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15. Li Yunhan 李雲漢. Zhongguo Guomindang shishu (中國國民黨史述). 5 vols. Taibei: Zhongguo Guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui, 1994.
  16.  
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  18.  
  19. A fundamental work written by one of the most authoritative scholars in the field. The first three volumes basically cover the birth of the first societies created by Sun Yat-sen in the late Qing period till the 1949 defeat and retreat to Taiwan; the fourth volume concerns the reorganization of the party and the government in Taiwan, while the fifth provides a very useful list of documents.
  20.  
  21. Find this resource:
  22.  
  23. Liu Jizeng 刘继增, and Zhang Baohua 张葆华, eds. Zhongguo Guomindang mingren lu (中國國民黨名人錄). Wuhan, China: Hubei Renmin chubanshe, 1991.
  24.  
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  26.  
  27. A useful collection of nearly one thousand short biographies of GMD’s personalities, plus charts of main GMD organizations.
  28.  
  29. Find this resource:
  30.  
  31. Ma Qibin 馬齊彬, Zhang Tongxin 張同新, and Li Jiaquan 李家泉, eds. Zhongguo Guomindang lishi shijan, renwu, ziliao jilu (中國國民黨歷史事件人物資料輯録). Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988.
  32.  
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  34.  
  35. It was the first official compilation of information about the Guomindang history published in the People’s Republic of China with the contribution of the main experts from Chinese universities and research centers. It covers also the post-1949 period. Still useful as a research tool.
  36.  
  37. Find this resource:
  38.  
  39. Nozawa Yutaka 野沢豊, ed. Chūgoku kokumin kakumeishi no kenkyū (中国国民革命史の研究). Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 1974.
  40.  
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  42.  
  43. A fundamental work in the field of Japanese studies on the Chinese national revolution, written by one of the pioneers of the studies on modern China in Japan.
  44.  
  45. Find this resource:
  46.  
  47. Yu, George T. Party Politics in Republican China: The Kuomintang 1912–1924. Berkeley, and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966.
  48.  
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  50.  
  51. George Yu’s volume was considered at that time a very pioneeristic and fundamental work; in the early 21st century, it is still largely considered an excellent work.
  52.  
  53. Find this resource:
  54.  
  55. Yu Keli 余克禮, and Zhu Xianlong 朱顯龍, eds. Zhongguo Guomindang quanshu (中國國民黨全書). 2 vols. Xi’an, China: Shaanxi renmin chubanshe, 2001.
  56.  
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  58.  
  59. An impressive work, prepared by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, which offers a short history of the party, a long list of key terms and events, a historical chronology regarding the party, and a final list of hundreds of short biographies of leaders and people related to the GMD.
  60.  
  61. Find this resource:
  62.  
  63. Zhongguo Guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui 中國國民黨中央委員會黨史委員會, ed. Zhongguo Guomindang yu Zhonghua minguo (中國國民黨與中華民國). Taibei: Zhongguo Guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui, 1985.
  64.  
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  66.  
  67. A volume that contains hundreds of photos related to the history of the GMD from the origins to the mid-1980s.
  68.  
  69. Find this resource:
  70.  
  71. Primary Sources
  72. This section offers a selected guidance on archival sources and other primary sources on the Guomindang (GMD). The relevant archives for research on the Guomindang are quite divided between the Republic of China, Taiwan, and the People’s Republic. It is worth noticing that several projects of preservation and digitalization of these archival resources are currently in progress, especially in the People’s Republic of China (PRC), apparently in order to make the documents more easily available to researchers, but in the end, to put more control on documents available to scholars. Moreover, digitalization processes often limit access to resources for long periods. Besides archives, original selected sources have been collected and edited by the GMD Party History Committee since the late 1940s. Most of the oldest collections concern the origins of the party, which the party historians date to the first political organization founded by Sun Yat-sen, the Xingzhonghui, in 1894; consequently, they also include documents about Sun’s earliest political activities and later the Tongmenghui. Generally speaking, these collections of documents include a wide typology of sources, but the bulk is represented by speeches of leading personalities and official records and documents of the central institutions of the party. Moreover, in recent years, several collections of documents concerning the party’s activities in localities or in specific periods have been published, especially in the People’s Republic, making use of the rich archival resources at local levels. In the end, it is worth citing the main press organs of the GMD whose collections (not always complete) are preserved in several libraries and, in some cases, are indexed and digitalized.
  73.  
  74. Archives
  75. The GMD Historical Archives (Zhongguo Guomindang dangshiguan) are located in Taiwan, and they preserve a collection of about three million items. Resources available to the readers are currently classified in sixteen main categories, which include also some local branch archives and archives of GMD personalities. Among the efforts to preserve the documents concerning the GMD, especially important is the project carried on by the Hoover Institution in Stanford, CA, since 2003. The Hoover Institution’s Zhongguo Guomindang Records has put forth a project, in cooperation with the GMD, to store microfilmed historical records held in the party’s archives in Taipei. Document classification mirrors the classification of the GMD Party Archives in Taipei. Documents about the GMD’s government, spanning to the post-1949 period, are also preserved at the Academia Historica (Guoshi guan) where there are the “Relics of the President Chiang Kai-shek” especially relevant to the period of the Sino-Japanese War. In mainland China, the main relevant archive for the GMD is the Second Historical Archive in Nanjing (Zhongguo dier lishi dang’an), which holds in particular an impressive collection of documents related to Chinese governments and institutions during the Republican period, and also records of puppet regimes and records of famous personalities. Especially relevant for Guomindang history are the Archives of the Nanjing National Government (1,400,000 files) and the records of the Wang Jingwei Reformed National Government (100,000 files). Due to the overlapping between the party’s activities and state administration, local archives at provincial, municipal, and district levels in mainland China are also rich with resources for research on the GMD in the pre-1949 period. Ye and Esherick 1996 is still a useful introduction to archives, but recent information about archival resources on China can be found in the section Fresh from the Archives on the Dissertation Review website, which is constantly updated. Actually, the accessibility of archival resources varies according to the period and the institution, and often rules concerning reading and reproducing of documents are quite restricted.
  76.  
  77. Dissertation Review. Fresh from the Archives.
  78.  
  79. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  80.  
  81. This section of the website Dissertation Review offers updated news about the collections of several local archives in mainland China and Taiwan, including first-hand practical information about accessibility and use.
  82.  
  83. Find this resource:
  84.  
  85. Guoshi guan (國史館).
  86.  
  87. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  88.  
  89. The archives of the Guoshi guan (Academia historica), divided between a city branch and a Xindian district branch, have been mostly digitalized, although not all the material can be printed out. Description and information can be found at the Guoshi guan website.
  90.  
  91. Find this resource:
  92.  
  93. Ye, Wa, and Joseph W. Esherick. Chinese Archives: An Introductory Guide. Berkeley: University of California, 1996.
  94.  
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  96.  
  97. Very useful, even if published in the 1990s; it includes details of different levels of archives, providing in most cases basic details to help Western scholars in using them.
  98.  
  99. Find this resource:
  100.  
  101. Zhongguo dier lishi dang’an (中国第二历史档案馆).
  102.  
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  104.  
  105. The Second Historical Archives of China is under the administration of the State Archives Bureau. A general description can be found at the provided link. Some years ago, the Archives announced that they will severely restrict access to the collections as part of a comprehensive digitalization program that aims to restrict access only to digitized files. The Archives publishes the journal Minguo dang’an (民國檔案) that also often includes documents on the GMD history.
  106.  
  107. Find this resource:
  108.  
  109. Zhongguo Guomindang dangshiguan (中國國民黨黨史館).
  110.  
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  112.  
  113. The GMD Archives are located at Ba-de Road, Section 2 in Central District. Current holdings, besides the documents classified in General Archives, include Minutes of GMD Central Political Meetings, Minutes of GMD Extraordinary Central Political Meetings, Five Departments, GMD Central Political Council, Special Archives of GMD Party Affairs, National Supreme Defence Commission, Records of Central Standing Committee, Central Executive Committee and other party affairs meetings, GMD Central Supervisory Committee Archive, Hankou Archive and Shanghai Huanlong Road Archive, Chiang Kai-shek Archives, Wu Zhihui Archives, Zhang Qun Archives, and Chen Cheng Archives.
  114.  
  115. Find this resource:
  116.  
  117. Zhongguo Guomindang Records.
  118.  
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  120.  
  121. Produced in collaboration with the Hoover Institution in Stanford, CA. There are currently more than 1700 microfilm reels. A detailed description of the archive and a searchable database could be found at the website of the Online Archives of California.
  122.  
  123. Find this resource:
  124.  
  125. Edited Collections of Documents
  126. Before archival documents became available, collections of documents, which especially concern party congresses, represented one of the main resources for scholars. As early as the 1940s, the Party History Committee began to edit the Dangshi shiliao congan, focusing especially on Sun Yat-sen and the foundational period of the party. After the end of the Civil War, the eminent historian Luo Jialun, as head of the Historical Committee, began to edit the collection of party documents, Geming wenxian, in several dozens of volumes (Luo 1953–), and later indexed by Luo himself (Luo 1968). PRC scholars also started on the edition of collections of sources concerning the GMD in the 1980s. Documents from all the national congresses have been published in Sun and Sun 1985, a collection that leaves more space to sources emphasizing the intraparty factionalism and opposition to Chiang Kai-shek’s rule. Similarly, the documents concerning the first and the second party congresses, which were held when the GMD and CCP cooperated in the First United Front, have been collected and edited by the Second Historical Archives in Nanjing (Zhongguo dier lishi dang’anguan 1986). Sources concerning GMD’s organizational history have been edited in Li and Lin 1993. Moreover, a huge collection of documents has been published focusing on the war against Japan (Qin 1981–1985), especially relevant for GMD foreign relations. More recently, documents concerning the Military Academy of Whampoa have been published, held in the provincial and municipal archives in Canton (Huangpu junxiao shiliao huibian). There are a few collections of translations of GMD official documents in English or other foreign languages. Shieh 1970 is still the largest available. Though limited in scope, one interesting collection that explores GMD’ s activity in France is Levine and Chen 2000.
  127.  
  128. Dangshi shiliao congan (黨史史料叢刊). Chongqing, 1944–.
  129.  
  130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131.  
  132. Edited by Zhongguo Guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui (中國國民黨中央委員會黨史委員會). This is the first official series of sources on party history, first published in Chongqing in 1944. Its publications went on until September 1947 (from issue number 5, it was renamed Geming wenxian congkan 革命文獻叢刊). It mainly collects Sun Yat-sen’s and other leaders’ writings and letters, and Guomindang newspapers’ editorials. It has been reprinted in Zhongguo xiandaishi shiliao congbian (中國現代史史料叢編) 9 (Taibei: Jindai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1992).
  133.  
  134. Find this resource:
  135.  
  136. Huangpu junxiao shiliao huibian (黃埔軍校史料彙編). Guangzhou, China, 2011–.
  137.  
  138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139.  
  140. Edited by Guangdong shengli Zhongshan tushuguan, Guangzhoushi shehui kexueyuan, Zhongshan daxue (廣東省立中山圖書館, ‎廣州市社會科學院, ‎中山大學). As indicated in the title, this recent series collects all sources relevant to the Huangpu Academy in Guangzhou, from archival documents to personal memories.
  141.  
  142. Find this resource:
  143.  
  144. Levine, Marylin A., and Chen San-ching, eds. The Guomindang in Europe: A Source of Documents. Berkeley: University of California, 2000.
  145.  
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  147.  
