Art is one of humanity’s most universal languages. Each of us experiences art on a daily basis. Most of us typically think of art as paintings hanging in a museum or gallery. While displayed paintings certainly are art, the world of art encompasses much, much more.

So what is art? This question provokes heated discussions and debates. This is because art is difficult to define. In its broadest sense, art is anything made to be appreciated for its intrinsic value. Intrinsic value means the worth of an object for its own sake, regardless of its usefulness. Art can be something purely to be looked at, such as a painting. It can also be functional, like a clock or a building. Art can even be a type of performance, such as music or dance. So how can we determine whether something is art?

This is where the debate gets intense. Everyone has a different idea of what is attractive or has intrinsic value. To determine whether we think something is art, we should decide whether we think it has its own worth. We can decide for ourselves whether it is attractive or has something to teach us. We can evaluate it as a viable expression of the person who created it. We can feel if it evokes a response in us, such as happiness or confusion. Or we might decide it just has that "special something." We may not always agree with others about whether a thing is art or not. That’s okay. Part of the purpose of art is to inspire us to think and feel. We can only try to understand what art means to us as individuals.

As we study the history of art, we may examine objects that you find attractive and appealing. We may also evaluate objects that you do not greatly care for. Remember that everyone has different tastes. Something you might not consider art may have great intrinsic value for another person.

We now have a working understanding of art as anything made to be appreciated for its intrinsic value. So why is it important to study the history of art? To answer this, think about your own history. What events in your past have helped shape you into the person you are? Who are your family and friends? Do you have ideas or beliefs or special skills that you have learned from someone in your life? All of your life experiences have helped make you a unique and special individual. The same is true for art. In order to understand art, we need to understand how history, people, and events helped inspire its creation. This is how we can see a piece of art as a unique expression. Understanding these influences not only helps us understand a piece of art within its historical period, but also helps us interpret ideas about the culture in which a piece was created.

An art historian studies the history of art. Art historians use formal analysis to improve their understanding of a work of art. Formal analysis involves looking at certain features of an artwork to understand how the art was made. The features we will explore include line, color, form and composition, texture, space and mass, proportion and scale, perspective and foreshortening, balance, and movement. These tools give the art historian the ability to compare a piece of art with other works. They also allow the art historian to understand what makes an artwork special. These features of formal analysis help us to appreciate the work in itself.

The first of these features is line. Line is the element that helps to determine the shape or form of an artwork. A line can be straight, curved, jagged, thin, thick, or whatever the artist chooses to represent the shape of something. It can be distinct, such as a thick line drawn or chiseled on a surface. It can be created by two contrasting forms to make the illusion of a line, without a line being actually drawn. A line which forms the outer shape of an object is referred to by art historians as a contour line.

Listen to this lesson
What Is Art?
Another feature used by art historians to understand artworks is color. Color is made up of the visible spectrum of light. Natural light contains all the colors in the spectrum. When natural light touches a surface, some of the colors of the spectrum will be absorbed, while other colors will bounce off. This combination of what is absorbed and what bounces off results in the color that we see. For example, objects we see as blue absorb all the light in the spectrum except for blue. The blue is reflected back to our eyes. Objects we see as white reflect all or most of the spectrum. Objects we see as black absorb all or most of the spectrum.

Hue is the property giving a color its name. Although different colors can merge into each other, hues are considered distinct and separate from one another. Color can be defined by two qualities—value and saturation. Value relates to lightness or darkness. Saturation relates to brightness or dullness.

There are three primary colors. Primary colors are unique because they cannot be made by mixing any other colors together. Primary colors are also the building blocks for other colors because they can be combined to create any other color (except white or black). The three primary colors are red, yellow, and blue. Secondary colors are created by combining two of the primary colors. Red and yellow mixed together make orange. Yellow and blue make green. Red and blue make purple. Intermediate colors are created by mixing a compliment color with a secondary color. For instance, red and orange make red-orange. Red and violet make red-violet. Yellow and orange make yellow-orange. Yellow and green make yellow-green. Blue and violet make blue-violet. Blue and green make blue-green. Artists often use complementary colors in their works. These colors will "complement," or complete, each other. Complementary colors sit opposite each other on a color wheel.

Click here to get a transcript of the presentation below.


Listen to selected text
Listen to this lesson
What Is Art?
Form and composition are also important elements used by art historians to understand a work of art. Form has several meanings in art. On a basic level, it refers to an object that has three dimensions, like a statue in a room. In a broader sense, it can also refer to the overall wholeness of a composition as individual elements work together as one. Composition means how an artwork is organized. We use composition to study where objects in an artwork are placed. The composition may show objects on a flat surface or depicted in space.

Texture is a term that refers to how a surface reflects light. This will show how smooth or rough an image is. In this sculpture, the artist has carved the marble so that we can sense the texture of the man’s skin and also of his hair, beard, and clothing.

Bust of Antoninus Pius
✚


Bust of Antoninus Pius; Image in public domain (retrieved from Wikipedia)
Works of art that have different textures seem to invite us to touch them. But we don’t usually touch artworks because the oils from our hands can damage the paints and materials.

Space and mass are related terms that refer to the amount of space an object takes up or seems to take up. For artists, space can be actual, such as the room taken up by a statue or object. Space can also be an illusion, such as the depiction of a road stretching off into the distance on a flat painted surface. Mass refers to the actual bulk and weight of an object in space. Mass describes something solid, such as a sculpture.

Proportion and scale are terms used to refer to how objects or parts of objects relate to each other within an artwork. Proportion describes how parts of objects in an artwork are sized in relation to themselves to look "correct." If an object has parts that look wrong in comparison to each other, it is said to be disproportional, or not proportional. An example would be a statue with a much-too-large head. Scale is used similarly to proportion, but instead of referring to different parts of one object, scale describes how different objects relate to each other in an artwork. Artists often try to make things to scale. This means that objects in an artwork relate properly to each other. But sometimes an artist might make an object bigger or smaller than the ones around it to draw attention to it. In this painting depicting the Christian subject of the Last Judgment, we see that the holy figures are much larger than the humans shown. This is to show that they are more important and more powerful than the small, vulnerable humans.

Hans Memling: triptych with the Last Judgement, oil on panel
✚


Title: Last Judgement; Artist: Hans Memling; Date: 1466-1473
Perspective and foreshortening are two important devices used in art. They are similar to proportion and scale. They describe the relationship of objects within the work of art. They also uniquely describe the way the artist depicts space. Perspective is used to create the feeling of depth or space in an artwork. Remember how we talked about an artist depicting a road stretching off into the distance on a flat painting in our discussion of space? That is perspective. You could look behind the painting and see that there is no road stretching out into the distance. This painting by Pissarro is a good example of perspective.

Camille Pissarro: Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning, oil on canvas
✚


Title: Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning; Artist: Camille Pissarro
The artist uses perspective to create an illusion of space that cannot actually exist on a flat painting. Foreshortening is similar to perspective. Instead of referring to the entire artwork, though, foreshortening refers to the depiction of specific people or shapes represented at angles to the picture plane, or the flat front of the picture. We can see foreshortening in this painting of Christ. Do you notice how Christ’s head and upper body seem to recede back into the painting?

Andrea Mantegna: Dead Christ, tempera on canvas
✚


Title: Dead Christ; Artist: Andrea Mantegna; Date: circa 1480

Listen to this lesson
What Is Art?
Balance describes how objects are arranged within an artwork. If a work is balanced, the objects are distributed evenly on both sides of the painting. Imagine that the painting or piece of art is like a seesaw, supported in the middle by an axis. If the painting is balanced on both sides, it will balance on the axis. If there are more objects on one side of the seesaw, that side will be heavier and tip toward the ground. When we talk about objects on both sides of the painting balancing each other, we are not talking about how much the objects would weigh if they were real. We are talking about the size of the objects, and how they look balanced because they are similar in size. Another word artists use to describe balance is symmetry. Something that is symmetrical will be balanced. Something that is asymmetrical will not be balanced. We can see symmetry in this triptych (an artwork in three parts). The triptych is balanced by having the same number and size of smaller paintings on each side of the central panel.

Sagrada Familia con ángel músico
✚


Title: The Holy Family with Music-Making Angels; Artist: Master of Frankfurt; Date: between 1510 and 1520
In this painting by Degas, we can see asymmetry. It is asymmetrical because the dancer draws all of the focus to the lower right side of the painting.

Dancer Taking a Bow
✚


Title: Dancer Taking a Bow; Artist: Edgar Degas
The last term we will discuss in this lesson is movement. Movement refers to the artist’s use of different techniques to attract our eyes to the focal point, the most important part of the artwork. An artist might use a shaft of sunlight to lead our focus to the most important part of a painting. Movement is used in sculpture to describe how parts of the sculpture appear as if they were moving, or how they look poised to move, as if they were real. This sense of movement helps draw our focus to what the artist feels is important about the artwork. In this painting, the reflection of the candlelight draws our eye first to the illuminated infant in the manger, and then up around the circle of lit faces which admire the newborn baby. This movement focuses our attention on what the artist felt was the most important part of the painting.

Georges de La Tour: Adoration of the Shepherds, oil on canvas
✚


Title: Adoration of the Shepherds; Artist: Georges de La Tour
In this sculpture, we sense another type of movement. The figures of the man and the horse are depicted in the act of moving. This gives the statue a strong sense of energy and excitement.

Bronze equestrian statue of Philip IV of Spain
✚


Title: Bronze equestrian statue of Philip IV of Spain; Artist: Pietro Tacca; Date: between 1605 and 1665
You can see how using these terms help us to talk about art. Identifying an item’s intrinsic value helps us determine in our own minds whether that item is a work of art. When we evaluate art with the terms of formal analysis, we can better understand how a piece of art was created. We also understand more closely what the artist might have meant to express. One of the most important things to remember when studying art is to be open minded because everyone has different ideas about what makes art, art.


Listen to this lesson
Why Is Art Created?
Art is a part of most every culture in the world. So why do people create art? For many, art lets us express ourselves. This need to express oneself by making something is referred to as creativity. Many of us feel a need to create something. Sometimes what we create is only expressive. Other times we make something we already need more decorative and attractive. Sometimes we simply want to make our world more beautiful and meaningful. There are also many other factors which can help inspire art or cause an artist to create specific kinds of art. Some of these include culture, religion, recording of history, utility, politics, and financial gain.

Culture describes a group of people that share a common language, set of beliefs and ideas, and activities. The art produced within a culture tends to reflect the ideas and beliefs of that culture. For example, if something is considered important within a culture, it will probably be seen in that culture’s art. Think about weddings in our own culture today. Weddings are thought to be beautiful and important events. Now think about how often we see photographs and advertisements of weddings. In another culture, perhaps dancing is considered to be more important. More than likely, the art of this culture will show dancers. Or perhaps a culture in which religion is extremely important will have a lot of art reflecting their religion. In contrast, something that is not important or appreciated within a culture will not be represented often in the art. Artists don't usually have success selling artworks that no one wants.

One of the main influences on the creation of art is religion. Religion is a set of beliefs practiced by a group of people. It usually involves the worship of a god or gods. Religion can be a strong sway within a culture. Religious leaders can have a lot of control over the kind of art that is made. One reason for that is that religion-focused cultures have a desire for art that shows and reminds them of their faith. Also, these cultures tend to give a lot of power to the religious leaders, allowing them to have a great deal of control over the type of art that is created. If the religious leaders of the culture have a great deal of power, they tend to have a great deal of wealth as well. One of the strongest motivations for an artist to create artworks with specific subjects is a patron. This is a person who pays the artist to create particular works of art. Religious patrons will pay for a variety of things. Some examples include churches and cathedrals built and decorated, elaborate tombs made for the dead, and paintings and sculptures of religious subjects. In the past, an artist often worked for one patron. The artist would only produce art for that person or their family. If the patron was a religious leader, most of the art produced by that artist would tend to be religious in nature. Also, the church in some cultures held most of the wealth and power. This means that people who might want an artist to create non-religious art would probably not have the money or power to offer an artist to leave their wealthier patron.

In the history of Western art, the leading religion is Christianity. Western art includes art from Europe and places that mostly reflect the same kind of culture as Europe, such as the Americas. Christianity has been the inspiration of many huge, ornate cathedrals. Two of these cathedrals are the Chartres Cathedral in France and the massive Florence Cathedral.