  148. A really innovative and useful work that presents the birth of the European Branch of the Guomindang in the early 1920s in France when the Work and Study Movement developed in Paris, Lyon, and other cities. The volume includes seventy-two documents, the larger portion translated from the original Chinese, while the rest are in English and French.
  149.  
  150. Find this resource:
  151.  
  152. Li Yunhan 李雲漢, and Lin Yangzhi 林養志, eds. Zhongguo Guomindang dangwu fazhan shiliao: Zuzhi gongzuo (中國國民黨黨務發埋史料: 組織工作). 2 vols. Taibei: Jindai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1993.
  153.  
  154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155.  
  156. Material related to Guomindang Party organization and activity from 1924 to 1948. Arranged chronologically, with many organizational charts.
  157.  
  158. Find this resource:
  159.  
  160. Luo Jialun 罗家伦, ed. Geming wenxian (革命文獻). Taibei: Zhongguo guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi shiliao bianzhuan weiyuanhui, 1953–.
  161.  
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163.  
  164. A large and, as far as known, still on-going series of documents related to special topics in Republican history. The basic organization is chronological; however, after the early volumes covered the basic history of the Republican revolutionary movement, subsequent volumes returned to earlier events and added additional documents.
  165.  
  166. Find this resource:
  167.  
  168. Luo Jialun 罗家伦, ed. Geming wenxian zongmu (革命文獻總目). Taibei: Zhongguo guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi shiliao bianzuan weiyuanhui, 1968.
  169.  
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  171.  
  172. Index to the Geming wenxian collection. Volume 1 covers Volumes 1–40 of the main collection; Volume 2 covers Volumes 41–60.
  173.  
  174. Find this resource:
  175.  
  176. Qin, Xiaoyi 秦孝儀, ed. Zhonghua minguo zhongyang shiliao chubian—dui Ri kangzhan shiqi (中華民國重要史料初編-對日抗戰時期). Taibei: Zhongguo Guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui, 1981–1985.
  177.  
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  179.  
  180. Seven volumes. Most of the documents concern foreign relations, but some also cover domestic politics during the war of resistance against Japan.
  181.  
  182. Find this resource:
  183.  
  184. Shieh, Milton J. T., ed. The Kuomintang: Selected Historical Documents, 1894–1969. New York: St. John’s University, 1970.
  185.  
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  187.  
  188. Represents, at that time, a very precious work providing a useful selection of historical documents about the GMD and spanning a large period.
  189.  
  190. Find this resource:
  191.  
  192. Sun Mengyuan 荣孟源, and Sun Caixia 孙彩霞, eds. Zhongguo Guomindang lici daibiao dahui ji zhongyang quanhui ziliao (中國國民黨歷次代表大會及中央全會資料). 2 vols. Beijing: Guangming ribao chubanshe, 1985.
  193.  
  194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195.  
  196. Collects the records and relevant sources of the Nationalist Party’s national congresses and of the meetings of the Central committees from 1924 to 1949. It includes the opening speeches, the declarations, the decisions, and the closing speeches of each congress, plus the list of delegates and the personal information of the members of the Central Executive Committee of the party. As the editors emphasize, this collection also includes party congresses’ documents concerning intraparty opposition to Chiang Kai-shek, different from Taiwan’s publication.
  197.  
  198. Find this resource:
  199.  
  200. Zhongguo dier lishi dang’anguan 中国第二历史档案馆, ed. Zhongguo Guomindang diyi, er quanguo daibiao dahui huiyi shiliao (中國國民黨第一二次全國代表大會會議史料). 2 vols. Nanjing, China: Jiangsu guji chubanshe, 1986.
  201.  
  202. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203.  
  204. Historical materials on the first and second national congresses of the GMD. This is the first issue of the series Zhonghua minguo dang’an shiliao congkan, edited by the Second Historical Archives of Nanjing. The volume collects all relevant documents concerning the first and second national congresses of the Nationalist Party, covering specifically the period of the First United Front between the Nationalist and the Communist Party.
  205.  
  206. Find this resource:
  207.  
  208. Party Press
  209. Party press constitutes an important original source for research on the GMD. Until 1928, the party was connected with the publication of several newspapers and magazines, but not all were actually controlled by the Department of Propaganda, which was founded in 1923. Before 1928 the most important newspaper was the Minguo ribao (National daily), which was the political voice of Sun Yat-sen, and the GMD had several local editions in main cities in China. After 1928 the mouthpiece of the GMD was the Zhongyang ribao (Central daily news) whose headquarters were located in Nanjing. Political magazines published by the GMD are relevant for the study of ideology and political thought. Among the most important of the 1919 movement’s magazines connected to the GMD were Xingqi pinglun (Weekly critic) and Jianshe (Reconstruction), both short lived. After 1928 the main political magazine was the Zhongyang zhoubao. Detailed history of Guomindang newspapers and magazines can be found in Cai 1998. Collections of old Chinese newspapers, including the GMD Party press, have been preserved in microfilms in libraries of the main centers for Chinese studies and have been made increasingly available to scholars as digitalized resources, again subscribed to by research centers. One of the most important collections of Republican-era newspapers and magazines is held at the Shanghai National Library, which has produced a huge database of digitalized newspapers and journals, Quanguo baokan suoyin. Another important platform is the database Dacheng laojiu kan quanwen shujuku.
  210.  
  211. Cai Mingze 蔡銘澤. Zhongguo Guomindang dangbao lishi yanjiu 1927–1949 (中國國民黨黨報歷史研究). Beijing: Tuanjie chubanshe, 1998.
  212.  
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  214.  
  215. A systematic introduction to the history of the Guomindang Press after the establishment of the Nanjing government.
  216.  
  217. Find this resource:
  218.  
  219. Dacheng laojiu kan quanwen shujuku 大成老旧刊全文数据库.
  220.  
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  222.  
  223. A full-text database for pre-1949 journals and magazines.
  224.  
  225. Find this resource:
  226.  
  227. Jianshe 建设. 1919–1920.
  228.  
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  230.  
  231. Published in Shanghai; English title: Reconstruction. One of the leading GMD theoretical journals of the May Fourth Movement. Liao Zhongkai and Zhu Zhixin were the editors. Among the contributors were Sun Yat-sen, Hu Hanmin, and Sun Fo. It stopped publication in 1920. In 1923 it resumed publication as Xin Jianshe 新建设.
  232.  
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  234.  
  235. Minguo ribao 民國日報. 1916–1937.
  236.  
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  238.  
  239. Published in Shanghai; English title: National Daily. The National Daily was founded by Chen Qimei and directed by GMD journalists Ye Shucang and Li Shaozi. In the mid-1920s, it became close to the so-called Right faction of the GMD, and in the 1930s, it was controlled by the Shanghai Propaganda Bureau. It stopped publication in 1937 before resuming shortly in 1945, continuing until 1947.
  240.  
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  242.  
  243. Quanguo baokan suoyin 全国报刊索引.
  244.  
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  246.  
  247. Compiled by the Shanghai National Library, the database includes collections of late Qing and Republican newspapers and journals. Full text of several journals and magazines are available as full-image pdfs. It is available to subscribers.
  248.  
  249. Find this resource:
  250.  
  251. Xingqi pinglun 星期評論. 1919–1920.
  252.  
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  254.  
  255. Published in Shanghai; English title: Critical Weekly. The most important May Fourth Movement journal connected to the GMD. Directed by Dai Jitao and Shen Dingyi. Among the contributors were Sun Yat-sen, Liao Zhongkai, and Chen Duxiu. It stopped publication in 1920.
  256.  
  257. Find this resource:
  258.  
  259. Zhongyang ribao 中央日報. 1929–1937.
  260.  
  261. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  262.  
  263. English title: Central Daily News. The official propaganda organ was originally founded in Hankou in 1927, after moved to Shanghai but it became the mouthpiece of the GMD in 1929 when its headquarters were located in Nanjing. It has digitalized and indexed as Central Daily News Archive Image, available in main research centers, since it is available only through subscription. Published in Chongqing, 1938–1945; published in Nanjing, 1945–1949.
  264.  
  265. Find this resource:
  266.  
  267. Zhongyang zhoubao 中央週報. 1938–1945.
  268.  
  269. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  270.  
  271. English title: Central Weekly. Originally founded in Changsha in 1938, it was immediately moved to Chongqing. It was directed by Tao Baichuan who later took over the Central Daily News. Published in Nanjing, 1945–1948.
  272.  
  273. Find this resource:
  274.  
  275. The Guomindang as a Party State and Chinese Modern Political Culture
  276. As the first political organization in China molded according to the Leninist model of modern mass party and embraced the principles of the party-state, the Guomindang’s (GMD) development and rise to power represented a turning point in the transformation of Chinese political culture. Scholars have often pointed out the continuities of the “party-state model” (Bedeski 1981) between the Nationalist and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), a model considered useful to gain national unity and independence, but with a negative or at least delaying impact on the development of democratic culture and democratic institutions (Kirby 2004). Political culture of the GMD has often been characterized as leading to institutional and political weakness (Ch’ien 1950) as well as illiberal and connected to the shift toward mass politics, a redefinition of the relations with society and new organizational patterns in the 1920s and the 1930s (Fitzgerald 1996, Fukamachi 1999). Fung 2000 argues that in GMD China, the intellectual foundations for the development of democracy were lacking, making it impossible for the emergence of a civil opposition to GMD Party rule. The role of the military force in the emerging of the new Republican elite is especially relevant to the GMD formation and political evolution, as discussed in McCord 2014. The negative impact of GMD political culture and government on the process of institutional strengthening in Republican China has been put into discussion in Strauss 1997 and Strauss 1998.
  277.  
  278. Bedeski, Robert E. State Building in Modern China: The Kuomintang in the Prewar Period. Berkeley: University of California, 1981.
  279.  
  280. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  281.  
  282. A stimulating comparison between the Chinese experiences (GMD and CCP) of the “party-state model,” stressing the continuities of the state evolution through the Republican, Nationalist, and Communist regimes.
  283.  
  284. Find this resource:
  285.  
  286. Ch’ien Tuan-sheng. The Government and Politics of China, 1912–1949. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950.
  287.  
  288. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674283367Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  289.  
  290. Published just after the displacement of the GMD by the CCP from the mainland to Taiwan, tries to answer, in particular, US questions about what will be the future of China by focusing on the GMD, and more generally, Republican, political, and institutional weaknesses. Historiography on the topic (see Strauss 1997) classified it as one of the works “overtly or covertly negative in their assessment of Republican, particularly KMT (GMD), government” (p. 329). Reprinted by Stanford University Press, 1970.
  291.  
  292. Find this resource:
  293.  
  294. Fitzgerald, John. Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  295.  
  296. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  297.  
  298. An excellent work that focuses on China’s “awakening” from the late 19th century to the first quarter of the 20th, showing how a “politics of awakening” can be institutionalized in a mass revolutionary movement. In particular, chapter 5 deals with the question of the party-state, indicating that the reorientation of GMD policy by the mid-1920s from “liberal to mass politics” entailed in fact a “downgrading of public opinion” (p. 206) in social organizations and state institutions.
  299.  
  300. Find this resource:
  301.  
  302. Fukamachi, Hideo 深町英夫. Kindai Chūgoku ni okeru seitō shakai kokka: Chūgoku Kokumintō no keisei katei (近代中国における政党・社会・国家:中国国民党の形成過程). Hachiōji-shi, Japan: Chūō Daigaku Shuppanbu, 1999.
  303.  
  304. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  305.  
  306. A stimulating study on the formation and developments of the GMD within the general context of modern China, written by one of the best Japanese scholars of the new generation.