The Florence Cathedral
✚


The Florence Cathedral; Architects: Arnolfo di Cambio and Filippo Brunelleschi; Date: 1587


Chartres Cathedral
✚


Title:Chartres Cathedral; Image courtesy of Atlant;
Christianity has inspired highly decorated chapels, such as the frescoes in the Sistine Chapel.

Frescoes from the Sistine Chapel
✚


Title: Frescoes from the Sistine Chapel; Artist: Michelangelo; Date: 1508-1512;
It has also brought on the creation of many paintings and statues showing religious subjects. Examples are this painting of the Virgin Mary's halo, and this statue of Mary holding her crucified son, Jesus.


the Virgin Mary's halo, detail of Adoration of the Magi (1423) by Gentile da Fabriano
✚


Title: The Virgin Mary's halo; Artist: Gentile da Fabriano; Date: 1423;

Pieta
✚


Title: Pieta; Artist: Michelangelo

There are many other examples of art inspired by Christianity in a variety of forms with many different stories and people.

Listen to this lesson
Why Is Art Created?
Another major religion which has inspired art is Buddhism. Like churches in Christianity, there are Buddhist temples for worship. There are also other examples of Buddhist art, such as statues and paintings of the Buddha and related figures.

Below are some instances of Buddhist art.

Yakushiji temple, Nara
✚


Title: Yakushiji temple, Nara, Japan; Founder: Emperor Temmu; Date: 680
Seated Buddha
✚


Title: Seated Buddha; Date: 5th century CE
Wall depiction of Buton Rinchen Drub a 11th century Tibetan abbot
✚


Title: Wall depiction of Buton Rinchen Drub, an 11th-century Tibetan abbot; Date: circa 1000 CE
As with Christian art, there are certain common traits in much of Buddhist art. There are also certain traits (such as the way in which the Buddha is shown, or which stories of his teachings are presented) that are identified with Buddhist art. These characteristics sometimes change with different regions and cultures.

Hinduism is another major religion that inspires the creation of art. Multiple gods are worshiped in Hinduism. Each is shown in art in certain ways. The way in which they are shown may change in different regions, just as with Christianity and Buddhism. Some examples of Hindi art are this statue of the god Shiva, or the painting below of the god Krishna.

Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja), copper alloy
✚


Title: Shiva as the Lord of Dance; Date: between circa 950 and 1000 CE
There are many other religions practiced across the world. Some religions practiced many years ago have disappeared or changed through time. Although we will not discuss them here, all of these religions have produced art based on their beliefs. After studying this lesson, take the time to look around whenever there is art present. See how much of it has religious elements.

Sometimes art is made to record a story or the history of a time or people. This can be done in many ways. Sometimes an artist includes a report of their time simply by showing the everyday life around them, thus saving it for future viewers to gain an understanding of the time in which it was painted. We can see this in the following painting by Vermeer, Young Woman With a Water Jug.

Johannes Vermeer: Young Woman with a Water Jug (Pitcher), oil on canvas
✚


Title: Young Woman with a Water Jug; Artist: Johannes Vermeer; Date: circa 1662
The artist has shown the woman in the clothes she would normally wear at that time. She is in a room with furniture typical to the period. We can see from this how people dressed then, understand the kinds of furniture they had, and even see the kinds of decorations they used. For example, the map on the wall behind the woman was something that many people in that time and region had in their homes. An artist can also purposefully use their art to record history or stories. Art was a main resource in a time when few people could read. Artists used paintings and sculptures to record history and tell stories to the people. An example is this large painting by Jacques-Louis David. It shows the crowning of Napoleon and his wife Josephine, recording the event for all future viewers to see.

Jacques-Louis David: Coronation of Napoleon in Notre-Dame
✚


Title: Coronation of Napoleon in Notre-Dame; Artist: Jacques-Louis David; Date: 1805-1807
Art is also created to be, or assist in making something, useful. Remember how we discussed that you can be creative by making something you already need to have more beautiful? That is the idea here. Imagine that you need a chair to have somewhere to sit. Why not make it more beautiful and decorative? You can turn it into a work of art instead of just a chair. It still functions as a usable chair. However, an artist can turn it into something special.

Art can also be used in a political way. Architecture guarding a city against attacks was used thousands of years ago. Art was used to promote myths of the great power or special qualities of a king or leader. Even today, we see political art in the form of cartoons criticizing or promoting political leaders. Have you ever seen a work of art that was made to sway your thoughts about a political candidate or leader?


Listen to this lesson
Why Is Art Created?
Financial gain is a main reason for the production of art. The artist makes money by creating art. Others make money by showing or selling art. As mentioned above, artists in the past often worked for a patron who paid them for the art they made. The money received for their work would allow the artist to continue to create artworks. It also gave them money to provide for themselves and their families. Artists would try to offer their skills to the wealthiest patron. This would allow them to make the most money they could so that they could live more comfortably. Working for a patron meant that the artist needed to create the art that the patron wanted. Artists could not paint or sculpt only what they wanted to. Although artists today rarely work for patrons and are free to create whatever kind of art they desire, they still have to think about what their viewers will like. They will need to create works of art that people will want to buy if they want to make enough money to be financially successful in their chosen career.

We have discussed some of the pieces that inspire the creation of art. Now let’s explore the certain types of art that are created and why they are created. When a patron or buyer of art has something specific that they want the artist to show, they are asking for a specific subject. A subject is the person, object, or scene the artist has chosen to depict. These types of art include such things as landscapes, cityscapes, portraits, narratives, literary subjects, religious subjects, historical subjects, genre subjects, and still lifes.

Landscapes show the natural world. They can include land, rocks, valleys, mountains, water (sometimes referred to as waterscapes), and other natural features of the land around us.

Albert Bierstadt: Among the Sierra Nevada Mountains, California, oil on canvas
✚


Title: Among the Sierra Nevada Mountains; Artist: Albert Bierstadt;

Cityscapes are similar to landscapes, but instead of showing the natural world, they depict the man-made environment. This includes buildings, streets, plazas, courtyards, and anything else that might be found in a city or town.

Joseph Mallord William Turner: Venice, from the Porch of Madonna della Salute, oil on canvas
✚


Title: Modern Rome–Campo Vaccino; Artist: Joseph Mallord William Turner; Date: 1839
Portraits are recordings of what a person looked like. They sometimes provide details of that person’s everyday life.

Madame Paul-Sigisbert Moitessier (1856),  Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780–1867)
✚


Title: Madame Moitessier; Artist: Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres; Date: 1856
Sometimes an artist can use a portrait to bring out certain features of a person or tell about what that person does in life. A picture recording the likenesses or images of a group of people is called a group portrait. A portrait that an artist paints of themselves is called a self-portrait.

Narratives are artworks that tell a story or show a moment from a story. An example of a narrative subject is the painting of the Napoleon’s crowning we looked at earlier. This tells the story of Napoleon crowning himself emperor and then crowning as empress his wife Josephine.

Historical subjects record people or events from history. As discussed above, this is a way that an artist can leave a record of the time in which they lived and worked. This gives future viewers the ability to look at and understand a little about the artist’s world. To show how the subject of a single painting can be seen in different ways, we can look once again at the painting of the coronation of Napoleon. This painting is also a historical subject which tells of an important event from history.

Genre paintings are artworks that record everyday events. These works, like historical subjects and narratives, help us to understand how people lived in the time that the artwork was made. The kinds of events that genre paintings could show might include everyday chores. Some examples are cooking, sewing, or walking to work. In this genre painting, we see a woman doing something she would do everyday. She sews while her dog plays at her feet.

Interior with Sewing Woman, Wybrand Bendriks
✚


Title: Interior with Sewing Woman; Artist: Wybrand Bendriks; Date: circa 1800-1810
A still life is a work that shows inanimate objects. These are objects that do not move under their own power. These paintings can include fruit, flowers, dishes, bottles, feathers, or anything else the artist might wish to use.

Flowers in a Jug
✚


Title: Flowers in a Jug; Artist: Hans Memling; Date: circa 1485
As you can see, there are many different reasons why art might be created. These reasons can range from making something we already need more attractive to painting a detailed picture of a made-up subject. Art can be a reflection of one’s culture, religion, or simply an expression of creativity.


Listen to this lesson
A Palette of Media: Types of Art
When we hear someone talk about art, we usually think about paintings or sculptures displayed for people to look at. These are certainly kinds of art. However, the art world includes much more, including some everyday items you may not have viewed as works of art before. In fact, many works of art are produced using a variety of materials beyond pencil, paint, and plaster. In this lesson, we will discuss different media, or materials used to produce art. We will also learn when in history these materials were used the most. There are several categories of media which divide into specific types of media. These categories include drawing media, painting media, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and crafts. We will discuss each separately.

Drawing media refers to such materials as pencils, ink, charcoal, pastel, and even crayons or colored pencils.

Pencil is a particularly versatile drawing medium. It can be used to produce anything from quick, vague sketches to extremely detailed drawings. Pencils, or tools like them, have been used since the time of the ancient Romans. The Romans used a tool called a stylus that was similar to today’s pencil. The typical pencil you might find on a desk or in a classroom is only one of many options for an artist to use to draw. There are many different types of pencils made for a wide range of specific purposes. Some pencils are used to make thick lines or thin lines. Other pencils are darker and richer in color, or lighter and fainter for light sketches. Artists even use colored pencils! This variety produces a surprising amount of diversity within the single category of pencil art. Pencil art can be used to represent almost any style or subject.

Henri Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901): Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897
✚


Title: Madame Palmyre with Her Dog; Artist: Henri Toulouse-Lautrec; Date: 1897
Ink is a type of media which can be used directly on paper, as with an ink pen. In this example, we can see the study of the human body drawn by Leonardo da Vinci using ink as a drawing medium.

Vitruvian Man
✚


Title: Vitruvian Man; Artist: Leonardo Da Vinci; Date: circa 1490;
Ink can also be added as a wash, or mixed with water. This gives it a lighter, softer look. An example of this is seen in the drawing of pine trees below.

Pine Trees by Hasegawa Tōhaku, Japanese, 1539–1610
✚


Title: Pine Trees; Artist: Hasegawa Tōhaku; Date: 16th century;
Charcoal is a similar material to pencil, but its use and texture are slightly different. Raw charcoal can be pressed into a stick of pure charcoal and used in that form. It can also be wrapped in wood, like a pencil. The texture of art made with charcoal is grainier and less distinct than that made with pencil. You can see this in the sketches below.

Era Dela Que Ao Romper da Aurora, Eu Saía
✚


Title: Era Dela Que Ao Romper da Aurora, Eu Saía; Artist: Antonio Parreiras; Date: 1927
Crayon, like pencil and ink (as used in pens), is a type of drawing media that everyone has access to and can use to create art. Crayons can be used to create intricate works of art just as well as they can be used to fill in a coloring book.

Pastels are another type of drawing media. Pastels are similar to crayons but made of powder, like chalk. Artists can use pastels to draw directly onto paper or other surfaces, as with crayons. However, artists can also combine pastels with water to create special effects. This drawing shows the kinds of effects that an artist can achieve with pastels.

On the Cliff
✚


Title: On the Cliff; Artist: Theodore Robinson; Date: 1887

Listen to this lesson
A Palette of Media: Types of Art
Painting media refers to different kinds of paint and painting techniques that artists use. These include oils, acrylics, watercolors, frescoes, tempera, and collage.

Oil paint is made of colored pigments that can be fixed to a surface through the use of linseed or poppy oil. Artists will often use turpentine to thin it and make it spreadable. Using oil as a binder means that oil paint takes longer to dry than other types of paint. After its invention, oil paint became the dominant painting medium used in European art. Oil paints are popular for artists painting on canvas or wood. Oil paint is versatile and can be used in many ways. Oil paints can be used to achieve great detail. An artist can apply it in thick layers or apply thin washes of paint to provide a more subtle effect. Oil paint also allows artists to make use of a wide variety of colors and intensities of color. Some artists who use oil paints might prefer to use earth tones, such as browns and tans. Others might like bright primary colors, such as reds, blues, and yellows. Oil is a versatile medium that allows artists to choose exactly how they want to use it. Oil paints can also be used to achieve great detail, such as in this portrait by Jacques-Louis David.

Napoleon Crossing the Alps (1803) by Jacques-Louis David
✚


Title: Napoleon Crossing the Alps; Artist: Jacques-Louis David; Date: 1803
Acrylics have become one of the most popular painting media in the last half of the 20th century. Rather than using natural materials to fix the pigments to the surface, like oil paint does, acrylic paint uses polymer emulsions. This allows the paint to stick to almost any surface. Also, acrylics can be thinned and cleaned up with water, unlike oil paints. Acrylic paint can be used in similar ways to oil paint and is just as versatile. This makes acrylic paint an extremely popular medium. Acrylic paint can be used for bold effect or to create more subtle works.

Unusual original art composition of abstract background
✚


Title: Unusual Original Art Composition of Abstract Background; Artist: Kara Kotsya; Date: 2010
Watercolors have recently become a major painting medium, but have been around for a long time. Artists throughout history have commonly used it to make sketches and studies of subjects before painting with oils. Watercolors were even used as far back as ancient Egypt! Unlike oil paints and acrylics, watercolor uses gum arabic to bind pigments to the desired surface. Gum arabic is an adhesive that is water soluble, or dissolves in water. Watercolor paints are mostly transparent; you can partly see the surface underneath them. If an artist wants his paints to be opaque, or solid, instead of see-through, he can use special kinds of watercolors called gouache or casein. These provide heavier colors and deeper tones. In the painting below by Winslow Homer, we can see the kind of beautiful details and soft colors that can be made with watercolor.

The Red Canoe
✚


Title: The Red Canoe; Artist: Winslow Homer; Date: 1899
Fresco is a very old and difficult technique. Fresco painting is used most often on walls and ceilings. One of the best-known frescoes is the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, created by Michelangelo. Fresco involves covering a surface with a rough coat of plaster. After this dries, a coat of smooth plaster is applied. The artist adds color while the second coat of plaster is still wet. Once it dries, the color is permanent and very durable. Imagine how difficult this work can be. The artist must paint perfectly on the first try, before the plaster dries! Take a look at this example from the Sistine Chapel to see how bright and fresh the fresco looks, even after over 500 years.

Dividing water from Heaven (Sistine Chapel)
✚


Title: Separation of Land and Water, detail from Sistine Chapel ceiling; Artist: Michelangelo Buonarroti; Date: 1511
Another fresco technique is called fresco secco, or dry fresco. This technique involves painting directly onto dry plaster. This is easier for the artist, but is not as permanent and can be damaged more easily than a traditional fresco. We can see evidence of such damage in the famous fresco by Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper. This once-vibrant work, painted only a decade or so before Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel frescoes, shows much more damage.

The Last Supper
✚


Title: The Last Supper; Artist: Leonardo da Vinci; Date: 1495-1498

Listen to this lesson
A Palette of Media: Types of Art
Have you ever used poster paint at home or at school? Tempera is a similar type of paint. Artists have used tempera in various forms since as far back as ancient Egypt. Early tempera used egg yolks and linseed oil to bind color to a surface. This kind of paint was transparent and dried very quickly. Artists would use several layers to get the color and richness they wanted.

Filippo Lippi: Virgin and Child with Two Angels, tempera on panel
✚


Title: Madonna and Child with Two Angels; Artist: Filippo Lippi;
A fairly recent type of painting media is collage.

Das Undbild
✚


Title: Das Undbild; Artist: Kurt Schwitters; Date: 1919
The artists Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque invented collage in 1912. Collage involves pasting objects onto a canvas in addition to painting. This gives the work added texture and interest. Some collages are even made up entirely of materials pasted to a background. Artists can paste just about any object to a painting, but paper is the most commonly-used material for this. You may have seen images cut from magazines and newspapers and assembled as a collage.

Sculpture typically refers to any piece of art that is three-dimensional, or pieces that are not flat. Sculpture can be created in four different ways: cutting away part of a surface to leave only what is wanted, putting things together to create something new, modeling or forming with the hands, or making something with a mold.

Marble is often sculpted by the first method. In this method, the sculptor must envision the sculpture inside the mass of material and remove the parts that do not belong in order to reveal the work of art. Because the artist removes material, this is a subtractive process of sculpting. Many different materials can be carved, including various kinds of stone or wood. Marble is a favorite material of artists because of its strength and durability. It can be polished to a mirror-like shine or left rough and unpolished. Marble also comes in different colors. It can even have veins of different colors running through it. This natural variety allows artists to make beautiful and unique works of art. You can see from the image below how a skilled artist can create a detailed and intricate work of art in marble. Do you see how the artist created the appearance of hair, skin, fabric, and even lace in the marble?

Click button below for description
✚

Click for Long Description

Title: Grand Prince Ferdinando de Medic; Artist: Giovanni Battista Foggini; Date: 1683;
While marble and other types of stone are popular media for sculpting, wood has also been used to make lovely works of art throughout history. Wood is versatile and can be used in many different ways. Like marble, wood can be carved. It can also be drilled, filed, sanded, and even glued. Wood is easier to find than marble and also less expensive. It is generally soft and easier to carve than marble. As a result, wood has been a popular sculpting medium throughout the history of art. Look at how carefully the artist has carved the detail in this doorway.

Gran mesquita de Kairuan
✚


Title: Doorway in the Great Mosque of Kairouan; Date: 1848; Photographer: Jaume Ollé
Although wood is less expensive and easier to carve than stone, it is also less durable. Marble and stone statues can last hundreds or even thousands of years. Wood, however, may break or decompose much more quickly. Many great works of art have been lost over time due to this drawback.

Steel is a somewhat new sculpture medium for artists. It comes in sheets that can be cut apart and welded together. This is an example of the second method listed above, because it requires putting things together to create a new object. This sculpture shows how an artist can take a material such as steel and turn it into a unique abstract sculpture.

The Matter of Time
✚


Title: The Matter of Time; Artist: Richard Serra; Date: 2008
Bronze is a material that is often cast, or made in a mold. Bronze casting is a complex process, but was mastered by such early peoples as the ancient Chinese, Greeks, and Egyptians. When bronze statues are made, a mold is created first. Molten or melted bronze is then poured into the mold to take its form. When the bronze has cooled and hardened, the mold is opened and the statue is taken out. Here is an example of a bronze statue of Ivan the Terrible.

Ivan The Terrible, Mark Antokolski
✚


Title: The Matter of Time; Artist: Mark Antokolski; Date: Mark 1871

Listen to this lesson
A Palette of Media: Types of Art
Printmaking is the process of creating an image by impressing ink from one surface onto another, such as paper or fabric. Usually in printmaking, the copies are not completely identical to one another. One type of printmaking involves cutting an image into a wood block. Paint is then applied to the raised surfaces of the block. This type of printing is known as a woodcut. This print by the Japanese artist Hokusai is an example of a woodcut.

Katsushika Hokusai: The Great Wave off Kanagawa, color woodblock print
✚


Title: The Great Wave off Kanagawa; Artist: Katsushika Hokusai;
There are a couple of other types of printmaking which are made similarly to woodcut prints. Intaglio involves a metal plate which is used instead of a wooden block. Linocut uses linoleum in place of the wooden block. Not all types of printmaking involve cutting and painting an image onto a surface, though. Lithograph uses a slab of stone with a design drawn onto it with greasy crayons or ink. Water is then run over the surface of the stone and will only stick where there is no grease. The printmaker then puts ink over the surface. The ink will not stick to the water, only where the design had been drawn. This can now be applied to the desired surface, leaving behind ink in the design chosen by the artist. The last type of printmaking is called serigraph, or silkscreen printing. In screen printing, an image is transferred as a stencil onto a mesh screen. Some areas of the screen are blocked; other parts of the screen allow ink to pass through. A squeegee is used to push ink through the open parts of the screen onto a piece of paper or other surface.

Photography is an art form that has been around for less than 200 years. Photography was invented by a man named Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. He made the first permanent photographic image in 1822. He then began working with Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, who had designed the first camera. Together, they worked to improve the photographic process. After ten years of study and experimentation, the daguerreotype was invented. Named for Daguerre, a daguerreotype is a photographic image created using a mixture of silver and chalk that darkens when it is exposed to light. After the daguerreotype was presented publicly, William Henry Fox Talbot, a man who had quietly done his own work in the field of photography, completed research on his own photographic method. Rather than a mixture of silver and chalk, Talbot’s method involved a paper negative. Look at one of Talbot’s own photographs taken in 1853.

A picture taken by William Henry Fox Talbot in 1853.
✚


Photographer: William Henry Fox Talbot; Date: 1853
The images then were nothing like what we have today. Since the breakthroughs made by Niépce, Daguerre, and Talbot, there has been great research and experimentation in this field. It eventually led to the photographic technologies we have today.

The heading of crafts includes many forms of art which are not discussed in the above categories. Crafts involve the production of skilled types of artworks. These include glass, clay, mosaics, metalworking, and furniture-making.

Glass is something that we use so often today that we do not tend to think of it as a special material. In ancient cultures such as Egypt, however, glass was precious and used in jewelry and other important items. Even today, this material which may seem so common can be used to create beautiful works of art. Think about the stained glass windows you may have seen on churches, or look at the beautiful glass window below.

The Holy City, by Louis Comfort Tiffany
✚


Title: The Holy City; Artist: Louis Comfort Tiffany; Date: 1905
Clay has been used by artists for thousands of years. It can be made into many things, including pottery which is both useful and artistic. Clay comes from a natural material that can be found in the ground all over the world. Artists form the clay into the desired shape by pinching it, coiling ropes of clay and pressing them together, or even "throwing" the clay on a potter’s wheel. After a craftsperson has finished shaping the clay, the object must be fired, or made hard by heating it in a kiln. A kiln is a special oven used to fire ceramics. Fired ceramics are extremely durable. Many types of pottery from ancient cultures survive to this day. This clay vessel from ancient Greece shows two literary figures playing a game.

Exekias: Type A amphora with Ajax and Achilles Playing a Board Game (Detail)
✚


Title: An amphora showing Ajax and Achilles playing a game; Artist: Exekias; Date: circa 540-530 BCE

Listen to this lesson
A Palette of Media: Types of Art
Another type of craft we will look at is glass. Humans have been melting sand to create glass for thousands of years. When you think of glass in relation to art, you probably think of glassblowing. Glassblowing is the process of shaping melted glass by blowing air into it through a tube.

Glass can also be used to create art in other ways. Mosaics are works of art that are made up of small pieces of glass, colored marble, ceramic tile, wood, or other materials combined to make a picture. Mosaics were often seen lining the ceiling and walls of early Christian churches. Because they were made up of glass and other shiny materials, they would glitter in the church’s candlelight. These mosaics could be used simply to decorate the area or to depict biblical stories to the people. This was useful because few people could read at that time.

The Empress Zoe mosaics (11th-century) in Hagia Sophia (Istanbul, Turkey)
✚


Title: The Empress Zoe mosaics in the Hagia Sophia Date: 11th century
Can you see the individual pieces in the mosaic?

Metalworking involves the use of materials such as gold, silver, bronze, copper, aluminum, iron, and steel to make works of art. These artworks can also be useful. An example is this unique set of silver pepper pots.

Hoxne piperatoria 1
✚


Title: Pepper pots from the Hoxne Hoard; Date: 360-425
Furniture making is something that we do not always think of as art, since we use furniture every day. However, furniture can be beautiful and make wonderful pieces of art. An artist can make a piece of functional furniture ornately decorative. The art can also simply be in the fine design of the item.

Carved chair, brought from a church in Suffolk
✚


Title: Carved pulpit chair from a church in Suffolk; Date: 16th century
We have looked at many different media and types of art. But the world of art is so broad, there are many potential types of art we have not discussed. As you go through the next few days, take a look around you and see what other kinds of art you can find.


Listen to this lesson
Evaluating a Work of Art
We know that art is anything that has its own worth. We know that anything from paintings to furniture can be seen as art. But how is art evaluated? How can evaluating works of art help us better understand what the artist is trying to tell us? How does it allow us to see even more about the artist? In this module, we will discuss some of the ways that we can look at and evaluate art. This will let us understand the art and the artist better. We will also look at the role of the art historian in the study and evaluation of art and gain a better understanding of the importance of this role.

We look at several things when we evaluate art. These include craftsmanship, aesthetic properties, and design. As we look at art, we should also see how each piece reflects the society and culture from which it comes.

Craftsmanship refers to how the artist uses the skills and materials available to them to create a work of art. A craftsman is the person who creates something of above-average quality using their skills, materials, and available tools.

18th Century oil-lamp clock
✚


18th-century oil-lamp clock; Date: 1700s
The artist could have made a simple lamp. However, he chose instead to make this a detailed work of art. This lifts it from simply being a useful lamp to the work of a craftsman.