  307.  
  308. Find this resource:
  309.  
  310. Fung, Edmund S. K. In Search of Chinese Democracy: Civil Opposition in Nationalist China, 1927–1949. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  311.  
  312. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511471018Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  313.  
  314. A large part of this volume is dedicated to the impact, under the Guomindang regime, of questions related to the Chinese conceptions of democracy, the practicability of democracy in China in the 1930s and 1940s, and why a democratic breakthrough did not take place, with modern China failing to achieve a transition from authoritarianism to democracy.
  315.  
  316. Find this resource:
  317.  
  318. Kirby, William C. “The Chinese Party-State under Dictatorship and Democracy on the Mainland and on Taiwan.” In Realms of Freedom in Modern China. Edited by William C. Kirby, 113–138. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004.
  319.  
  320. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  321.  
  322. Covers mainly the political experience of the Guomindang since the early 1920s to the 1990s, focusing on the question of the political culture of the party-state. The author argues that in China, the party-state became the central means of conquering and developing the country, while at the same time it delayed and debilitated the popular sovereignty promise that was implicit when the republic was established.
  323.  
  324. Find this resource:
  325.  
  326. McCord, Edward A. Military Force and Elite Power in the Formation of Modern China. New York: Routledge, 2014.
  327.  
  328. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  329.  
  330. This book examines the intersection of military force and elite power in the formative years of modern China, showing how important military force was to elite power in 19th- and early-20th-century China in a context of frequent warfare and political turmoil. It also provides a particular perspective on the boundaries and the constraints on elite power in Chinese society in a time of intense social and political change.
  331.  
  332. Find this resource:
  333.  
  334. Strauss, Julia C. “The Evolution of Republican Government.” In Special Issue: Reappraising Republican China. The China Quarterly 150 (June 1997): 329–351.
  335.  
  336. DOI: 10.1017/S0305741000052504Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  337.  
  338. A really careful and useful overview of the studies on the topic during the three decades that followed the post-1950 period. Indicates that new trends are emerging, not informed (or less informed) in comparison to past researches by the influence of the Cold War and the CCP victory in 1949.
  339.  
  340. Find this resource:
  341.  
  342. Strauss, Julia C. Strong Institutions in Weak Polities: State Building in Republican China, 1927–1940. Oxford: Clarendon, 1998.
  343.  
  344. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  345.  
  346. This work explores, by focusing on some case studies, state building and the processes by which supporting state bureaucratic organizations aided the state-building effort in Republican China between 1927 and 1940. It suggests that in environments profoundly hostile to state-building efforts, it is the state organizations that stand the best chance of becoming well institutionalized.
  347.  
  348. Find this resource:
  349.  
  350. The Early Years and the First United Front
  351. Historiography on the Guomindang’s (GMD) early history is generally focused on Sun Yat-sen’s activities as a revolutionary organizer and on the networks of personal relationships that were at the core of the GMD before 1923 (Chan 1976, Bergére 1994). The complexity of the political attitudes and outlooks toward China’s national identity and international position is also highlighted in Xu 2005, focusing on the impact of the First World War within the Chinese political context. Wilbur 1983 remains the most authoritative work on the period of the Nationalist Revolution and the period of Soviet support to Sun and the GMD. However, new perspectives on the topic have been opened by the archival research in China and Russia (see Leutner, et al. 2002).
  352.  
  353. Bergére, Marie-Claire. Sun Yat-sen. Paris: Fayard, 1994.
  354.  
  355. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  356.  
  357. A fundamental work not only for the life and activities of Sun Yat-sen but also more generally for the history of the GMD.
  358.  
  359. Find this resource:
  360.  
  361. Chan, Gilbert F. “Sun Yat-sen and the Origins of the KMT Organization.” In China in the 1920s: Nationalism and Revolution. Edited by Gilbert F. Chan and Thomas H. Etzold, 15–37. New York: Franklin Watts, 1976.
  362.  
  363. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  364.  
  365. A general essay, one of the few on the topic, devoted to a discussion on Sun Yat-sen and the origins of the GMD organization.
  366.  
  367. Find this resource:
  368.  
  369. Leutner, Mechthild, Roland Felber, Mikhail L. Titarenko, and Alexander M. Grigoriev, eds. The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002.
  370.  
  371. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  372.  
  373. A collection of essays written by European, Russian, and Chinese scholars. A long section is dedicated to Chiang Kai-shek and the Guomindang in the years of GMD and PCC United Front.
  374.  
  375. Find this resource:
  376.  
  377. Wilbur, Martin C. “The Nationalist Revolution: From Canton to Nanking, 1923–1928.” In Republican China 1912–1949, Part 1. Vol. 12 of The Cambridge History of China. Edited by Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, 527–720. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
  378.  
  379. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  380.  
  381. Even though published in the early 1980s, still an important work that maintains that the Chinese national revolution was successful and that years of close Russian involvement with the GMD had left upon it a Leninist stamp, creating an organizational structure that was very different from the past “loosely linked congeries of revolutionaries” (p. 717). At the same time, the author stresses the big problems that Nationalist China had to face after the basic success of the national revolution.
  382.  
  383. Find this resource:
  384.  
  385. Xu, Guoqi. China and the Great War: China’s Pursuit of a New National Identity and Internationalization. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. A pioneering and fundamental study on China and the First World War years. Even if this volume does not discuss specifically GMD’s politics and attitude toward the war, it shows some aspects (Part 3) regarding the positions within the Chinese political context about the debate on China’s need to enter or not to enter the conflict.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393. The Nanjing Decade
  394. The performance of the Guomindang (GMD) as a ruling power after 1927 has been one of the main issues of debate among scholars. Tien 1972 finds a distinct militarization of GMD politics in the 1930s, which the author views as related to Chiang’s increased control of the military and rise to preeminent power; he also dedicates a large chapter to detailed discussion of intraparty cliques such as the Blue Shirts, the C. C. Clique, and the Political Study Group, concluding that while the personal loyalty of members to Jiang may have strengthened his position within the GMD apparatus, it also served to perpetuate regionally based power groups. A more nuanced evaluation about the capacity of the GMD to lead modernization in China has been expressed in Sih 1970. The ideological judgment of the GMD as an expression of the interests of the capitalist class has been revised in Coble 1986, which highlights how under the GMD’s regime, the state has actually worked to weaken the Chinese capitalists’ role and influence in the political and economic realms. Eastman 1990 offers a very critical assessment of GMD performances during the Nanjing decade, raising the highly controversial issue of the “fascism model” influences in the GMD, with special attention to groups like the Blue Shirts.
  395.  
  396. Coble, Parks. The Shanghai Capitalists and the Nationalist Government 1927–1937. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986.
  397.  
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399.  
  400. Investigating the conflictual relationship between the Shanghai capitalists and the Nationalist government during the Nanjing decade, the author reveals how the GMD was able to strengthen the role of the Republican state in Chinese economy and society.
  401.  
  402. Find this resource:
  403.  
  404. Eastman, Lloyd E. The Abortive Revolution: China under Nationalist Rule, 1927–1937. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1990.
  405.  
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407.  
  408. A pioneering work by one of the most authoritative experts in the topic during the last decades. It explores in depth the circumstances that led to the building, development, and basic failure of the GMD experience in trying to recreate national unity and vitality under the Nanjing decade.
  409.  
  410. Find this resource:
  411.  
  412. Sih, Paul K. T. The Strenuous Decade: China’s Nation-Building Efforts, 1927–1937. New York: St. John’s University Press, 1970.
  413.  
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415.  
  416. Offers a much more positive view of the GMD during the Nanjing decade than in Eastman 1990 and Tien 1972, focusing on its merits and suggesting that the modernization efforts may have been more successful without the Japanese aggression and the start of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937.
  417.  
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420. Tien, Hung-mao. Government and Politics in Kuomintang China, 1927–1937. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972.
  421.  
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423.  
  424. A pioneering study by a scholar and political scientist who was Taiwan’s Minister for Foreign Affairs from 2000 to 2002. This work concentrates on the institutional and administrative structures of the Nationalist party-state in the “Nanjing Decade” and, to a large extent, takes the “nation” out of Nationalist China.
  425.  
  426. Find this resource:
  427.  
  428. The Guomindang during the War of Resistance against Japan
  429. Histories of the Sino-Japanese War in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) tended, after 1949, to attribute the victory over Japan to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), dismissing the role of Nationalists; in Taiwan, Nationalist historiography was, for various aspects, influenced by Guomindang’s (GMD) authoritarian rule, which stressed fighting against Communism. Western historians have all agreed that the war against Japan was a turning point in the history of the GMD. The disastrous military defeats in 1937 resulted in the national government’s loss of its economic heartland and political base; the central government’s strength was weakened, and emergency powers were increasingly concentrated in Chiang Kai-shek (Eastman 1984), but in a political and moral decline. Starting from the late 1990s, many past narratives were reversed, giving a more prominent role to the Nationalists’ military contribution (van de Ven 2003). Mitter and Moore 2011 and Mitter 2013 give a great contribution toward deep reconsideration of the political and military role of the GMD, placing Chinese resistance against Japan within the larger context of the Second World War. New analyses of the GMD’s history and role in the Second World War are van de Ven, et al. 2015 and Wang 2015, which is especially focused on the economic policies. Barrett and Shyu 2001 offers interesting insights on the Wang Jingwei regime and the issue of political collaboration with Japan.
  430.  
  431. Barrett, David, and Larry N. Shyu, eds. Chinese Collaboration with Japan, 1932–1945: The Limits of Accommodation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.
  432.  
  433. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  434.  
  435. A rich and fundamental collection of contributions by some of the best experts in the field. Shows many aspects related to the Wang Jingwei regime, and more generally on the background of the birth of the “peace movement” and the idea that China should collaborate with Japan.
  436.  
  437. Find this resource:
  438.  
  439. Eastman, Lloyd E. Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937–1949. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984.
  440.  
  441. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  442.  
  443. Following his The Abortive Revolution, Eastman describes the decline of a regime that entered into the war with serious weaknesses and failed to adapt to the stress, but also the opportunities of its wartime exile in Chongqing.
  444.  
  445. Find this resource:
  446.  
  447. Eastman, Lloyd E. “Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945.” In Republican China 1912–1949, Part 2. Vol. 13 of The Cambridge History of China. Edited by Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, 547–608. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
  448.  
  449. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  450.  
  451. “Political Debilitation” is the title of the final part of Eastman’s work. The author points out the expanding role, during the war years, of instruments of political control, rather than the party, like the Bureau of Investigation and Statistics of the Military Commission or GMD’s secret police, indicating that by 1944, political discontent was discernible at all levels of society.
  452.  
  453. Find this resource:
  454.  
  455. Mitter, Rana, and Aaron Moore, eds. Special Issue: China in World War II, 1937–1945: Experience, Memory, and Legacy. Modern Asian Studies 45.2 (March 2011).
  456.  
  457. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  458.  
  459. A fundamental study about China’s long war against Japan from 1937 to 1945, discussing some of the more controversial aspects of the wartime period in China. The issue covers, among others, important questions like that of the classification of citizens in Nationalist China (Mitter), administrative reforms (Boecking), and the efforts to reconstruct China’s borderlands (Rodriguez).
  460.  
  461. Find this resource:
  462.  
  463. Mitter, Rana. China’s War with Japan 1937–1945: The Struggle for Survival. London: Allen Lane, 2013.
  464.  
  465. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466.  
  467. As one of the most authoritative scholars in the field, Mitter remembers first of all that West China’s wartime experience continues to be poorly understood. He indicates that before the war erupted, the GMD party-state’s structure had become highly corrupted, particularly at the local level; the GMD regime failed to deal with the poverty of the rural regions, which gave the Communists a fundamental opportunity to succeed.
  468.  
  469. Find this resource:
  470.  
  471. van de Ven, Hans J. War and Nationalism in China, 1925–1945. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
  472.  
  473. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  474.  
  475. Offers a major new interpretation of the Chinese Nationalists, placing their war of resistance against Japan in the context of their prolonged efforts to establish control over their own country. In this book, van de Ven investigates the myths and truths of Nationalist resistance, including issues such as the achievements of Chiang Kai-shek as Nationalist leader and the respective contributions of the Nationalists and the Communists to the defeat of Japan.
  476.  
  477. Find this resource:
  478.  
  479. van de Ven, Hans J., Diana Lary, and Stephen R. Mackinnon, eds. Negotiating China’s Destiny in World War II. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015.
  480.  
  481. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  482.  
  483. An excellent collection of essays that represents a quite comprehensive treatment of China’s international relations during World War II. It strengthens our understanding of how China’s contemporary rise has, for various aspects, its roots in those years.
  484.  
  485. Find this resource:
  486.  
  487. Wang, Edward Qi, ed. Special Issue: GMD in World War II. Chinese Studies in History 48.3 (2015).
  488.  
  489. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  490.  
  491. An interesting issue containing articles devoted to economic and financial aspects of GMD’s policy during the Second World War, with a short (pp. 217–220) but stimulating introduction by the editor, pointing out the importance of further research in the field.
  492.  
  493. Find this resource:
  494.  
  495. The 1946–1949 Civil War
  496. Historiography on the Guomindang (GMD) during the Civil War has generally focused on the causes of its political and military defeat. Eastman 1984 identifies the roots of the failure in the incapacity of the GMD’s regime to adapt itself to the new situation during the exile in Chongqing, which made it impossible for the party to win the challenge of the Communists in the following years. Pepper 1986 still retains its full value in terms of methodology and sources. Westad 2003 reconsiders the war as a fundamental conflict in the 20th century, highlighting the failure of the GMD leaders to capitalize on the 1945 victory both in foreign and domestic politics. Military aspects are dealt with in Halik 2006 and in Lary 2015, which also focuses on social aspects of the conflict.
  497.  
  498. Eastman, Lloyd E. Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937–1949. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984.
  499.  
  500. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  501.  
  502. Following his analysis of the war years in Chongqing, Eastman sees the failure of the GMD in the Civil War as the result of the political and moral decline of the regime during the wartime exile in Chongqing and its inability to catch the opportunities of the end of the Second War War.
  503.  
  504. Find this resource:
  505.  
  506. Halik, Teresa. “The Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China—Negotiations and Strife.” In The Modern History of China. Edited by Roman Slawinski, 235–243. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka, 2006.
  507.  
  508. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  509.  
  510. An overview of the Civil War years, with special attention to military aspects.
  511.  
  512. Find this resource:
  513.  
  514. Lary, Diana. China’s Civil War: A Social History, 1945–1949. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
  515.  
  516. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781107294417Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  517.  
  518. The first book in English language to offer a social history of the Civil War. A superb work that moves from the military to the social aspects of the war, taking us to the overthrow of the GMD and the victory of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
  519.  
  520. Find this resource:
  521.  
  522. Pepper, Suzanne. “The KMT-CCP Conflict 1945–1949.” In Republican China 1912–1949, Part 2. Vol. 13 of The Cambridge History of China. Edited by Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, 723–788. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
  523.  
  524. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  525.  
  526. Considering the time (the 1980s) in which it was published, still represents a very valuable contribution in the investigation of the origins, development, and the final result of the GMD-CCP conflict between 1945 and 1949.
  527.  
  528. Find this resource:
  529.  
  530. Westad, Odd Arne. Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War 1946–1950. Standford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003.
  531.  
  532. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  533.  
  534. Westad sees the Civil War not as the last page of the Second World War, but as a founding event in the history of 20th-century China and in international history as well.
  535.  
  536. Find this resource:
  537.  
  538. Ideology and Organization
  539. Studies on the relationship between Guomindang’s (GMD) ideological debates and its organization and policies have touched several topics. Lǜ 1992 argues that the roots of GMD radical tendencies in the 1920s have to be traced in the impetum given by the New Culture and May Fourth Movement. Harris 2012 investigates how Cai Naiguang’ s interpretation of Sun Yat-sen’s thought became the core of the party’s ideology in the wake of Sun’s death, shedding some light on a critical period of GMD history. Focusing on the same period, but taking a different perspective, Fung 1985 investigates the place given to anti-imperialism by the Left Guomindang. The ideological debates between the Left and the Right in the late 1920s are also analyzed in Wang 1986. Looking at the New Life Movement’s organization of the Blue Shirts, Wakeman 1997 reflects on the validity of considering “fascism” as a component of the 1930s GMD organizational profile. Wang 2003a offers a careful analysis of GMD organization and social composition at a grassroots level. In his works that followed (Wang 2006 and Wang 2003b), Wang argues that the purge caused by the ideological and political choice to break with the Communist Party had long-lasting consequence on the GMD’s social composition and, consequently, on its ideological identity.
  540.  
  541. Fung, Edmund S. K. “Anti-imperialism and the Left Guomindang.” Modern China 11.1 (January 1985): 39–76.
  542.  
  543. DOI: 10.1177/009770048501100102Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  544.  
  545. Discusses the counterrevolutionary shift of Guomindang’s national and foreign policy after the break with and purge of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1927, and the growing problems and difficulties encountered by the Left Guomindang in facing the new trends, based on control of mass movements and on a reorientation of anti-imperialist policy.
  546.  
  547. Find this resource:
  548.  
  549. Harris, Lane J. “Defining the Nationalist Party Center: The Text and Context of Gan Naiguang’s Outline of Sun Wenism.” Southeast Review of Asian Studies 34 (2012): 87–113.
  550.  
  551. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  552.  
  553. The death of Sun Yat-sen ignited a heated two-year ideological debate both over the meaning of his Three Principles of the People and over his decision to form the United Front with the Chinese Communist Party. A little-known theorist named Gan Naiguang 甘乃光 (b. 1897–d. 1956) rose to prominence within the Nationalist Party. This essay is an introduction to Gan’s life and a translation of his most important work, “The Outline of Sun Wenism,” which appeared in 1926.
  554.  
  555. Find this resource:
  556.  
  557. Lǜ Fang-shang. “The Intellectual Origins of the Guomindang Radicalization in the Early 1920s.” Chinese Studies in History 26.1 (October 1992): 3–41.
  558.  
  559. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  560.  
  561. He suggests that the New Culture Movement and May Fourth Movement represented a powerful tide of new thinking that gave new impetus and eagerness to many revolutionaries linked to Sun Yat-sen and to Sun himself, paving the way for the birth of the Guomindang in 1919. Later works (for instance, Bergére’s Sun Yat-sen [Bergére 1994, cited under Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan)]) offered a rather different view of Sun’s approach to the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement, stressing his basic and also critical estrangement toward those “iconoclastes de la nouvelle génération” (“iconoclasts of the new generation,” see Bergére 1994, p. 315, French edition).
  562.  
  563. Find this resource:
  564.  
  565. Wakeman, Frederic, Jr. “A Revisionist View of the Nanjing Decade: Confucian Fascism.” In Special Issue: Reappraising Republic China. The China Quarterly 150 (June 1997): 395–432.
  566.  
  567. DOI: 10.1017/S030574100005253XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  568.  
  569. Focusing on the Blue Shirts Society, the authors analyze the peculiarities of one of the most known organizations born under the GMD’s aegis, taken often as evidence of GMD “fascism.”
  570.  
  571. Find this resource:
  572.  
  573. Wang, Ke-wen. “The Left Guomindang in Opposition, 1927–1931.” Chinese Studies in History 20.2 (1986): 3–43.
  574.  
  575. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  576.  
  577. With the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, the source of conflict within the Guomindang was essentially twofold: first, the political struggle for succession among party leaders after Sun’s death; second, ideological differences among competing factions. The paper examines the conflict between Hu Hanmin on the one hand and Wang Jingwei and Liao Zhongkai on the other, the latter viewed as “radicals” because of their active roles in the First United Front.
  578.  
  579. Find this resource:
  580.  
  581. Wang Qisheng 王奇生. Dangyuan, dangquan yu dangzheng: 1924–1949 nian Zhongguo Guomindang de zuzhi xingtai (黨員, 黨權與黨爭: 1924–1949 年中國國民黨的組織形態). Shanghai: Shanghai Shudian Chubanshe, 2003a.
  582.  
  583. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  584.  
  585. Aiming at investigating which social classes the GMD actually aimed at offering political representation, the monograph gives interesting insights also on the changes in GMD social composition, organization, and practices at the local level.
  586.  
  587. Find this resource:
  588.  
  589. Wang Qisheng 王奇生. “The Guomindang’s Organizational Degeneration after the 1927 Purge.” Modern Chinese History Studies 5 (2003b): 38–79.
  590.  
  591. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  592.  
  593. This article maintains that the 1927 GMD purge produced a big loss for the Guomindang itself since, after 1927, new members from the upper classes and especially opportunists and corrupt people entered into the party, thus paving the way for its counterrevolutionary transformation in the 1930s and 1940s.
  594.  
  595. Find this resource:
  596.  
  597. Wang Qisheng 王奇生. Guo Gong he zuo yu guo min ge ming 1924–1927 (國共合作與國民革命). Nanjing, China: Jiangsu Renmin Chubanshe, 2006.
  598.  
  599. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  600.  
  601. Acknowledging the common roots and similarities between the GMD and the PCC in the 1920s, the author investigates how, during the Nationalist Revolution, the split between the two parties developed in the changing balance of power and influence in mass politics at the local level.
  602.  
  603. Find this resource:
  604.  
  605. Party’s Relations to Chinese Society and Its Economic and Social Policies
  606. Guomindang’s (GMD) relations to Chinese society in the Republic and its economic and social policies is a complicated issue, due to rapid social change and differentiation of the Republican era and to the overlap between state and party, especially since the late 1920s. The study Fewsmith 1985 is especially valuable in making a distinction between the GMD as a party and its influence as a state builder, analyzing the political role of local business elites in Shanghai and their relations to political authorities. Scholars have generally agreed that the party, while recognizing the importance of social organizations in the popular mobilization for national unity and in economic modernization, tried to gain control of them, though not always successfully (Galy 1998, Liang 2003). Two recent exemplary cases of the GMD’s attempt to mobilize and mold urban society according to its vision of social regeneration in different urban contexts can be found in Li 2012 and in Tsui 2013. In the urban context, one of the most intriguing relations between the GMD and society has been the one with secret societies such as the Green Gang (Martin 1995, Martin 2005), an interesting case of GMD’s need to coopt a social organization in the local power system. The paradigmatic example of the GMD’s difficultly in reconciling the aspiration to guide a moral regeneration of Chinese society and the need to strengthen the fiscal capacity of the state is GMD’s policy toward opium (Slack 2000, Paulés 2007). The limits and problems of GMD’s fiscal policies during the war are analyzed in Boecking 2011, which sees these policies as the main cause of GMD’s defeat in 1949.
  607.  
  608. Boecking, Felix. “Unmaking the Chinese Nationalist State: Administrative Reform among Fiscal Collapse, 1937–1945.” Modern Asian Studies 45.2 (2011): 277–301.
  609.  
  610. DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X11000011Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611.  