Aesthetic properties refer to the special traits belonging to each work of art. We can look at these aesthetic properties to gain a better understanding of the art and determine what elements make it unique.

When evaluating the aesthetics of an artwork, we want to look at the formal properties. These include such pieces as line, balance, movement, pattern, and contrast. The formal properties of an artwork help us to see how different parts in the composition of the artwork, or the way the parts are put together, work together to make the overall piece.

Sensory properties are other pieces of a work’s aesthetic properties that we can look at. Sensory properties are those that please our senses, such as sight and touch. For instance, we can see lines and colors. These are part of an artwork’s sensory properties. Through touch, we can find the texture, form, and mass of an object—at least, we can if it's a kind of art we are allowed to touch! Many artworks can be damaged by the oils in human skin and should not be touched.

Expressive properties are those that bring about an emotional response in the viewers. This can be in a direct way through the subject of the artwork or through the story it tells us. It can also be in an indirect way, through the mood expressed by the colors the artist chooses.

The Grand Canal, Claude Monet (1908)
✚


Title: The Grand Canal; Artist: Claude Monet; Date: circa 1490;
Can you feel how the artist's choice of cool colors, such as blues and purples, gives the painting a sense of calm and stillness? The water theme also gives this feeling.

Technical properties also fall under the aesthetic properties of a work of art. These include the actual media and the tools and equipment that the artist used to create the piece. For example, artists who work with oil paints have to have an entirely different set of skills than those who do bronze casting. Of course, there are artists who can work with skill in more than one medium. Understanding the different types of media and the skills needed to work in each of them can help us to judge the quality of the artwork and skill of the artist.


Listen to this lesson
Evaluating a Work of Art
The design of an object refers to the plan for its structure. This can include the shape, color, pattern, materials used, or function.

Finally, we should evaluate works of art to see if and how well they reflect their society. The reflection of society can be seen in the way the artist shows certain images. We will also look at how they use the materials and what materials appear to be available to them. Involved in this discussion is the idea of style. Style refers to the pieces of the artwork that point to the culture or society it comes from. It also will tell of the time in history that it was made. Some styles are linked to a certain society or time period. However, some have been popular throughout time or in many regions. It is important to consider what styles are unique in order to evaluate the artwork well. It is also important to remember that while some stylistic elements may be used regularly within a given society or time period, all artists are individuals. They will put their own personal touches on a work of art. We can get an idea of how style can differ by looking at how two different cultures show the figure of a bodhisattva.

Standing Bodhisattva
✚


Title: Standing Bodhisattva; Date: 2nd to 3rd century


Samantabhadra
✚


Title: Samantabhadra; Date: Heian period, 794-1185
A bodhisattva is a teaching figure from the Buddhist faith. By looking at these two images, we can see how differently the artists have shown them.

So what is the role of the art historian in this evaluation of art? The art historian, or person who studies the history of art, evaluates a work of art using all of the pieces discussed above. They will look at a work of art and determine what its aesthetic properties are. This includes the formal, sensory, expressive, and technical properties. They will evaluate the style of the artwork to gain an understanding of how it fits into its culture and time period. They will try to understand how artists' styles differ and are unique. And most importantly, they will study history to see what was happening at any given time that may have influenced the production and styles of art. Art is not created without the world around it somehow affecting it. These influences can be what materials the artist has available to them, the main local religion, what major events are happening in history, and so much more. As we continue our study of art, it will be important to study the history of art. However, it will also be important to study the history of the world, in order to fully understand the art produced and everything that shaped it.


Listen to this lesson
Art in Prehistoric Europe and North America
The Paleolithic Period

Have you ever wondered what it might have been like to live in ancient times? How did people live then? What did they do? One of the ways we can best understand how people in ancient cultures lived is by studying their art. We can also study the tools and methods they used to create art.

Some of the oldest art we know of comes from the Old Stone Age, or Paleolithic period. The Paleolithic period fell between the years 70,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE. The word "Paleolithic" comes from the Greek words paleo, meaning "old," and lithos, meaning "stone." Works from this period show wonderful variety. They also show great creativity and resourcefulness on the part of the artists.

During this period, people often lived in caves or under the shelter of overhanging rocks. Modern researchers have discovered many cave paintings. Perhaps the oldest cave paintings found so far come from the Chauvet Cave in the Ardèche region of France. These cave paintings date back to 28,000 BCE. That’s almost 30,000 years ago! The paintings in the Chauvet cave depict a wide variety of animals, including panthers, lions, bears, mammoths, rhinos, bulls, horses, birds, and bison. The paintings also show human handprints.

Why did people from this period paint these images on the insides of their caves? We do not really know. Art historians have many theories. Perhaps these represented an early form of religion. Paleolithic peoples may have thought that artistically “imprisoning” the images of the animals would help them to capture the actual animals they tried to hunt. Maybe the art was thought to increase the number of animals found in nature. This would make hunting easier. But if this is the case, why did these people depict dangerous animals that they did not hunt, such as bears, panthers and lions? No one can be certain about the meanings of these paintings. We do know that they were painted deep in the caves, in places that were difficult to reach. They were not intended for the casual passerby to see.

In 1940, two boys accidentally discovered another important cave when their dog fell into a hole that led into the cave. This cave is at Lascaux, in the Dordogne region of France. It is believed to be 15,000-17,000 years old. Like the Chauvet cave, Lascaux has paintings of animals. Unlike Chauvet, there are no images of animals that were not hunted. In one large room within the cave, artists painted large bulls that seem to be stampeding around the room. This room is known as the Hall of Bulls. The largest bull is about 16 feet long! Some of the paintings seem mainly to present an outline of the animal. Others are filled in with color, like the image of the horse below.

Image of a horse from the Lascaux caves
✚


Image of a horse from the Lascaux caves; Date: circa 13,000 to 15,000 BCE;
Early artists used pigments, or natural dyes found in the environment around them, to achieve the colors used in these cave paintings. People either drew directly onto the walls with mineral or vegetable material that left a mark, or they ground these items to a powder and then combined the powder with water to make primitive ink. To apply the pigment to the walls, artists probably used compressed mats of moss or hair. They may even have blown pigment through hollow bones or reeds, like straws, onto the walls. Because these cave paintings are usually deep in the caves, where there is not much light, early peoples must have used torches or lamps to light the areas where they worked.

Another cave with prehistoric paintings was discovered in 1879 in Altamira, Spain. Like the caves at Lascaux, the Altamira Cave was discovered by accident. An amateur archaeologist was exploring a cave on his estate. He had his small daughter with him. In a passage of the cave where adults had to stoop to pass through, the small daughter looked up as she walked and saw bison painted on the ceiling.

Painting of a bison in the cave of Altamira
✚


Title: Image of a bison from the Altamira cave; Date:circa 15,000 to 8,000 BCE;
Listen to selected text

Listen to this lesson
Art in Prehistoric Europe and North America
In addition to cave paintings, Paleolithic peoples created three-dimensional statues. Some of the most common examples are of small, round female figures. One is the Venus of Willendorf, which was found in Austria.

The Venus of Willendorf
✚


Title: The Venus of Willendorf; Date: circa 28,000 BCE to 25,000 BCE, 2014 Rich Bernett/Shutterstock.com
This figure is around 27,000 years old. Modern discoverers thought the statue might represent a fertility symbol, much like the Roman goddess. That’s why she got the name Venus, even though this figure is much older than the concept of Venus. While art historians speculate that she might indeed be a symbol of fertility designed to encourage abundance and new life, we do not know with certainty what purpose this figure served.

Another fascinating carving from Paleolithic times is this figure of a bison carved into a reindeer antler.

Swimming Reindeer
✚


Title: Swimming Reindeer; Date: approximately 30,000 BCE; Photographer: Herb Neufeld
This small carving is about 14,000 years old. Look at how the artist uses the shape of the already-existing antler to dictate the shape of the animal. Do you see how carefully the head of the reindeer on the right was carved, yet how simple the work is? This is an example of the resourcefulness of early people. The artist took something that already existed and realized the potential to change it into something else.

While there are many, many more examples of Paleolithic art, including paintings, sculptures and carvings, the works we have looked at should give you an idea of how skilled and creative some of the earliest artists were.

Listen to this lesson
Art in Prehistoric Europe and North America
The Neolithic Period

The Neolithic period, or the New Stone Age, ranged from about 8000 to about 2300 BCE. The Neolithic Revolution marked the transition between the Paleolithic period and the Neolithic period in human history. During this time, humans made great changes in how they lived and how they interacted with the environment. The Neolithic Revolution included the first successful domestication, or raising, of animals and grains. With this important step, humans gave up their nomadic habits and began to settle in one place. They grew their own foods and no longer needed to follow the herds they hunted. This settled lifestyle led to the development of such techniques as weaving, spinning, and pottery. It also led to architectural developments in stone, wood, and brick.

An important work from the Neolithic period is found on the Salisbury Plain, in England. You have probably heard of this amazing feat of human engineering. You’ve probably even seen pictures. It is Stonehenge, one of several giant stone structures that have survived from Neolithic times.

photograph of Stonehenge
✚


Title: Stonehenge; Date: circa 2000 BCE; Photographer: Gareth Wiscombe
Built around 2000 BCE, this megalithic (meaning "large stone") structure was probably made for religious purposes. Unfortunately, we know little about the religions of such early people. The entire monument appears to celebrate the summer solstice. The monument is oriented toward the point on the horizon where the sun rises on the longest day of the year. This leads some experts to believe that it was used for sun-worshiping. The way the huge stones are arranged in a circle is called a cromlech, or henge. The large stones that lie horizontally across the tops of two vertical stones are called lintels. Some of these stones weigh up to 50 tons and rise 17 feet in the air. It is truly amazing that early people had the ability to arrange these stones without modern tools.

While the Neolithic period took root in Europe, the native peoples of North America also created new art and architecture. Similar to the megalithic structures of Europe, including Stonehenge, the prehistoric people of North America created "earth art." These were mounds of earth that ranged in size, shape, and purpose. The mounds were created from about 2000 BCE until the late 1500s CE, when Europeans began to arrive in America. Some of the most interesting of these mounds were built in the shapes of animals. These animal-shaped mounds were probably meant to be symbolic of the people who made them. One of the most fascinating of these mounds is the Great Serpent Mound in Adams County, Ohio. This mound, which forms the shape of a giant snake, was probably built sometime between 600 BCE and 200 CE.

Drawing of Great Serpent Mound
✚


Title: Illustration of the Great Serpent Mound
It is almost 1,400 feet long and about three feet tall. It is situated next to a river and seems to slither along the top of a ridge. The large head of the snake may have once held a stone altar. It is the highest point of the mound. Although experts can guess at when it was built, they do not know for certain who built the mound, or why.


Listen to this lesson
Ancient Near Eastern Art
The Neolithic Revolution began in Mesopotamia, a region located in the Near East. More specifically, Mesopotamia sits between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in the area called the Fertile Crescent. Mesopotamia literally means "the land between the rivers." The civilization in Mesopotamia grew strong about the same time that Egypt did. This was between about 3500 and 3000 BCE. Although these two great civilizations advanced at the same time, they did so separately. This allowed them to maintain distinct characteristics in their civilizations and in their art.

Because Mesopotamia was located in a wide, shallow valley with few natural defenses, it was often conquered. This led to diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds among the people of Mesopotamia. While this diversity brought new ideas and beliefs into the area, it also caused problems. The history of Mesopotamia is not well-unified. This has created some confusion for art historians trying to understand the origins of different pieces of art from the area.

The Sumerians were an ethnic group who inhabited Mesopotamia starting sometime before 4000 BCE. They developed an early form of writing called cuneiform. Cuneiform used wedge-shaped characters marked into a clay tablet with an instrument called a stylus. The stylus was wedge-shaped on one end, the other end was either pointed, rounded, or flat-tipped. After the cuneiform characters and shapes were pressed into the tablets, the tablets were dried in the sun or baked. The hardened tablets kept records of whatever was written on them.

Sumerian inscription in monumental archaic style
✚


Sumerian inscription in monumental archaic style; Date: circa 26th century BCE
The ancient Mesopotamians worshiped many different gods and goddesses. The Mesopotamians believed that each city-state belonged to a specific god. Each city-state also had a human ruler to take care of the land and the people in it. This human ruler led the people, and was expected to ask the god for assistance with any problems the people had. The people built temples dedicated to the local god. These temples stood on raised platforms known as ziggurats. Some historians surmise that ziggurats were designed to lift the temple closer to the heavens. The image below shows the remains of the Great Ziggurat at Ur (now called Nasiriyah), in Iraq.