  612. The author analyzed the crucial area of taxation and fiscal policy during the war, when the Nationalists were compelled to redesign their fiscal administration in a context within China’s economy and were unable to support a war effort financed through indirect taxation.
  613.  
  614. Find this resource:
  615.  
  616. Fewsmith, Joseph. Party, State and Local Elites in Republican China: Merchant Organizations and Politics in Shanghai 1890–1930. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1985.
  617.  
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619.  
  620. Focusing on the Chamber of Commerce, a fundamental player in Shanghai local economy, society, and politics, the author also investigates the relationship between the business elite and the GMD as a party, against the background of the state-building process in the Republican era up to 1929.
  621.  
  622. Find this resource:
  623.  
  624. Galy, Laurent. “Le Guomindang et ses relais dans la societé shanghaienne en 1923.” Études chinoises 17.1–2 (Spring–Fall 1998): 233–294.
  625.  
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627.  
  628. English title: “The Guomindang and its connections with the Shanghai society in 1923.” This paper examines the relations between the Guomindang and associations, such as the Merchant’s Street Association, which lead the popular mobilization for the recovery of leased territory and the possible formation of a “merchants’ government” in Shanghai in 1923. It maintains that the Guomindang tried to seize control of these movements but basically failed because of the resistance from these associations.
  629.  
  630. Find this resource:
  631.  
  632. Li, Guannan. “Reviving China: Urban Reconstruction in Nanchang and the Guomindang National Revival Movement, 1932–1937.” Frontiers of History in China 7.1 (2012): 106–135.
  633.  
  634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635.  
  636. This paper is the first examination of the urban reconstruction of Nanchang, headquarters of the New Life Movement during a period of “National Revival” from 1932 to 1937. It presents a fresh understanding of the Guomindang New Life Movement, challenging the established idea of the movement’s mere focus on disciplining the Chinese population without any agenda to materially transform Chinese life.
  637.  
  638. Find this resource:
  639.  
  640. Liang Shangxian 梁尚贤. “Guomindang yu Guangdong mintuan 国民党即与广东民团.” Jindai shi yanjiu 6 (2003): 1–44.
  641.  
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643.  
  644. It studies the relations between the Guomindang and the Guangdong militia, and the role played by the latter in the strong opposition to the rising Guangdong peasant movement in the 1920s, with particular attention to the years 1925–1927.
  645.  
  646. Find this resource:
  647.  
  648. Martin, Brian G. “The Green Gang and the Guomindang State: Du Yuesheng and the Politics of Shanghai, 1927–1937.” Journal of Asian Studies 54.1 (February 1995): 64–92.
  649.  
  650. DOI: 10.2307/2058951Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651.  
  652. Discusses the complex relationship that developed between Du Yuesheng’s Shanghai Green Gang group and the Guomindang regime in the mid-1930s. It maintains that although Du Yuesheng and the Green Gang bosses were coopted by the new GMD power in Shanghai starting in the late 1920s, actually their full integration into the regime did not occur until the early 1930s, as part of the new structure of state corporatism.
  653.  
  654. Find this resource:
  655.  
  656. Martin, Brian G. “Eating Bitterness: Du Yuesheng and Guomindang Politics in Shanghai, 1945–49.” East Asian History 29 (June 2005): 129–152.
  657.  
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659.  
  660. Du Yuesheng and the Green Gang were important elements in the Guomindang’s structure of power in Shanghai in the 1930s. During the Sino-Japanese War, Du deepened his relations with Dai Li and the Guomindang’s security service, and played a key role in Guomindang-sponsored underground operations in the Japanese-occupied areas. At the end of the war, therefore, Du lost his important role as a mediator between the GMD and the Shanghai foreign authorities, and was met with a new vision of its organization, now considered to be backward and decadent.
  661.  
  662. Find this resource:
  663.  
  664. Paulés, Xavier. “La lutte contre l’opium: Panacée politique pour le Guomindang?” Vingtième Siècle 95.3 (2007): 193–217.
  665.  
  666. DOI: 10.3917/ving.095.0193Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667.  
  668. English title: “The fight against opium: Political panacea for the Kuomintang?” The aim of this paper is to show that the Six-Year Plan did not only provide for the Guomindang an opportunity to reinforce its legitimacy (popular sentiment in favor of opium eradication) but also, in particular, reinforced the GMD’s attempt to convince that drug eradication constituted as vital of a priority as the fight against Japan, and that the success of the antidrug campaign would be the key to a victorious resistance.
  669.  
  670. Find this resource:
  671.  
  672. Slack, Edward R. Opium, State and Society: China’s Narco-economy and the Guomindang, 1924–1937. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000.
  673.  
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675.  
  676. An innovative investigation of the symbiotic relationship between opium and the Guomindang’s rise to power during the 1924–1937 period, based in particular on previously not exploited archival sources. It stresses how the Guomindang’s approach to the opium problem was at the same time morally abhorrent and fiscally imperative.
  677.  
  678. Find this resource:
  679.  
  680. Tsui, Brian. “Clock Time, National Space, and the Limits of Guomindang Anti-imperialism.” Positions 21.4 (2013): 921–945.
  681.  
  682. DOI: 10.1215/10679847-2346050Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683.  
  684. This article examines the politics of time and space in Nationalist China and aims at demonstrating that the Guomindang’s nation-building project overdetermined the party-state’s ambivalent attitude toward modernity. The author argues that the school campuses on which the GMD projected its social vision were constructed as a kind of “mechanical-clock-timed” training ground of wage laborers and, at the same time, as spaces of authenticity from social alienation.
  685.  
  686. Find this resource:
  687.  
  688. Propaganda and Cultural Activities
  689. In the field of education and culture, the Guomindang (GMD) projected much of its vision of a modern, united, and regenerated China. Exploring several cultural and symbolic practices embodying this vision, from education to science, the collected essays in Bodenhorn 2002 present GMD’s rhetorics of modernity. The GMD was the first political party in China to develop a systematic use of modern propaganda in domestic and foreign contexts. Fitzgerald 1992 shows a significant shift in the concept of the public opinion’s role and in propaganda organization in the nationalist revolution. One of the few analyses of an important party organ is Hana 1978. During the war, an international propaganda system was created (Wei 2014), and a war of images and symbols was engaged by the GMD’s intellectuals against Japan (Zhang 2014). Students were a key social group in GMD’s vision of modern China, and the party’s policy toward educated youth reflected its ideological and political twists. The importance attached to youth education for revolution by the GMD since the early 1920s is shown by the case of the Labor University in Shanghai (Chan and Dirlik 1991). Conversely, in the 1930s and during the war against Japan, most of the GMD’s efforts in the field of education were addressed to control and indoctrinate the students, directing them away from politics and toward socioeducational pursuits (Huang 1993, Huang 1999, Liu 2010).
  690.  
  691. Bodenhorn, Terry, ed. Defining Modernity: Guomindang Rhetorics of New China 1920–1970. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2002.
  692.  
  693. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  694.  
  695. This interesting collection of essays covers several aspects of Guomindang’s vision of modern China, arguing that this has been one of the most enduring legacies of the Nationalist Party in Chinese contemporary history.
  696.  
  697. Find this resource:
  698.  
  699. Chan, Ming K., and Arif Dirlik. Schools into Fields and Factories: Anarchist, the Guomindang and the National Labour University in Shanghai, 1927–1932. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991.
  700.  
  701. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  702.  
  703. The Labour University was one of the most ambitious projects in Republican China to integrate labor and learning in education in order to bring about a revolutionary transformation, both social and cultural, of China. The volume stresses that while the university was established under Guomindang auspices, it was at the same time a direct outgrowth of the influence of anarchist educational activity in Shanghai during the past years.
  704.  
  705. Find this resource:
  706.  
  707. Fitzgerald, John P. “The Origins of the Illiberal Party Newspaper: Print Journalism in China’s National Revolution.” Republican China 21.2 (April 1992): 1–22.
  708.  
  709. DOI: 10.1179/repc.1996.21.2.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  710.  
  711. The author argues that the Leninist influence on party organization and discipline in the period of the First United Front marked the end of pluralism of public opinion and the liberal journalistic tradition inside the Nationalist Party.
  712.  
  713. Find this resource:
  714.  
  715. Hana, Corinna. Sun Yat-sen’s Parteiorgan Chien-she (1919–1920). Wiesbaden, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1978.
  716.  
  717. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  718.  
  719. English title: Sun Yat-sen’s Party Organ: Jianshe, 1919–1920. A study of the political and intellectual role of Jianshe zazhi (Reconstruction) within the Guomindang’s rebirth and new policies.
  720.  
  721. Find this resource:
  722.  
  723. Huang, Jianli. “The Formation of the Guomindang Youth Corps: An Analysis of Its Original Objectives.” East Asian History 5 (June 1993): 133–148.
  724.  
  725. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  726.  
  727. This article aims to seek a better understanding of the Youth Corps by exploring its objectives at the time of its formation in the late 1930s, filling a rather general vacuum, which at that time was dominant in the field.
  728.  
  729. Find this resource:
  730.  
  731. Huang, Jianli. The Politics of Depoliticization in Republican China: Guomindang Policy towards Student Political Activism, 1927–1949. 2d rev. ed. Bern, Switzerland, and Berlin: Peter Lang, 1999.
  732.  
  733. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  734.  
  735. This study presents an analysis on Chinese student political activism by focusing on how the ruling Guomindang viewed the issue and formulated its response from 1927 to 1949. Basically, a set of restrictive regulations governing student unions was imposed and served as the core of the GMD student policy.
  736.  
  737. Find this resource:
  738.  
  739. Liu, Jennifer. “Indoctrinating the Youth: Guomindang Policy on Secondary Education in Wartime China and Postwar Taiwan, 1937–1960.” PhD diss., University of California at Irvine, 2010.
  740.  
  741. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  742.  
  743. Explores the Guomindang’s attempts to inculcate political loyalty in secondary school students through youth organizations and military training in China and Taiwan. It compares the failure of the GMD’s Three People’s Principles Corps (TPPYC) in China with the remarkable success of the China Youth Corps (CYC) in the early years following the GMD retreat to Taiwan.
  744.  
  745. Find this resource:
  746.  
  747. Wei, Shuge. “News as a Weapon: Hollington Tong and the Formation of the Guomindang Centralized Foreign Propaganda System 1937–1938.” Twentieth Century China 39.2 (May 2014): 118–143.
  748.  
  749. DOI: 10.1179/1521538514Z.00000000039Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  750.  
  751. It analyzes how the war of resistance against Japan gave a strong impulse to the development of a professionalized propaganda system aimed at foreign propaganda in the West.
  752.  
  753. Find this resource:
  754.  
  755. Zhang, Shaoqian. “Combat and Collaboration: The Clash of Propaganda Prints between the Chinese Guomindang and the Japanese Empire in the 1930s–1940s.” Transcultural Studies 1 (2014): 95–133.
  756.  
  757. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  758.  
  759. It examines the war of propaganda prints between the GMD and the Japanese during the 1930s and 1940s, demonstrating that the Chinese were able to utilize a variety of symbols and art techniques in an effort to create their own propaganda products and to break from the hegemony of the new Japanese order.
  760.  
  761. Find this resource:
  762.  
  763. Foreign Relations and Party Activities Abroad
  764. Studies on role of foreign advisors in the party and on party activities abroad shed light on the international and transnational dimension of Guomindang (GMD) history. Scholarly focus has been quite selective. The role of Soviet advisors of the GMD during the Nationalist revolution has been revised in Heinzing 1978, while the advisors’ personal experiences have been analyzed in Wilbur and How 1989. Martin’s studies have focused on Germany’s influence in the GMD (Martin 1981, Martin 1986). Levine 1996 and Samarani 2001 offer stimulating insights on the activities in and relations with Europe. GMD’s place among the Chinese communities in the United States before the Second World War is analyzed in Lai 1991, while Yong and McKenna 1990 reconstructs the history of the GMD in the colonized context of British Malaya. The legacy of GMD war presence in Southeast Asia in the wake of the Second World War is considered in Clymer 2014, which investigates the case of Burma, arguing that, in spite of the Cold War alignment, it represented a critical issue in GMD and US relations.
  765.  
  766. Clymer, Kenton. “The United States and the Guomindang Forces in Burma, 1949–1954: A Diplomatic Disaster.” Chinese Historical Review 21.1 (May 2014): 24–44.
  767.  
  768. DOI: 10.1179/1547402X14Z.00000000027Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  769.  
  770. In 1949, when the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) armies were sweeping to victory, thousands of GMD troops fled into northern Burma. The author indicates that this event complicated Burma’s relations with the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and also poisoned relations with the United States for years to come.
  771.  
  772. Find this resource:
  773.  
  774. Heinzing, Dieter. Sowietische Militarberater bei der Kuomintang 1923–1927. Baden-Baden, Germany: Nomos Verlaggesellchaft, 1978.
  775.  
  776. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  777.  
  778. English title: Soviet military advisers to the Guomindang 1923–1927. A reexamination of the standard works on the history of Soviet policies toward China, in the light of the publication of several memoirs by former Soviet advisers in China.
  779.  
  780. Find this resource:
  781.  
  782. Lai, Mark H. “The Kuomintang in Chinese American Communities before World War II.” In Entry Denied: Exclusion and the Chinese Community in America 1882–1943. Edited by Sucheng Chan, 170–212. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991.
  783.  
  784. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  785.  
  786. An account of the political activities and the changing relationship between the Nationalist Party and the Chinese ethnic community in the United States by one of the leading scholars of the Chinese American community.
  787.  
  788. Find this resource:
  789.  
  790. Levine, Marylin. “Communist-Leftist Control of the European Branch of the Guomindang, 1923–1927.” Modern China 22 (January 1996): 62–92.
  791.  
  792. DOI: 10.1177/009770049602200103Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  793.  
  794. Focuses on the Chinese communist-leftist groups’ influence and control over the European Branch of the Guomindang in France and Europe, introducing questions and sources that were later used in Levine and Chen 2000 (cited under Edited Collections of Documents).
  795.  
  796. Find this resource:
  797.  
  798. Martin, Bernd, ed. Die Deutsche Beraterschaft in China, 1927–1938: Militar-Wirschaft-Aussenpolik. Düsseldorf: Droste Verlag, 1981.
  799.  
  800. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  801.  
  802. English title: The German advisory group in China: Military, economic and political issues in Sino-German relations, 1927–1938. A study of the German Advisory Group in the Guomindang China era. The focus is, however, more on Germany than China. Very useful to better understand Germany’s policy in China and the Far East before the war against Japan.
  803.  
  804. Find this resource:
  805.  
  806. Martin, Bernd. “Das Deutsche Reich und Guomindang-China, 1927–1941.” In Von der Kolonialpolitik zur Kooperation: Studien zur Geschichte der deutsch-chinesischen Beziehungen. Edited by Hengyu Guo, 325–375. Munich: Minerva Publikation, 1986.
  807.  
  808. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  809.  
  810. English title: “The German Reich and Guomindang China, 1927–1941.” Sino-German relations are an important feature of GMD history. This article investigates the relations between Germany and the GMD after the establishment of the Nanjing government, up to the early years of the war.
  811.  
  812. Find this resource:
  813.  
  814. Samarani, Guido. “The Evolution of Fascist Italian Diplomacy during the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1943.” In China in the Anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945: Politics, Culture and Society. Edited by David P. Barrett and Larry N. Shyu, 65–87. New York, and Washington, DC: Peter Lang, 2001.
  815.  
  816. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  817.  
  818. Discusses the relations of Fascist Italy with Chiang Kai-shek and GMD China during the Sino-Japanese War in 1937–1943, a very neglected topic. The author points out that Italy, though sympathetic to Japan ideologically and politically, still tried to keep close diplomatic relations with the Nationalist Government of China to preserve its interests in the country.
  819.  
  820. Find this resource:
  821.  
  822. Wilbur, Clarence M., and Julie Lien-ying How. Missionaries of Revolution: Soviet Advisors and Nationalist China 1920–1927. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989.
  823.  
  824. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674863187Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  825.  
  826. Making use both of Chinese and Russian sources, the book reveals both the Soviet advisors’ difficulties in understanding the complicated Chinese political situation and their fundamental role in shaping GMD and PCC political techniques and methods in China during the First United Front.
  827.  
  828. Find this resource:
  829.  
  830. Yong, Ching Fatt, and R. B. McKenna. The Kuomintang Movement in British Malaya 1912–1949. Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1990.
  831.  
  832. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  833.  
  834. Analyzes the first steps of the GMD activities in Malaya since 1912, British control over Chinese nationalism, the agony of the movement from the early 1930s to the early 1940s, and finally its high tide from 1945 to 1949.
  835.  
  836. Find this resource:
  837.  
  838. Main Personalities
  839. It is impossible to downplay the role played by key personalities and personal relationships in the history of the Guomindang (GMD), and the study of single individuals has often offered important insights both on the ideological, social, and cultural complexity of the party and on its inner-political dynamics before 1949. Besides main political leaders such as Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek, and Wang Jingwei, scholars have especially investigated those personalities, such as Hu Hanmin and Dai Jitao, who played an important role in the ideological debates inside the GMD. Interest for their thought is especially relevant among scholars of mainland China, those keen to understand the ideological background of GMD’s complicated relationship with the Chinese Communist Party. It is worth noticing that the success of autobiographies and personal memoires as a literary genre of 20th-century China has enriched the sources available to scholars interested in getting a deeper understanding of individual personalities’ experiences and the perception of their role inside the party.
  840.  
  841. Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan)
  842. As the founding father of the Guomindang and its main ideologue, Sun Yat-sen is the most investigated personality of the GMD. The starting points for any researcher are the biography Bergére 1994, which offers a critical overview both of the merits and faults of Sun, and the rich bibliography Chang and Gordon 1998, which gives an order to the huge primary and secondary literature on the topic. Given the importance played by Japan’s cultural and political milieu in Sun’s historical experience, Nozawa 1971 offers an interesting perspective of Sun in the national revolution as seen from the Japanese scholarship’s point of view. More recently, Wells 2001 reconsiders the political thought of Sun Yat-sen, connecting it to Sun’s experiences and connections, and tracing the roots, both in Western thinking and Chinese tradition, of his ideas and their impact on other Third World leaders. The most complete collection of Sun’s writings published in Taiwan is Qin 1989, just a few years after the publication of Sun’s complete works by the most important centers for the study of Sun in mainland China (Guangdongsheng shehuikexue yuan lishi yanjiushi, et al. 1981–1986). A useful introduction to Sun’s political thought is the collection of his political writings translated in English in Myers and Gillin 1994.
  843.  
  844. Bergére, Marie-Claire. Sun Yat-sen. Paris: Fayard, 1994.
  845.  
  846. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  847.  
  848. An excellent biography of Sun Yat-sen that goes over the myth and critically analyzes both the great historical contribution, and the faults and uncertainties of “Father of the Republic” as well. English translation published by Stanford University Press, 1998.
  849.  
  850. Find this resource:
  851.  
  852. Chang, Sydney H., and Leonard H. D. Gordon, eds. Bibliography of Sun Yat-sen in China’s Republican Revolution, 1885–1925. 2d ed. Lanham, MD, and New York: University Press of America, 1998.
  853.  
  854. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  855.  
  856. Arranged by categories of documents (Sun’s writings, reference works, documentary collections, doctoral dissertations, etc.), it provides a very useful instrument. Rich with more than 2,500 entries; it includes Chinese characters in the text.
  857.  
  858. Find this resource:
  859.  
  860. Guangdongsheng shehuikexue yuan lishi yanjiushi, Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan jindai shi yanjiusuo, Zhonghua Minguo shi yanjiushi, and Zhongshandaxue lishixi Sun Zhongshan yan jiushi (廣東省社會科學院歷史硏究室,中國社會科學院近代史硏究所中華民國史硏究室, 中山大學歷史系孫中山硏究), eds. Sun Zhongshan quan ji (孫中山全集). 11 vols. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1981–1986.
  861.  
  862. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  863.  
  864. As far as known, the most recent and complete collection of Sun Yat-sen’s (Sun Zhongshan) complete works published in the People’s Republic of China.
  865.  
  866. Find this resource:
  867.  
  868. Myers, Ramon H., and Donald G. Gillin. Prescriptions for Saving China: Selected Writings of Sun Yat-sen. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1994.
  869.  
  870. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  871.  
  872. A selection of more than forty writings from Sun Yat-sen, ranging from early speeches to the address delivered a year before his death; offers an idea of Sun’s philosophy and vision.
  873.  
  874. Find this resource:
  875.  
  876. Nozawa Yutaka 野沢豊. Son Bun to Chūgoku kakumei (孫文と中国革命). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1971.
  877.  
  878. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  879.  
  880. A pioneering study by one of the fathers of Japanese studies on modern China about Sun Yat-sen and his role in the Chinese revolution.
  881.  
  882. Find this resource:
  883.  
  884. Qin Xiaoyi 秦孝儀, ed. Guofu quanji (國父全集). 12 vols. Taibei: Jindai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1989.
  885.  
  886. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  887.  
  888. As far as known, the most recent and complete collection of Sun Yat-sen’s (Guofu 國父, that is, “father of the country”) complete works published in Taiwan.
  889.  
  890. Find this resource:
  891.  
  892. Wells, Audrey. The Political Thought of Sun Yat-sen: Development and Impact. New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2001.
  893.  
  894. DOI: 10.1057/9781403919755Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  895.  
  896. A quite well-crafted study that revaluates many aspects of the importance of Sun’s political thought.
  897.  
  898. Find this resource:
  899.  
  900. Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi)
  901. The role and personality of Chiang Kai-shek are pivotal in GMD’s history in several key periods both before and after 1949. For several decades, Cold War ideological divide has often influenced scholars’ attitudes toward Chiang, and studies of his figure have been relatively few. In the framework of the current historical revisionism toward GMD’s performance during the Nanjing decade and especially during the war against Japan, the availability of new archival resources, such as Chiang’s personal diaries, have permitted a deeper understanding of his complex personality and political choices in several crucial historical moments, with special reference to the Second World War period. Taylor 2009 traces a vivid portrait of an authoritarian leader driven by a strong will to build a unified China and a modern state based on Confucian values, a portrait quite different from the one offered by the memoirs of Chiang’s second wife, Ch’en, dedicated to the early period of Chiang’s rise to power (Eastman 1993). The complex interaction between Chiang and Japan, where the generalissimo spent some of his youth in military training, is analyzed in Yamada and Mitsuhiro 2013. A more balanced view of Chiang Kai-shek has been also produced by scholars in mainland China. In a three-volume work, Yang 2008–2014 makes use of Chiang’s diaries in order to shed new light on the generalissimo’s personality. One of the most innovative threads in the current revision of Chiang has concerned the Second World War and Chiang’s diplomacy. Making use of newly available materials, Tsang 2015 offers a new interpretation of the Xi’an Incident and of the weight attributed to the relations with the Soviet Union by Chiang. In the same vein, Yang 2015 and Li 2015 have revisited the relationship between Chiang and Nehru, and between Chiang and Stalin, respectively. Chiang Kai-shek’s wife, Song Meiling, played a pivotal role in Chiang’s politics and relations with the United States, especially during the war (Taylor 2009).