Image of the White Temple
Reconstructed facade of the Ziggurat of Ur; Date: 21st century BCE
The Ziggurat of Ur is now about 4,000 years old. However, only part of the foundation survives from the original building; most of what remains is from a 6th century reconstruction of the temple complex. During the time of the ancient Sumerians, this ziggurat was probably surrounded by a large complex. The complex would have included shrines, workshops, scribes’ quarters, and storehouses.

The ancient Sumerians worshiped many other gods and goddesses besides the local gods of each city-state. These were mostly nature gods associated with different parts of the natural world. One goddess, Inanna, was the goddess of love and war, and an early vase dedicated to her survives today.

Copy of the Warka Vase
✚


Title: Copy of the Warka Vase; Date: 3200–3000 BCE
This vase is known as the Warka Vase because it was found at what is today called Warka, in Iraq. It was used for offerings to Inanna, and includes a story told through relief sculpture. Relief sculpture describes a style of three-dimensional carving that rises up from a surface. The relief sculpture on this vase is special because of the narrative, or story, that it tells. Before this time, most images and sculptures either did not try to tell a story, or did not effectively tell the story they were meant to. On this vase, however, the story is easily understood by art historians. It tells about a religious festival that was given in honor of Inanna.


Listen to this lesson
Ancient Near Eastern Art
While the Warka Vase shows figures in relief sculpture, fully three-dimensional sculptures also survive from the times of the ancient Sumerians. Here we see two statues from the same time.

Sumerian Statues
✚


Assyrian statues
Do you notice how large their eyes are? The Sumerians believed that the eyes were very important for communication, so the large eyes of these statues are to help them communicate with the gods. The bodies and clothing of the statues are simple and are shaped mostly like cones and cylinders.

Another fine work of art from this period is the Standard of Ur.

Royal Standard of Ur
✚


Title: Royal Standard of Ur; Date:approximately 2600 BCE;
This mosaic is two-sided: one side shows a scene of war, the other side a scene of peace. This panel of the mosaic, which is made up of shells and colored stones, shows a Sumerian army. Chariots pulled by donkeys trample the enemies. There are also soldiers shown with spears. The peace side of the Standard of Ur shows food being brought to a banquet. Some figures sit and listen to a musician playing a stringed instrument called a lyre. The lyre has a bull's head decorating the front.

Detail of the "Peace" panel of the Standard of Ur showing lyrist
✚


Title: Detail of the "Peace" panel of the Standard of Ur showing lyrist; Date: approximately 2600 BCE
Like the lyre depicted on the peace side of the Standard of Ur, actual lyres have survived from the ancient Sumerians. Lyres were often buried with the dead.

In 2334 BCE, the Sumerians came under the rule of Sargon of Akkad. During Sargon’s rule, the people turned away from their beliefs in the rule of gods over each city-state. Sargon introduced the idea of loyalty to a human king instead. From the Akkadian period, we have a copper sculpture of the head of an Akkadian ruler.

Head of an Akkadian ruler
✚


Title: Head of an Akkadian ruler; Date: Akkadian period, circa 2300 BCE;
This head used to be a part of a statue, but the statue and head were damaged. Enemies gouged out the eyes (which once contained semiprecious stones), broke off part of the beard, and caused other forms of damage. Despite the damage, we can still appreciate the great skill that went into making this statue. Notice the smoothness of the skin, the texture of the beard, and the details of the hair and forehead.

After an invasion by yet another group, the Gutians, the peoples of Sumer united to drive their new conquerors out. At this point, there was a revival of the Sumerian culture which historians call Neo-Sumerian. The best known king from this period is Gudea of Lagash. Here we see a statue depicting him:

Seated statue of Gudea, circa 2120
✚


Title: Seated statue of Gudea; Date: circa 2120;
The statue is made of a material called diorite. There are other statues of Gudea made of diorite: some standing, some sitting, and usually with his hands folded prayerfully. Gudea was believed by the people to be a link between the gods and the people. Out of this idea grew the divine right of kings, or the idea that kings are chosen by the god or gods to rule. By this thinking, not just anyone could be king.


Listen to this lesson
Ancient Near Eastern Art
Babylon gained leadership over Mesopotamia while under the rule of King Hammurabi. Hammurabi is most famous for his law code. This code includes rules and laws for conduct within the society, and punishments for those who do wrong. The law code of Hammurabi is preserved on a tall black stele, or column, made of basalt. At the top of the stele is a relief sculpture showing Hammurabi discussing something, presumably his law code, with a seated god.

Hammurabi and a seated god
✚


Title: Image from top of stele containing Hammurabi's code of laws; Date: 1772 BCE
Take a look at this sculpture. He maintains eye contact with the god. Remember that the Sumerians believed that the eyes were important for communication.

By the end of the reign of Hammurabi, around 1750 BCE, the city of Assur had become a large and important city in Mesopotamia. The name of the Assyrian Empire comes from the name of the city of Assur. Assur was located next to the Tigris River in the northern part of Mesopotamia. Through excavations (digging up archaeological remains) of the city, and from written texts surviving from that time, we know that the rulers of Assur were in contact with the leaders of Egypt. The Assyrian Empire lasted from about 1100-612 BCE. Many wondrous works of architecture and sculpture come from this period. One fascinating subject of Assyrian sculpture is the lamassu, a protective guardian figure. The one below is from the gateway of the palace of Sargon II.

photograph of a Lamassu statue
✚


Title: Lamassu; Date: 716-706 BCE
This creature has the body of a bull, the head of a man, and wings. It wears a special crown to symbolize that it is divine, or a kind of god.

In 539 BCE, the Persian Empire grew powerful and rose to dominate the area of the Near East. One of the most important Persian architectural structures was the palace at Persepolis (a Greek word meaning "city of the Persians")

Ruins of the Palace of Darius at Persepolis
✚


Ruins of the Palace of Darius at Persepolis; Date: 6th century BCE
This palace took many years to complete. It was started about 520 BCE by Darius I, and his successors Xerxes and Artaxerxes I continued work on it. Persepolis was constructed on a stone platform and contained many rooms. The most important room was the Adapana, or Audience Hall. This was an enormous gathering place which was 60 feet tall. It contained 36 huge columns. Although the Adapana does not survive in its original majesty, we can see here a rendering of what it might have looked like. This drawing shows some of the grandeur of this great, ancient city.

The Apadana at the Palace of Persepolis
✚


Title: The Apadana at the Palace of Persepolis; Artists: Eugene Flandin and Pascal Coste; Date: 19th century
At the tops of the columns were large bulls. You can see them in greater detail below.

Detail of Column Bulls, Apadana at the Palace of  Persepolis
✚


Title: The Apadana at the Palace of Persepolis, detail of column bulls; Artists: Eugene Flandin and Pascal Coste; Date: 19th century

Listen to this lesson
Egyptian Art
Mesopotamia did not have many natural defenses and was frequently conquered by outside civilizations. Egyptian civilization, however, grew out of the fertile lands along the Nile River. The fertile strip along the Nile was protected on both sides by deserts. This allowed the Egyptian civilization to flourish. Egyptians were their own rulers for many years, keeping the culture and its art unified. The civilizations of ancient Egypt have left us many wondrous and amazing works. These include the Great Pyramids at Giza, as well as works of great beauty and intricacy, such as the death mask of Tutankhamen. We will discuss these and other works from ancient Egypt in this module.

Before Egypt was united under the rule of kings, it was divided into two regions. These regions were Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. The beginning of ancient Egyptian culture as we know it began with the unification of the two lands. One of the earliest Egyptian artworks serves as a historical documentation of the unification of the two Egypts. It is the Palette of Narmer, a stone slab with a circular depression on one side.

The Palette of Narmer
✚


Title: The Palette of Narmer; Date: circa 3000-2920 BCE
Both sides of the stone present carvings of human and animal figures. The stone also includes hieroglyphs, which are pictures and symbols used to represent specific objects, ideas, or sounds. This palette is named for King Narmer, who is credited with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. This is the oldest known image to identify a historically important person by name. King Narmer is shown on one side of the palette victoriously standing over an enemy. Two fallen enemies are represented in the compartment below him. Facing King Narmer is a falcon, which represents the Egyptian god Horus. Horus stands triumphant over a human head. This represents the same sort of victory as Narmer. By including this symbolic image of Horus, the artist associated the human King Narmer with a god. This connection remained important throughout the history of ancient Egypt. On the reverse side of the palette, the main motif shows two cat-like creatures with long, intertwined necks. These creatures symbolically represent the joining of Upper and Lower Egypt. In the compartment below these creatures, a bull knocks down the fortress walls of a city. All of the imagery from both sides of the palette represents King Narmer’s great strength in conquering Lower Egypt and uniting the two areas.

One of the most important figures in Egyptian history was the architect Imhotep. Imhotep was the royal builder for King Djoser during the Third Dynasty. He is the first artist whose name was ever recorded in history. It is believed that Imhotep designed the mighty Step Pyramid for King Djoser at Saqqara.

Djoser's step pyramid
✚


Djoser's Step Pyramid; Date: circa 2650 BCE
Saqqara was the ancient necropolis (Greek for "city of the dead") in Memphis, which was Egypt’s capital during this time. Pyramids are actually enormous, grand tombs. It was appropriate, then, that the pyramids were build in the "city of the dead." The Step Pyramid is one of the oldest surviving structures in Egypt. It began as a mastaba (from the Arabic word for "bench"), which is a rectangular structure made of stones or bricks with a flat top and sloping sides. The Step Pyramid was added to at least twice before reaching the size and shape we see in this image. It is about 200 feet tall. The pyramid houses many underground rooms, similar to a palace. This pyramid was the burial place of King Djoser. It was designed to protect and preserve the body of the king, along with his many possessions.


Listen to this lesson
Egyptian Art
The Great Pyramids at Giza serve the same purpose as the Step Pyramid, but they were built for other rulers at a later time.

Giza Pyramids
✚


Giza Pyramids; Date: circa 2575 to 2465 BCE
The three large pyramids were built 4,500 years ago for (from left to right) the kings Mankaure, Khafre, and Khufu. These pyramids were built over a span of 75 years. Did you notice that the shapes of these pyramids are different from the earlier Step Pyramid? Instead of having different levels that seem to make giant "steps," the sides of these pyramids are smoother and straighter. The reason for this change in Egyptian architecture is probably due to the influence of the powerful cult of Ra, the sun god. Ra’s symbol was a pyramid-shaped stone, so these massive pyramids are supposed to represent the sun. The kings believed they could use the rays of the sun to help them get to heaven. The Egyptians also believed that the kings would be reborn in the afterlife. Burying the deceased kings in tombs that symbolize the sun, which appears reborn again each morning, made sense to the early Egyptians. To build these massive pyramids, workers cut large blocks of stone, moved them to the site of the pyramid, cut them to the right shape, and finally set them in place. All of this was done by hand without any of today’s specialized machines. The workers used wooden rollers, or sleds, and ropes, pulleys, and levers to move the great stones into place. Can you imagine how difficult it was to build these giant structures?

In front of the Great Pyramids at Giza is another large structure, built to honor and perhaps portray one of the dead kings. This is the massive Sphinx.

The Great Sphinx at Giza
✚


The Great Sphinx at Giza; Date: circa 2500 BCE
The Sphinx sits in front of the pyramid of Khafre. While it may portray that king, some experts think the Sphinx actually portrays the king Khufu, and that it was built before the pyramid of Khafre. No matter which king it represents, this statue is a massive and imposing monument carved from a large spur of stone from an ancient quarry. It is the largest statue surviving from ancient times in the Near East. The statue combines the head of a man and the body of a lion. This creature, called a sphinx, is associated with the sun god, just like the pyramids behind it. It is possible that this combination of man and lion represents the pharaoh’s intelligence, combined with the great strength of a lion.

While the Sphinx represents an Egyptian sculpture on a large scale, there are also many smaller examples of Egyptian sculpture. This sculpture shows Pharoah Khafre, seated.

Khafre Enthroned
✚


Title: Khafre Enthroned; Date: circa 2160 BCE
This statue is made out of a hard dark stone called diorite. Statues such as this were made for the tombs of the deceased. The Egyptians believed that the ka, or spirit, of the deceased would continue to live for a period of time inside the dead person’s mummified remains. Statues of the deceased were placed in the tomb for the ka to move into in case the remains were somehow damaged. In this statue, Khafre stares straight ahead. His arms are close to his body. His legs remain close together and close to the chair. This statue is bilaterally symmetrical. That means that the features are same on both sides when divided down the middle. Khafre wears a simple shendyt (an Egyptian kilt) and the royal headdress. The throne he sits on shows intertwined papyrus and lotus plants—symbols of the unified Egypt

Listen to selected text

Listen to this lesson
Egyptian Art
We have looked at examples of early Egyptian architecture and sculpture. Now let’s take a look at an ancient Egyptian painting. Here is an example of a fresco, or a painting on a wall.

Fowling Scene from  the Tomb of Nebamun
✚


A wall painting from the Tomb of Nebamun; Date: approximately 1350 BCE
This piece is from the tomb of the nobleman Nebamun in Thebes. The fresco shows Nebamun standing in his boat, hunting birds in a papyrus swamp. His wife and daughter are depicted with him. The hieroglyphs under his raised left arm state that Nebamun enjoys such activities in the afterlife. Take a look at this painting and see what else you can see. Did you notice the fish beneath the boat? What about the butterflies next to Nebamun? Or the cat, which helps the nobleman "hunt" birds?

The next work of art that we will look at from ancient Egypt is this beautiful and graceful sculpture of Queen Nefertiti.

Nefertiti
✚


Title: Nefertiti; Date: 1353-1335 BCE
This statue is from around 1353-1335 BCE, and was found in the workshop of the sculptor Thutmose. This bust—a statue including only the head, neck, and part of the chest—was sculpted of limestone and then painted. The name Nefertiti means "the beautiful one is here." She is depicted in a delicate and sensitive manner. Her large headdress and slender neck give the impression of a great flower balanced gracefully upon its stalk.

We see another depiction of Nefertiti in this sketch of a sculpture from Tel-Amarna below. This time she is with her husband, King Akhenaten, and their daughters.

Nefertiti and Akhenaten
✚


Title: King Akhenaten Served by Queen Nefertiti; Artist: Prisse d'Avennes; Date: 1878
Unlike earlier portraits of married Egyptian couples, depicted in rigid, forward-facing ways, this is a tender family portrait. The king and queen are depicted facing each other. Their daughters attend them, appearing smaller in the art to show that they are not as important as the king and queen. The pharaoh, Akhenaten, accepts the food and drink being served to him by his wife and daughters. This is one of the first intimate family portraits appearing in surviving ancient art. It is far removed from the rigid poses of earlier Egyptian art.

The final work of Egyptian art we will look at is the famous death mask of Tutankhamen.

Mask of Tutankhamun
✚


Gold funerary mask of Tutankhamen; Date: circa 1323 BCE
Tutankhamen was probably the son of the ruler Akhenaten. Tutankhamen ruled from 1333-1323 BCE. He was only eight years old when he assumed the throne, and he died at the age of 18. Tutankhamen was a relatively minor figure in the history of Egypt, but he is well-known today because of the discovery of his unplundered tomb. While most other known Egyptian tombs were plundered, or broken into and stripped of their treasures, Tutankhamen’s tomb was untouched. This was an important find for archaeologists and art historians. Tutankhamen’s tomb allowed researchers to learn a great deal about Egyptian burials and beliefs about the afterlife. The famous death mask of Tutankhamen is made of gold and inlaid with semiprecious stones. It was placed over the face of Tutankhamen’s mummified remains, serving both as a decoration and to identify what he looked like. The findings in Tutankhamen’s tomb help experts to understand and appreciate the pride, power, and wealth of the Egyptian people and their art.


Listen to this lesson
Aegean Art
Cycladic Civilization

While the Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations flourished, three distinct cultures developed along the Aegean Sea. These were the Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean civilizations. These civilizations were long believed to be mythical, or fictional stories describing people and places, because we only knew of them from two epic poems written by Homer (8th century BCE). During the past 150 years or so, though, discoveries of archaeological remains have confirmed that these cities did indeed exist. These early civilizations came before even the ancient Greeks, whose art and mythologies we will look at in another module.

The Cycladic civilization grew out of the small islands north of Crete between the years 2800 and 1600 BCE. Some of the most well-known art from the Cycladic civilization are the marble sculptures found buried with the Cycladic dead. This practice started after about 2800 BCE. The sculptures are quite distinctive. Their angular shapes and abstract qualities recall the art of the Paleolithic and Neolithic times. Most of the sculptures represent nude women, such as this example.

Cycladic Sculpture
✚


Cycladic sculpture; Date: 2700-2100 BCE
The arms are typically folded across the middle of the body, and the entire statue is rather flat. The faces and bodies are made up of basic triangles. They were probably placed on their backs, lying down like the deceased person they accompanied. A few statues have remnants of paint on the faces and bodies, an indication that the sculptures may once have been painted.

In addition to the female figure we just looked at, male figures were also commonly represented. The most elaborate statues represent seated musicians, such as this harp player.

Cycladic Figurine Harp Player
✚


Title: Cycladic figurine harp player; Date: 2700-2300 BCE
The figure is made of marble. The shapes of the figure and the instrument are mainly made up of triangles. Historians aren't sure of the meanings of these figures. Perhaps the statues symbolically provided music for the deceased in the afterlife.


Listen to this lesson
Aegean Art
Minoan Civilization

The Minoan civilization developed on Crete and flourished between 3000 and 1450 BCE. The Minoan civilization was named for the legendary king of Crete, King Minos. Minos is known in mythology as the ruler who kept a savage creature in a labyrinth near his palace in Knossos. According to mythology, the hero Theseus battled with this creature, the half-man, half-bull Minotaur. Theseus defeated the Minotaur but only found his way out of the maze because the king’s daughter, Ariadne, helped him. For a long time, the palace of Knossos was believed to be only a myth. Shortly after 1900, however, a ruin thought to be the palace of Knossos was discovered. We can see here what the remains of the city look like today.

Ruins at the Palace of Knossos
✚


Ruins at the Palace of Knossos; Date: 1900 to 1700 BCE


Courtyard and stairs of the Palace at Knossos
✚


Courtyard and stairs of the Palace at Knossos; Date: 1900 to 1700 BCE
We can also see inside one of the courtyards in the discovered city.

A recurring motif, or pattern, in the structure is a double ax. This was called a labrys. From labrys comes the word labyrinth, which literally means "house of double axes." Today the term refers to a kind of maze, like the maze in which the Minotaur lived.

There were many murals painted on the walls inside the palace of Knossos. Some of them remain. One of the most lively is a fresco of a leaping bull.

Bull Leaping
✚


Title: Bull Leaping; Date: circa 1425-1300 BCE
Remember that a fresco is a painting on a wall. The wall is first covered with plaster and then painted. This large mural depicts the Minoan ritual of bull jumping. It shows a large bull stretched in an exaggerated shape. This portrayal makes the bull seem powerful and energetic. Three human figures are also depicted in the mural. The figure in the middle appears to have vaulted onto the back of the bull to attempt a difficult acrobatic move. All of the figures possess elegantly curving lines. In addition to the great energy and power of this painting, there is a sense of gracefulness as well.

Another wall painting from Knossos portrays a Minoan woman or goddess.

La Parisienne
✚


Title: La Parisienne; Date: 1450-1350 BCE
This fragment of a fresco is nicknamed La Parisienne, or "The Parisian Woman," because of her fashionable appearance and elaborate hairdo. Of course, this label was applied by the 20th-century discoverers of this fresco, not the Minoans themselves. She probably represents a typical young woman, though she could be a priestess or goddess. Like the human figures in the fresco of the leaping bull, the woman is shown in profile. The side of her face is presented perpendicular, or sideways, to the viewer. However, her one visible eye appears as it would if you were looking at her from the front.

The ruins of Knossos aren't the only place to find Minoan art. Landscape with Swallows (Spring Fresco), a fresco from the Grecian island of Thera, beautifully depicts nature and the outside world.

Landscape with Swallows (Spring Fresco)
✚


Title: Landscape with Swallows (Spring Fresco); Date: circa 1550-1650 BCE
This fresco is extremely well-preserved, and the sole subject is nature. The artist did not attempt to portray nature completely realistically. Instead, he captures the sense of joyfulness spring brings to the natural world. A sense of freedom and joy is conveyed by the gracefully-swaying lilies, the vivid colors of the rocks, and the lightness of the flying birds.

The Minoans’ love of nature is also seen in depictions of sea creatures on painted vases. An example is this marine-style octopus jug.

Minoan Decorated Jug
✚


Minoan decorated jug; Date: 1575-1500 B.C.E
On earlier vases, Minoan artists often depicted lighter-colored figures on a dark background. Here, it is reversed. The octopus is a muted brown, shown on a light background. The tentacles of the octopus radiate out from its body, seeming to grasp the jar. The undulating arms of the octopus emphasize the size and shape of the jar.

Another Minoan vessel we will look at is decorated with sculpture instead of painting. On this vase, known as the Harvester Vase, we see a fine example of Minoan relief sculpture.

Harvester Vase
✚


Title: Harvester Vase; Date: 1550-1500 BCE
Only the upper half of the sculpted vase survives today. The lower half broke off sometime in the past and is missing. In the portion that still exists, we see figures harvesting food from a field, or perhaps planting seeds. They burst with energy as they either return to the fields or return home. They seem to sing and shout as they make their way. The artist vividly captures a sense of energy and zest. The artist’s fine attention to details, includingindividual facial and anatomical features, is especially amazing because of the vase’s small size. The whole thing is barely five inches across!


Mycenaean Civilization

The Mycenaean civilization flourished on the mainland of ancient Greece from 1600 to 1100 BCE. In legends, Mycenae was the home of King Agamemnon, who led the Greek army in the Trojan War against King Priam of Troy. Before 1900 CE, excavations on the Greek mainland uncovered the possible ruling place of King Agamemnon.

Much of Mycenaean architecture was based on the idea of an impenetrable fortress. Strong city walls kept invaders out. Although these walls were designed with the purpose of defense, they were also wondrously decorated. The Lion Gate of Mycenae is a good example.

The Lion Gate at Mycenae
✚


Title: The Lion Gate of Mycenae; Date: circa 1250 BCE
This was part of the wall protecting the city. Any enemies who wished to enter the city would have to pass through this gate. The gate was built to be defended by Mycenaeans on each side. The carvings of lions above the gate represent guardian figures to protect the city and intimidate enemies. This idea of guardian figures has been seen before, as early as the Sphinx in Egypt and the lamassu figures guarding the gates of Assyria.

As with other cultures we have studied, Mycenaean cultures buried funerary goods with their dead. Examine this golden mask that was found in Greece.

Mask of Agamemnon
✚


Title: Mask of Agamemnon; Date: 1550-1500 BCE; Photographer: Xuan Che
This artifact would have functioned as a funerary mask. It would have been placed over the face of the deceased in his tomb, much like the ancient Egyptian death mask of Tutankhamen. This mask is made of gold hammered into shape by skilled goldsmiths. We don’t know whether the masks made in Mycenae were meant to be accurate portraits of the deceased person whose face they would cover. The goldsmiths did seem to take great care to indicate different ages and physical types. For example, because the mask in our example has a beard and mustache, we know the mask represents a mature man. He may have been a king or ruler of some kind, but it is not King Agamemnon. The figure historians think Agamemnon is based on did not live until about 300 years after this mask was made.


The origin of the Greeks, or Hellenes, as they called themselves, is not certain. What we do know is that by about 800 BCE, two distinct groups had settled in Greece. These two groups were the Dorians and the Ionians. The Dorians lived on the Greek mainland. The Ionians lived along a strip on the easternmost side of the island, as well as on the Aegean islands and the west coast of what is now Turkey. Later, the Greeks colonized areas in southern Italy and Sicily, as well as in France and Spain.

Greek ideals in art were not only important in the creation of their own works. Greek ideals also came to influence artistic thought throughout the history of western art. The Greeks sought to achieve works of beauty and perfection. They believed the human body was beautiful, proportional, and perfectly balanced. It was used as the standard to which all other things were compared. They also believed that the nude body personified the ideas of truth and beauty. Thus the nude form is often depicted in Greek art. For the Greeks, the human form, and humanity in general, were the most important aspects of their art.