  902.  
  903. Eastman, Lloyd E., ed. Chiang Kai-shek’s Secret Past: The Memoir of His Second Wife, Ch’en Chieh-ju. Boulder, CO, and San Francisco: Westview, 1993.
  904.  
  905. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  906.  
  907. Ch’en Chieh-ju was the wife of Chiang Kai-shek from 1921 to 1927. Her memoirs—originally published in Chinese in 1992 in Taiwan—depicts Chiang as a lustful, ill-tempered and boundlessly ambitious man, and sheds light on the intrigues that marked her husband’s early political career.
  908.  
  909. Find this resource:
  910.  
  911. Li, Yuzhen. “Chiang Kai-shek and Joseph Stalin during World War II.” In Negotiating China’s Destiny in World War II. Edited by Hans van de Ven, Diana Lary, and Stephen R. Mackinnon, 141–155. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015.
  912.  
  913. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  914.  
  915. Indicates that Chiang’s China and Stalin’s Soviet Union left aside past divergences and contrasts, and moved toward an accommodation in front of the Japanese growing threat. Based basically on Chinese and Soviet party and government documents, it argues that both leaders based their policies on a rational calculation of the strategic interests of their countries and their shared commitment to the historical importance of Japan and Germany’s final defeat.
  916.  
  917. Find this resource:
  918.  
  919. Taylor, Jay. The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China. Cambridge, MA, and London: Belknap, 2009.
  920.  
  921. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  922.  
  923. A vivid portrait of Chiang Kai-shek in which the author has made use of a wide range of sources—such as Chiang Kai-shek’s diaries—to offer new perspectives on Chiang’s role and personality.
  924.  
  925. Find this resource:
  926.  
  927. Tsang, Steve. “Chiang Kai-shek’s ‘Secret Deal’ at Xi’an and the Start of the Sino-Japanese War.” Palgrave Communications (20 January 2015): 2–12.
  928.  
  929. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  930.  
  931. Using newly available archives, particularly the diary and the presidential papers of Chiang Kai-shek, this article challenges the conventional interpretations of the Xian Incident (1936) and in particular the belief that the kidnapping of China’s leader, Chiang, by two rebellious generals forced him to form a united front with the Communist Party to confront Japanese aggression.
  932.  
  933. Find this resource:
  934.  
  935. Tyson, Laura Li. Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China’s Eternal First Lady. New York: Grove, 2006.
  936.  
  937. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  938.  
  939. Traces Madame Chiang Kai-shek’s (Song Meiling) biography of an intriguing and controversial figure. Beautiful, brilliant, and captivating, Madame Chiang Kai-shek seized unprecedented official and unofficial power during China’s long and violent Civil War. She passionately argued against Chinese Communism in the international arena and influenced decades of Sino-American relations and modern Chinese history.
  940.  
  941. Find this resource:
  942.  
  943. Yamada Tatsuo 山田辰雄, and Mitsuhiro Matsushige 松重充浩. Shō Kaisekikenkyū: Seiji sensō Nihon (蔣介石研究: 政治・戦争・日本). Tokyo: Tohoshoten, 2013.
  944.  
  945. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  946.  
  947. A greatly valuable and stimulating volume by Yamada Tatsuo, one of the leading scholars inside and outside Japan on Chiang Kai-shek and modern China, and Matsushige Mitsuhiro, a well-known specialist of Chinese history with particular reference to Manchuria. The volume is divided into three parts: Chiang Kai-shek and Japan, Chiang Kai-shek and politics, and Chiang Kai-shek and the war.
  948.  
  949. Find this resource:
  950.  
  951. Yang Tianshi 楊天石. Zhaoxun zhenshi de Jiang Jieshi: Jiang Jieshi riji jiedu (找尋真實的蔣介石。蔣介石日記解讀). Vols. 1–3. Taiyuan, China: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 2008–2014.
  952.  
  953. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  954.  
  955. Yang Tianshi is the leading expert on Chiang Kai-shek in mainland China. His approach to the reading of Chiang’s diary reflects Yang’s persuasion that they were written as personal documents not aimed at public disclosure, and so they are important documents to reveal the true personality and thoughts of Chiang, especially in topical moments of Chinese history such as the Xi’an Incident. Volume 2, published in Beijing: Huawen chubanshe; Volume 3, published in Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian.
  956.  
  957. Find this resource:
  958.  
  959. Yang Tianshi 楊天石. “Chiang Kai-shek and Jawaharlal Nehru.” In Negotiating China’s Destiny in World War II. Edited by Hans van de Ven, Diana Lary, and Stephen R. Mackinnon, 127–140. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015.
  960.  
  961. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  962.  
  963. Shows how the cordial wartime relationship between Chiang and Nehru was grown within the larger context of the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War (July 1937) and later on during the Second World War in Europe (September 1939), and stresses how such a relationship would end after the end of the war in 1945 and especially after India’s independence in 1947.
  964.  
  965. Find this resource:
  966.  
  967. Wang Jingwei
  968. As a national GMD leader opposed to Chiang Kai-shek and, during the war, the main supporter of the collaboration with Japan and the head of the Nationalist Reformed Government in Nanjing, Wang Jingwei is one of the most interesting personality of the Guomindang. In China, Japan, and the West, scholarly interest in Wang has been mainly dedicated to his choice to cooperate with Japan. So 2010 investigates the still-little-explored field of Wang Jingwei’s contribution to the elaboration of Chinese national identity. As a leading scholar on the topic, Wang Ke-wen has produced a rich portrait of Wang Jingwei and his opposition to Chiang in several fundamental moments of the GMD history, from the Wuhan government to the war (Wang 2001b). Wang 2001a, an essay in English, explores the roots of Wang Jingwei’s choice to compromise with Japan in his 1930s political experience. Barrett 2001 focuses on Wang’s collaborationist regime in Nanjing, emphasizing the similarities between Wang and Chiang’s regimes in several aspects, such as factionalism, personality cult, and the weight of propaganda. Limits of Wang’s power with respect to the Japanese military presence were at any rate clearly demonstrated in the field of security (Martin 2001). In mainland China, scholars have made use of the rich archival resources on the topic. A huge collection of sources about Wang’s regime has been edited in Huang and Zhang 1984. Among Cai’s several works dedicated to Wang Jingwei, Cai 1993 studies the main factors that drove him to become a “traitor,” focusing on his hopes and ambitions to take over Chiang Kai-shek’s position. Based on the rich resources of the Second Historical Archives in Nanjing, Wan 1994 also offers interesting visual documentation on Wang Jingwei’s regime. Offering Japanese scholarship’s perspective on Wang Jingwei, Kobayashi and Michio 2005 aim at giving a realistic portrait of Wang’s Nanjing regime, policies, and diplomacy.
  969.  
  970. Barrett, David P. “The Wang Jingwei Regime 1940–1945: Continuities and Disjunctions with Nationalist China.” In Chinese Collaboration with Japan, 1932–1945: The Limits of Accommodation. Edited by David Barrett and Larry N. Shyu, 102–115. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.
  971.  
  972. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  973.  
  974. The essay emphasizes the similarities between Chiang Kai-shek’s regime and Wang Jingwei’s regine in political organization and practices.
  975.  
  976. Find this resource:
  977.  
  978. Cai Dejin 蔡德金. Lishi de guai tai: Wang Jingwei guomin zhengfu (歷史的怪胎: 汪精衛國民政府). Guilin, China: Guanggxi shifan daxue chubanshe, 1993.
  979.  
  980. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  981.  
  982. The author aims at studying what the real reasons were that a nationalist such as Wang Jingwei took to develop his policy of accommodation and collaboration with Japan, focusing on Wang’s political rivalry with Chiang Kai-shek.
  983.  
  984. Find this resource:
  985.  
  986. Huang Meizhen 黃美真, and Zhang Yun 张云, eds. Wang Jingwei guomin zhengfu chengli: Wang wei zhengquan ziliao xuanbian (汪精衛國民政府成立: 汪偽政權資料選編). Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin chubanshe, 1984.
  987.  
  988. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  989.  
  990. A selection of documents about Wang Jingwei’s collaborationist regime in Nanjing.
  991.  
  992. Find this resource:
  993.  
  994. Kobayashi Hideo 小林英夫, and Michio Hayashi 林道生, eds. Nitchū Sensō shiron: Ō Seiei seiken to Chūgoku senryōchi (日中戦争史論: 汪精衛政権と中国占領地). Tokyo: Ochanomizu Shobo, 2005.
  995.  
  996. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  997.  
  998. A significant work on recent Japanese scholarship about the Wang Jingwei’s (Wang Tiaoming) regime and its attitude toward Japanese occupation.
  999.  
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001.  
  1002. Martin, Brian. “Shield of Collaboration: The Wang Jingwei Regime’s Security Service, 1939–1945.” Intelligence and National Security 16.4 (December 2001): 89–148.
  1003.  
  1004. DOI: 10.1080/02684520412331306310Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1005.  
  1006. Studies the role of the security service in the Wang Jingwei collaborationist regime and argues that it not only contributed to the regime’s coercive capacity but that it was also involved with the regime’s broader sociopolitical policies, which provides a clear example of the limits on the power of Wang’s collaborationist regime.
  1007.  
  1008. Find this resource:
  1009.  
  1010. So, Wai-chor. “National Identity, Nation and Race: Wang Jingwei’s Early Revolutionary Ideas, 1905–1911.” Journal of Modern Chinese History 4.1 (2010): 57–80.
  1011.  
  1012. DOI: 10.1080/17535651003779442Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1013.  
  1014. Goes back to Wang’s early years, discussing his ideas on nation and race before the 1911 Revolution. It suggests that among the revolutionaries, Wang Jingwei had a clear idea that the new Chinese nation should be composed of different nationalities, including the Manchus. Also stresses that Wang, a much-reviled political figure in Chinese history, gave a great contribution to the formulation of a racial identity for the Chinese nation.
  1015.  
  1016. Find this resource:
  1017.  
  1018. Wan Renyuan 萬仁元, ed. Wang Jingwei wei zhengfu (汪精衞與汪偽政府). Hong Kong: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1994.
  1019.  
  1020. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1021.  
  1022. Published in coordination with the Second Historical Archives of China, a pictorial history of Wang JIngwei’s government based on the resources available in the Second Historical Archives in Nanjing.
  1023.  
  1024. Find this resource:
  1025.  
  1026. Wang Ke-wen 王克文. “Wang Jingwei and the Origins of the ‘Peace Movement,’ 1932–1937.” In Chinese Collaboration with Japan, 1932–1945: The Limits of Accommodation. Edited by David Barrett and Larry N. Shyu, 21–37. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001a.
  1027.  
  1028. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1029.  
  1030. The author analyzes the path and the complex interplay of factors in which Wang Jingwei’s attitude toward Japan developed before the outbreak of the war.
  1031.  
  1032. Find this resource:
  1033.  
  1034. Wang Ke-wen 王克文. Wang Jingwei, Guomindang, Nanjing zhengquan (汪精衞・國民黨・南京政權). Taibei: Guoshiguan, 2001b.
  1035.  
  1036. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1037.  
  1038. The book offers a thorough study of Wang Jingwei’s political career and the ideological and political foundations of his choice to establish a collaborationist government in Nanjing.
  1039.  
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041.  
  1042. Hu Hanmin
  1043. Studies on Hu Hanmin are usually focused on his political thought as one of main GMD personalities hostile to the cooperation with the Communists in the 1920s and later his opposition to Chiang Kai-shek. As one of the most important political thinkers in the GMD, his writings have been collected and published in four volumes by the GMD Party History Committee (see Hu Hanmin xiansheng wenji). In recent years, the mainland China scholar Chen Hongmin has extensively worked on Hu Hanmin’s papers, editing a collection of unpublished sources available at the Harvard-Yenching Library (Chen 2005) and a rich collection of Hu’s essays from the late Qing, including the writings on his travels to Europe (Chen and Fang 2014). Barrett 1982 helps the reader to understand the complex articulation of opinions inside the GMD in the 1920s.
  1044.  
  1045. Barrett, David P. “The Role of Hu Hanmin in the ‘First United Front’: 1922–1927.” The China Quarterly 89 (March 1982): 34–64.
  1046.  
  1047. DOI: 10.1017/S0305741000000047Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1048.  
  1049. A research article that explores Hu’s approach toward the GMD-CCP alliance in the 1920s, showing how for many aspects, the category of “right” (Hu was usually referred as a “rightist”) and “left” within the GMD are of some value, but often distort the wide range of opinions within the party on the question of communist involvement.
  1050.  
  1051. Find this resource:
  1052.  
  1053. Chen Hongmin 陈红民, ed. Hu Hamin weikan wanglai han dian gao (胡漢民未刊往來函電稿). Guilin, China: Guangxi shifan daxeue chubanshe, 2005.
  1054.  
  1055. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1056.  
  1057. An extraordinary series of unexplored documents held at the Harvard-Yenching Library, prepared by Chen Hongmin, one of the most authoritative scholars in China and in the international context of Hu. Through an investigation of about three thousand pieces of speech papers, manuscripts, and correspondence, the author classified them and also gave route to a better understanding of Hu Hanmin’s political attitudes and stands.
  1058.  
  1059. Find this resource:
  1060.  
  1061. Chen Hongmin 陈红民, and Fang Yong, eds. Zhongguo jindai sixiangjia wenku: Hu Hanmin juan (中國近代思想家文庫: 胡漢民卷). Beijing: Zhongguo Renmin chubanshe, 2014.
  1062.  
  1063. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1064.  
  1065. A very updated analysis on the thought of Hu Hanmin.
  1066.  
  1067. Find this resource:
  1068.  
  1069. Zhongguo Guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui 中國國民黨中央委員會黨史委員會, ed. Hu Hanmin xiansheng wenji (胡漢民先生文集). 4 vols. Taibei: Zhongguo Guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui, 1978.
  1070.  
  1071. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1072.  
  1073. Covers Hu Hanmin’s activities in the pre-1911 period (Vol. 1), in the post-1911 years (Vol. 2), and his revolutionary activities and writings about China’s revolution (Vols. 3–4).
  1074.  
  1075. Find this resource:
  1076.  
  1077. Dai Jitao
  1078. Notwithstanding his importance as an original political thinker, his influence in the party, and his role as a leader of important GMD institutions, Dai Jitao’s intellectual path and political career are still insufficiently investigated in the West. One exception is Mast 1970. The most valuable works on Dai have been written by Taiwan-based scholars. Dai’s writings have been edited in Taiwan in the early 1960s (Wu 1962). The study of Dai’s life and thought in Chen 1977 is still very useful. More recently, Zhu, et al. 1989 provides an interesting collected volume that touches several aspects of Dai’s life and thought in the context of the changing political and cultural landscape of modern China.
  1079.  
  1080. Chen Tianxi 陳天錫, ed. Dai Ditao (Chuanxian) xianshang biannian zhuanji (戴季陶[傳賢]先生編年傳記). Taibei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1977.
  1081.  
  1082. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1083.  
  1084. A biography of Dai Jitao (Dai Chuanxian); a fundamental volume to understand Dai Jitao’s thought and intellectual contribution to the GMD and to modern China.
  1085.  
  1086. Find this resource:
  1087.  
  1088. Mast, Herman William, III. “An Intellectual Biography of Tai Chi-t’ao from 1891 to 1928.” PhD diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1970.
  1089.  
  1090. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1091.  
  1092. As far as known, the only intellectual biography in the English language about Dai. Unfortunately, it stops at 1928 when his activities started to be more absorbed by government offices (in particular as president of the Examination Yuan).
  1093.  
  1094. Find this resource:
  1095.  
  1096. Wu Xiangxiang 吳相湘, ed. Dai Tianchou wenji (戴天仇文集). Taibei: Wenxing shudian, 1962.
  1097.  
  1098. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1099.  
  1100. Collected writings of Dai Jitao.
  1101.  
  1102. Find this resource:
  1103.  
  1104. Zhu Huisen 朱匯森, Jian Shengguang, and Hou Kunhong, ed. Dai Chuanxian yu xiandai Zhongguo (戴傳賢與現代中國). Taibei: Guoshiguan, 1989.
  1105.  
  1106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1107.  
  1108. A collection of essays and memories related to Dai Jitao’s life and activities.
  1109.  
  1110. Find this resource:
  1111.  
  1112. Other Personalities
  1113. Several aspects of Guomindang (GMD) history could be usefully understood by focusing on important individuals. Monographs and translations of memoirs of several important figures of the GMD are available in English to the researcher, although some key personalities are still quite unexplored. The early history of the GMD is illustrated by the biography of Sun Yat-sen’s fundamental ally, Huang Xing (Hsueh 1961), and by some Chinese-language studies on Song Jiaoren (Wu 1969, Zhang 2010). Song Jiaoren’s writings have been edited by the GMD Party History Committee (see Song Jiaoren xiansheng wenji). The study Liew 1971 is the only complete work in English on the life and experience of Song. Interesting insights on GMD’s inner-political life under Chiang Kai-shek are offered in the memoirs of Ch’en Lifu (Chang and Myers 1994) and Wang Sheng (Marks 1998), but also by the investigation made in Wakeman 2003 on general Dai Li. In spite of his genealogy and political role, studies on Sun Fo are scarce, with the exception is his biography, Lai 1976. Similarly, an important thinker and politician, Liao Zhongkai, can be mainly studied, thanks to a recent collection of his works (Guangdongsheng shehui kexue yuan lishi yanjiusuo 2011). Martin’s exploration of Zhou Fohai (Martin 2014) permits the reader to understand the GMD inner-political dynamics against the backdrop of the Japanese threat.
  1114.  
  1115. Chang, Sydney H., and Ramon H. Myers, eds. and comps. The Storm Clouds Clear over China: The Memoir of Ch’en Li-fu, 1900–1993. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1994.
  1116.  
  1117. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1118.  
  1119. Chen Lifu’s memoir (The Storm Clouds Clear over China) describes the development of China’s revolution as seen through the eyes of an important participant. A private secretary of Chiang Kai-shek, Chen’s memoir encompasses the struggle between the Guomindang and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), providing very interesting details of the 1927 purge and of the split between Chiang and Hu Hanmin in the early 1930s, and sheds new light on Wang Jingwei’s flight to Hanoi in 1938.
  1120.  
  1121. Find this resource:
  1122.  
  1123. Guangdongsheng shehui kexue yuan lishi yanjiusuo 廣東省社會科學院歷史研究所, ed. Liao Zhongkai ji (廖仲恺集). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2011.
  1124.  
  1125. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1126.  
  1127. A selection of Liao Zhongkai’s writings.
  1128.  
  1129. Find this resource:
  1130.  
  1131. Hsueh, Chun-tu. Huang Xing and the Chinese Revolution. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1961.
  1132.  
  1133. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1134.  
  1135. A good biographical profile of Huang Xing and his revolutionary activities.
  1136.  
  1137. Find this resource:
  1138.  
  1139. Lai, Jeh-Hang. “A Study of a Faltering Democrat: The Life of Sun Fo 1891–1949.” PhD diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1976.
  1140.  
  1141. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1142.  
  1143. The only biography in English of the son of Sun Yat-sen, who was also the president of the Legislative Yuan from 1932 to 1948 and often in opposition to Chiang Kai-shek.
  1144.  
  1145. Find this resource:
  1146.  
  1147. Liew, Kit Siong. Struggle for Democracy: Sung Chiao-jen and the 1911 Chinese Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971.
  1148.  
  1149. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1150.  
  1151. A detailed account and a positive evaluation of Song Jiaoren’s role as political organizer and thinker, sometimes in contrast to Sun Yat-sen, during the 1911 Revolution and in the process of transformation of the Tongmenghui in the Nationalist Party.
  1152.  
  1153. Find this resource:
  1154.  
  1155. Marks, Thomas A. Counterrevolution in China: Wang Sheng and the Kuomintang. London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1998.
  1156.  
  1157. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1158.  
  1159. This work spans sixty years of modern Chinese history from a clear “non-communist perspective,” concentrating on Wang Sheng (b. 1915–d. 2006), a general of the Chinese army who became a close confident to Chiang Ching-kuo) and his relations with Chiang. It stresses that the GMD, at the very point it lost China, was perfecting the methods that were to make Taiwan an economic success in the postwar period.
  1160.  
  1161. Find this resource:
  1162.  
  1163. Martin, Brian. “The Dilemmas of a Civilian Politician in Time of War: Zhou Fohai and the First Stage of the Sino-Japanese War, July–December 1937.” Twentieth Century China 39.2 (May 2014): 144–165.
  1164.  
  1165. DOI: 10.1179/1521538514Z.00000000040Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1166.  
  1167. As Martin suggests, in the 1930s before the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, the career of this “arch-collaborator” did not suggest his later activities as the éminence grise of Wang Jingwei’s govermment. Actually, as the author shows, Zhou prior to 1938 had few political connections with Wang. However, Zhou in early 1938 turned very pessimistic about China’s prospects in its war with Japan, and his efforts for peace negotiations faced insormountable obstacles in Chiang Kai-shek’s decision to continue the war efforts.
  1168.  
  1169. Find this resource:
  1170.  
  1171. Wakeman, Frederic, Jr. Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
  1172.  
  1173. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520234079.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1174.  
  1175. A rich and stimulating study on Dai Li, chief of the Bureau of Investigation and Statistics of the Military Affairs Commission (Juntong). Focusing on Dai’s career from his past in Shanghai to one of the most loyal allies of Chiang Kai-shek, this study also highlights the nature of Guomindang’s political and military power and the complex relationship that the party developed with foreign authorities and with the Chinese underworld in the Republican era.
  1176.  
  1177. Find this resource:
  1178.  
  1179. Wu Xiangxiang 吳相湘, ed. Song Jiaoren: Zhongguo minzhu xianzheng de xianqu (宋敎仁: 中國民主憲政的先驅). Taibei: Zhuanji wenxue she, 1969.
  1180.  
  1181. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1182.  
  1183. As the title of this work suggests, it offers a very positive profile of the “pioneer of the democratic constitutionalism” in China.
  1184.  
  1185. Find this resource:
  1186.  
  1187. Zhang Yaojie 張耀杰. Xuan’an bainian: Song Jiaoren an yu Guomindang (懸案百年: 宋教仁案與國民黨). Taibei: Xin rui wenchang, 2010.
  1188.  
  1189. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1190.  
  1191. A portrait of Song Jiaoren, with special reference to his assassination in 1913.
  1192.  
  1193. Find this resource:
  1194.  
  1195. Zhongguo Guomindang Zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui 中國國民黨中央委員會黨史委員會, ed. Song Jiaoren xiansheng wenji (宋教仁先生文集). Taibei: Zhongguo Guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui, 1982.
  1196.  
  1197. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1198.  
  1199. Collected writings of Song Jiaoren.
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