Unlike earlier civilizations, whose gods took the forms of creatures and animals, Greek gods were human in their aspects. The Greeks believed that the biggest difference between humans and gods was that the gods were immortal. Just like humans, the gods could face challenges and problems. They could also make mistakes. On the other hand, the Greeks believed that humans could strive to be their best. They could come close to achieving the status of a god. For the Greeks, the perfect individual portrayed himself in a god-like manner. How would a person achieve this perfection? By disciplining his mind with studies and disciplining his body with physical exercise.

The ancient Greeks disciplined their minds through the study of sciences, math, philosophy, and other disciplines. The work and research of these ancient people led to the establishment of the disciplines we still study today. These include architecture, mathematics, philosophy, poetry, and many different sciences. The Greek interest in balance, unity, and proportion were driving forces behind the study of most of these areas.

The Greeks disciplined their bodies through physical exercise. There were constant wars between city-states, so it was essential for warriors to be physically fit. In 776 BCE, the separate Greek-speaking city-states united to hold the first ceremonial games in Olympia. This was the first Olympiad, or Olympic games. The Greeks began to figure their time based on the first of the Olympiads. This meeting to test physical and athletic prowess against each other was repeated every four years. From this time forth, the people of the separate city-states were united as citizens of Hellas, or what we now call Greece. The Olympiads allowed men to have a goal for improving their physical health and athletic abilities that was something other than war.


Listen to this lesson
Greek Art
This lesson will cover five periods of ancient Greek art. These are the Geometric period, the Orientalizing period, the Archaic period, the Classical period, and the Hellenistic period.

An early work of art from the Geometric period is this painted object similar to a large mixing bowl.

Geometric krater Staatliche Antikensammlungen
✚


Title: Geometric krater from Athens; Date: Geometric period, 1000-900 BCE
This bowl-like work is called a krater. It marked the grave of a man who was buried around 740 BCE. The name of this period, Geometric, is taken from painted objects like this bowl. We can see geometric shapes and forms repeated around the vase. An example is the vertical pattern on the sides of the krater. The pattern seems to imitate designs that would have been found on woven baskets at that time. Geometric patterns such as these were common during this period. This large krater would have  stood over three feet tall and had holes in the base. The holes may have been designed so that offerings placed in the krater could filter down toward the deceased. They may also have been to provide drainage for rainwater. They could have served both purposes.

An example of art from the Orientalizing period is this statue of a woman.

Lady of Auxerre
✚


Title: Lady of Auxerre; Origin: Orientalizing period, 650-625 BCE
Called the Lady of Auxerre, this sculpture demonstrates the Daedalic style, named after the legendary sculptor Daedalus. Daedalus is credited with building the great labyrinth at Crete, where the Minotaur lived. He is also said to have designed a temple at Memphis in Egypt. His small statue, shown above, is named for the town in France where the piece was found. She probably originally came from Crete. The work is made of limestone, and may represent a goddess or a mortal young woman. If it does represent a young woman, this statue would be called a kore (plural: korai). A kore is a statue of a young woman. Statues of young men were called kouros (plural: kouroi). One of the reasons art historians believe that the Lady of Auxerre might be a kore is that her hand is placed on her chest in a gesture of prayer. Notice the geometric patterns carved into her skirt. Since this statue is believed to be from about 650-625 BCE, she is not far removed from the Geometric period.

So what are some of the characteristics of the Orientalizing period from which the statue comes? Remember that the statue is sculpted in the Daedalic style. Because of Daedalus' work in Egypt, Minos, and Sicily, he would have seen the artworks produced by these cultures and brought some of their ideas back to his home in Hellas (Greece). We can see some of these influences in this statue. Examples include the triangular shape of the face, the long, thick strands of hair falling on either side of the face, and the patterning of the skirt.


Listen to this lesson
Greek Art
There are many surviving examples of statues of korai (young women) and kouroi (young men) from the Archaic Greek period. One of the things these statues show us is how the Greeks moved from making stiff, angular bodies and rigid poses, much like the statues of Egyptian pharaohs, toward more natural bodies and poses. We can see the earlier and more rigid pose in this kouros from around 600 BCE.

Kouros of Naucratis
✚


Kouros of Naucratis; Date: Archaic period, circa 560 BCE
In the early kouros, the lines showing the muscles and other parts of the body are simplified. Now take a look at this kouros made about 50 years later.

The Kroisos Kouros
✚


The Kroisos Kouros; Date: Archaic period, circa 515 BCE
Can you see the difference between these two statues? The Greeks are producing more realistic statues, with more natural-looking bodies and poses. Now the lines of the muscles and even the features of the face seem a little more real. The pose of both statues shows the influence of Egyptian art. They stand with the left foot slightly in front of the right, staring straight ahead. Arms are shown next to the body with the hands curled into fists.

While the male kouros figures were often showed nude, the female kore was usually clothed. Here is an example of a kore made at about the same time as the second kouros we looked at.

Peplos Kore
✚


Peplos Kore; Date: Archaic period, circa 530 BCE
This specific statue is named Peplos Kore because of the garment she wears. This long, belted dress was called a peplos. It gives her shape the appearance of a column. This plaster reconstruction is painted, as the original statue would have been. Her left arm is broken off, but at one time was extended out from her body. This is a change from Egyptian traditions, where the arms were usually shown close to the body.

The Greeks are also well-known for their vase paintings. These vases required a great deal of skill to make. An artist who made ceramic vases spent years learning as an apprentice in the workshop of a master potter. After the impurities were removed from natural clay, the clay was kneaded to remove air bubbles and make it easier to shape. The vessel was formed on a rotating pottery wheel. An apprentice turned the wheel while the potter pulled the clay up and formed it into the desired shape. The handles were crafted separately and attached to the vessel. Next, a painter or the potter himself would decorate the vessel. We might assume that the painting was the most important part. In ancient Greece, however, the potter was seen as having the most important job. The process of firing the vessel (to make it hard) in a kiln, or special oven, was very complicated. Eventually the Greeks perfected the process, producing the wonderful vases we now associate with ancient Greece. These vases were considered such special works of art that they were often signed by both the potter and the painter. Here’s an example of a Greek vase.

Achilles Ajax dice
✚


Amphora, Ajax and Achilles playing a game; Date: Archaic period, circa 530 BCE
This vase was made by the artist Exekias. It depicts Achilles and Ajax playing a dice game. This vase is about two feet tall, and was made around 530 BCE.


Listen to this lesson
Greek Art
During the Classical period, which occurred during the 5th century BCE, the Greek civilization was at its height of innovation. This period produced amazing works of art and new techniques and ideas. As we move into the Classical period, we see that the Greeks were becoming skilled in bronze casting. This complicated process involved making a full-sized model out of clay and making a mold around the clay model. Next, a hollow bronze statue is created by a method called lost-wax bronze casting. This process was difficult and took a long time. Artworks made this way, though, were highly prized. Here is an example of a Classical bronze sculpture.

The Artemision Bronze
✚


Title: The Artemision Bronze; Date: Classical period, 560 BCE
This sculpture depicts one of the Greek gods. Historians are unsure if it is Zeus or Poseidon. Whatever he once held in his hand is lost. If it was Zeus, he was probably throwing a thunderbolt. If it was Poseidon, he would have held his trident, or three-pronged spear. This detail shown in his head and shoulders gives us an idea of how far sculpture in the Classical period had evolved from sculpture in the Archaic period. Although the human figures began to look more natural by the end of the Archaic period, they still remained rigidly posed like ancient Egyptian sculptures. In this sculpture, we see a drastically different pose. The god is stretched out powerfully and looks to the side. He is more realistically portrayed. His face is life-like, his hair and beard naturally detailed, and his body structure familiar and believable.

Not many of these bronze statues survive today. Some were lost. Many were melted down to use for other purposes, such as weapons during times of conflict. Although the original bronze statues may not still exist, we know what many of them look like thanks to copies of them made in Rome. An example is this copy of the Diskobolus, or Discus Thrower.

Discobolus
✚


Title: Discobolus; Date: Classical period, 460-450 BCE
This bronze, found at Harvard Law School, is a copy made of a Roman copy of an older Greek bronze. Even more than the bronze statue of Zeus, this statue shows how far the Greeks had come toward making their human figures look natural and real. The statue is made of unmoving bronze, but the artist conveyed a sense of movement and energy because of the way the figure twists, about to release the disc.


Listen to this lesson
Greek Art
The Greeks also built large structures dedicated to the gods and goddesses they worshiped. One of the most famous and most ambitious is the Acropolis of Athens. We can see what is left of the Acropolis today in this photograph.

Acropolis at Athens Greece
✚


Acropolis at Athens, Greece; Date: Classical period, 5th century BCE
The Acropolis was a fortified city with high rock walls. It was a sanctuary for citizens in times of conflict. In fact, the name Acropolis comes from the Greek words akros, meaning "high," and polis, meaning "city." One of the most well-known structures within the Athenian Acropolis is the Parthenon.

Parthenon
✚


Parthenon; Date: Classical period, 447-438 BCE
The Parthenon was a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos, or simply Athena. Athena was the patron goddess of Athens, and the city is named after her. The Parthenon was designed by the two architects Iktinos and Kallikrates. The four sides were made up of tall columns, and above the columns were statues and carvings. Along the tops of the columns, a frieze, or sculpted band running around the top of a column or wall, depicted a procession of Athenians coming to a festival. The flat, triangular areas above the two shorter ends of the structure are called pediments. Statues on these pediments represented two events that were important for Athena and for the people of Athens. On the west pediment, sculptures showed a contest between Athena and Poseidon to decide who would become the patron deity of the city. On the east pediment, sculptures depicted the birth of Athena on Mount Olympus.

According to myth, Athena’s father Zeus had a massive headache one day. He sent for the blacksmith Hephaistos to break his head open and relieve the pressure. When his skull was cracked open, a fully-grown goddess sprang from Zeus’s head. This goddess was Athena. Because of her unusual birth and her association with the head, Athena is the goddess of wisdom as well as warfare. On the east pediment of the Parthenon, although the central portion depicting her birth is missing, we can see some of the witnesses to Athena’s unusual birth. Here we see three reclining goddesses, probably representing Hestia, Dione, and Aphrodite, who would have been present at the birth of Athena.

Hestia, Dione (or Themis) and Aphrodite
✚


Hestia, Dione (or Themis), and Aphrodite; Date: Classical period, 5th century BCE
Notice the artist’s skill to depict the goddesses' clothing as being gracefully draped over them, appearing to bend and flow even though it is presented in marble.

If we had been able to visit the inside of the temple in ancient Greece, we would have seen a large statue of Athena herself inside. This statue is gone now, but it once stood over 38 feet tall and was made of ivory and gold. The ivory was used for the exposed skin of Athena’s face, neck, and arms. Almost everything else was covered with gold. Because she is the goddess of warfare, as well as wisdom, Athena was fully armed with a helmet, spear, and shield. On her outstretched left hand was a small figure of a woman with wings. This figure was Nike, who represents victory. In fact, the American shoe manufacturer Nike took its name from this entity.

Some consider Nike to be a minor goddess. Others say she is not a goddess at all, but a representation of victory that is associated with Athena. In any case, another temple in the Acropolis features many Nike figures. This is the Temple of Athena Nike, a much smaller building than the Parthenon.

Temple of Athena Nike
✚


Temple of Athena Nike
It was designed by Kallikrates, one of the two architects responsible for the Parthenon, and built between 427 and 424 BCE. Around the building, many relief carvings represented victory, and the image of Nike is seen many times. One of the most beautiful of these is of Nike bending down to adjust her sandal.

Nike Adjusting her Sandal
✚


Nike Adjusting Her Sandal; Classical period, 427-224 BCE
Although this is a rather awkward pose, the artist rendered it gracefully. Even the draping of her garment is done with exquisite attention to detail and careful craftsmanship.

Listen to selected text
Listen to this lesson
Greek Art
From the late part of the classical period, we see an example of a wonderful mosaic that once decorated the floor of a room in a lavish house at Pompeii. This mosaic is made of tiny pebbles and small pieces of glass cut to the size and shape needed by the artist. This Roman copy of a Hellenistic painting depicts a historical battle between the armies of Alexander the Great and King Darius III of Persia. This is probably the battle of Issus, where King Darius fled from the battle in his chariot after a humiliating defeat by Alexander.

Darius, detail from the Alexander Mosaic
✚


The Alexander Mosaic; Date: circa 100 BCE
The Hellenistic Greek period, which encompasses all of the ancient Greek art that followed the Classical period (from about the 4th-1st centuries BCE), boasts sculptures and artworks showing an amazing amount of naturalism. As we move into the final period of ancient Greek art, we see the interest in naturalism and the realistic portrayal of figures taken even further. One of the interesting things about the art and sculpture of the Hellenistic period is the representation of such a wide range of people. Prior to this time, sculptures nearly always depicted beautiful people with perfect bodies in graceful poses. The majority of these beautiful sculptures honored people, gods, or goddesses. The Hellenistic period ushered in depictions of older or unattractive people, sometimes arranged in awkward poses. Artwork during this period was more theatrical. This made it seem that some art was intended to entertain the viewer, not just bestow honor. The most important aspect of Hellenistic art is the great naturalism. Not only are a variety of people shown, but the elements that might affect them, such as wind and motion, are taken into consideration. It was common to show a moving figure. It was also common to show figures as if they were about to move, or had just finished moving. This sense of motion was conveyed in the fluid lines of the art. A beautiful example of Hellenistic art is this statue of Nike, the winged personification of victory.

Nike of Samothrace
✚


Nike of Samothrace; Date: Hellenistic period, 200-190 BCE
Although her head and arms are missing, we can still tell much from this lovely sculpture. She seems to have just landed on the prow of a ship (not shown in this image), indicating that this sculpture was made to represent a naval victory. Her wings are still outstretched, and her garment swirls around her as it shows the effects of her movement and the blowing breeze. Some art historians believe that she was shown about to crown a victorious leader. Her missing arms would have been outstretched, holding a laurel wreath. At over eight feet tall, this statue is larger than life.

Another example of a Hellenistic sculpture is this statue of an old woman.

Old Drunkard
✚


Old Drunkard
She is shown as aged and unattractive, characteristics of the realism of the Hellenistic period, and carries a wine jug. Her body is bent with age, showing that she is advanced in years. The statue suggests that the woman has lived in poverty for a long time. This change from showing only the young and the beautiful, the Greek ideal of perfection in the classical era, reflects the social changes that occurred in Greek culture during the Hellenistic period.


Listen to this lesson
Roman Art
While the political power of the Greek city of Athens lasted for only about fifty years, the political power of Rome lasted for almost five hundred. The city-state of Rome began in the 8th century BCE. Because of their ability to conquer people, govern them, and adapt to their different cultures, the Roman Empire grew to a massive size. The Romans greatly admired Greek art, and they brought many Greek sculptures to Rome to decorate their homes. Greek sculptures were also often copied to fulfill Roman demand for them. The Romans even brought Greek sculptors to Rome to create new sculptures. However, this made it difficult to identify what sculptures were truly Roman instead of Greek, or made by Greeks in Rome. Another difficulty comes from the fact that while Greek artists often signed their works, Roman artists usually did not.

While the Romans drew on Greek ideas for sculpture and painting, they were themselves excellent architects. Their building methods allowed them to create incredible structures that still stand today. They used the arch and vault, as well as concrete, more advantageously then previous cultures.

One of the amazing architectural feats of the Romans was their use of aqueducts. The word aqueduct comes from the Latin words aqua, meaning "water," and ducere, meaning "to lead." That is basically what their function was. The aqueducts served to move water to the places it was needed. For the most part, the aqueducts were built below ground or along low walls. Bridges were build if the water needed to cross a gorge or other obstacle. One of the most famous of these was located in the south of France at Nimes. It is called the Pont du Gard.

Engraving of the Pont du Gard by Charles-Louis Clérisseau, 1804, showing the seriously dilapidated state of the bridge at the start of the 19th century
Engraving of the Pont du Gard; Artist: Charles-Louis Clérisseau; Date: 1804

The name means the "bridge of the Gard," the Gard being a river. In this impressive example of Roman architecture, the covered channel for carrying the water is at the top. The rest of the bridge maintains the height so that the flow of water can continue. The bridge is made up of blocks weighing up to two tons, or four thousand pounds, each. The aqueduct provided about 44 million gallons of water each day for the people of Nimes, bringing it from a source about thirty miles away.

Another amazing work of architecture that still stands today is the Colosseum.

Colosseum, Photo taken by Jerzy Strzelecki
Colosseum; Date: 70-90 CE; Photographer: Jerzy Strzelecki

Interior of the Colosseum Rome
Title: Interior of the Colosseum, Rome; Artist: Thomas Cole; Date: 1832

This huge structure was once used to house gladiator fights, fights between animals, and other spectacles. It was built between 70 and 90 CE. The huge structure could hold fifty thousand people. It is made using concrete walls, arches, and vaults, which were then covered with marble or plaster. An arch is an architectural element that is curved, like the openings seen around the Colosseum. A vault is an arched roof or other covering which is made of stone, brick, or concrete. Both the arch and the vault are important parts of Roman architecture. The Colosseum’s outer walls are very tall—as high as a modern sixteen-story building. The Romans designed the structure so that a huge awning could be stretched over the top to protect the viewers from the sun and the rain. This awning or covering was called a velarium. The velarium was so huge that it took at least 1,000 men to raise and lower it! The floor inside the Colosseum could be used as a sort of stage for the battles that took place there. It could also be flooded and made into a shallow lake where mock naval battles could be held. This grand example of Roman architecture has unfortunately been damaged by later inhabitants of the area who took the marble and other materials to build different structures. An echo of the great Colosseum can still be seen in the American football stadiums of today.


Listen to this lesson
Roman Art
A third original example of Roman architecture is the Pantheon. The name Pantheon comes from the Greek words pan, meaning "all," and theos, meaning "gods," because it was originally dedicated to all of the Roman gods and goddesses. The building was built around 125 CE, but has been used as a Christian church since the 7th century. It is also a tomb for important artists and composers. One of the most distinctive architectural features of the Pantheon is its circular rotunda, topped by a huge dome that is exactly half of a sphere. In front of the rotunda is a portico, or porch, that has tall columns supporting a triangular pediment. We can see the portico in this painting.

Pantheon
✚


Title: Pantheon with Bell Tower; Artist: Rudolf von Alt; Date: 1835
As we move inside the Pantheon, we see that the inside of the rotunda is adorned with marble columns and other decorations.

Pantheon Interior
✚


Title: The Interior of the Pantheon; Artist: Giovanni Paolo Panini; circa 1734
There are niches, or hollow spaces, in the walls. They now hold Christian statues, but once held statues of the Roman gods and goddesses. As we look up, we see that the inside of the dome is covered with small recessed squares called coffering. These squares serve a couple of purposes. One is that they decorate the interior and add interest. The other is that breaking up the surface of the inside of the dome makes the dome seem less heavy. As we continue to look up, we see that the very top of the dome has a round opening in it. This opening is called an oculus, or eye, and serves as the light source for the Pantheon. Any rainwater that falls inside is carried away by an underground drainage system.

The Romans had a unique way of welcoming a victorious general or emperor to the city. They constructed a triumphal arch for the leader to pass under as they entered the city. This would be symbolic of entering triumphantly into the city. Several wonderful examples of these triumphal arches survive today. One of them is the Arch of Titus.

Arch of Titus
✚


Arch of Titus; Date: 82 CE
This arch was made in 82 CE to honor the Emperor Titus’ capture of Jerusalem, which occurred in 70-71 CE. On the arch are relief sculptures celebrating Titus’ successes. Underneath the arch, one on each side, are two panels with such carvings. One of them, which we can see here, depicts Titus’ soldiers carrying treasures won in the Jewish wars.

Spoils of JerusalemRelief from the Arch of Titus
✚


Spoils of Jerusalem: Relief from the Arch of Titus; Date: 82 CE
One of the treasures they carry is a large menorah, or sacred Jewish candelabrum that holds seven candlesticks. The artist has tried to show that this object is heavy by showing how much strength is needed to carry it, giving a sense of naturalism to this carving.


Listen to this lesson
Roman Art
We have looked at several significant examples of Roman architecture and seen some of their fascinating innovations. Although they greatly admired Greek sculpture, and copied Greek works and sculptural style, there are some very original and interesting examples of Roman sculpture. One of these is a sculpture of Augustus from Primaporta, Italy.

Augustus, from the villa of Livia at Prima Porta
✚


Augustus of Prima Porta; Date: 14-37 CE
As you look at this sculpture, do you think it shows an ordinary man or a god? If you aren’t sure, then the artist has done what they intended. They were trying to show the man Augustus as god-like. This tradition goes back to the ancient Egyptians who believed that their pharaohs were god-kings. They tried to show them as such in art. In this portrait of Augustus, he is shown as an orator, or speaker, as well as a general. He has his arm outstretched, as if addressing a crowd. He wears breastplate armor to show his role as a general. On his breastplate are figures that represent one of his victories. He wears the contemporary Roman clothing of a toga and a cloak. He also holds in his left hand a staff of authority, showing his power. His sandals have been removed, showing that he has been deified, or made into a god. This portrait, therefore, was likely made after his death in 14 CE. The Cupid figure at his feet also associates him with the gods. Augustus’ family traced its line back to the goddess Venus, and Cupid was Venus’ son. Although the face of this statue is a likeness of Augustus, the body is young and muscular. Showing Augustus as a young and strong man makes him seem eternally youthful, a god-like quality.

Unlike the statue of Augustus, only fragments remain of a sculpture of the emperor Constantine made around 315-330 CE.

Fragments of the colossal statue of Constantine from the Basilica of Maxentius
✚


Fragments of the Colossus of Constantine from the Basilica of Maxentius; Date: 315-330 CE
This immense statue at one time occupied a basilica created in honor of Constantine. The head alone is eight and a half feet tall! Can you imagine how tall the original statue was? The head and other pieces seen here were made of marble, and the statue probably had a wooden torso that was covered with bronze. He used to be sitting on a throne within his basilica. The eyes of the statue seem to stare at nothing in this world, giving the work an otherworldly feel. This huge statue seems to revert back to early Greek and Egyptian times, when kings and emperors were shown to be distant and unapproachable. The naturalism and realism that we have seen since the Classical Greek period are missing.

We have discussed Roman architecture and sculpture, but the Romans also left some wonderful paintings. This fresco is from an earlier time than the statue of Constantine that we just discussed.

Wall painting of a garden scene (detail), from the Villa of Livia, Prima Porta
✚


Wall painting of a garden scene from the Villa of Livia, Prima Porta; 20-30 BCE
It is from the Villa of Livia in Primaporta, Italy. Livia was a Roman empress. She was the wife of Augustus, whose statue was discussed earlier in this lesson. This fresco was found in an underground room in the villa. These garden scenes surround each wall of the room, giving the viewer the sense of being outside. The plants closest to the viewer are in the sharpest focus, while those further back grow more and more unclear, seeming to fade into the background.


Listen to this lesson
Roman Art
Another example of Roman painting is this portrait of a young boy.

Portrait of a boy, encaustic on wood, h. 15 3/8 in. (39 cm), w. 7 1/2 in. (19 cm), Roman period, 2nd century AD
Portrait of a boy; Date: Roman period, 2nd century CE

This, as well as many portraits like it, comes from the Faiyum Cemetery in Egypt. This was during a time when the Roman Empire extended as far as Egypt. We know from studying Egyptian art that the practice of burying the dead was common. Even when Egypt was under Roman control, they continued this practice. This painting is from around 160-170 BCE. During this time, instead of placing a stylized mask over the face of the deceased, a painting such as this was used. It was probably painted while the person was still alive, and used a type of paint called encaustic. This portrait shows the artist’s great skill and careful attention to detail.


Listen to this lesson
Early Christian and Byzantine Art
As Christianity began to emerge in Europe, the kind of art produced changed. Prior to this time, there was great interest in naturalism. People and things were portrayed as realistically as possible. As the Christian religion began to grow and gain more dominance, a greater interest in symbolic representation became evident in art. Through symbolic representation, an artist could depict things beyond the images we could physically see in the work of art. In fact, the realism of the images was sacrificed as the importance of symbolism increased.

The Christian religion is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ. Therefore, much of the art from this period is based on his teachings. Christianity grew out of the Jewish religion; Jesus himself was a Jew. According to Christian stories, Jesus was the son of the one god the monotheistic religion of Judaism worshiped. Monotheistic means worshiping only one god. Jesus was born to Mary, a young virgin. He set out early on a life of teaching. His message was one of love, humility, and charity. He gained many followers throughout his life. His most notable followers were his twelve disciples, who followed and tried to be like him. They also continued his teachings after his death.

When he was still a young adult, Jesus was crucified and buried. Crucified means to be put to death by hanging on a cross. In the Jewish faith, it was a common practice to sacrifice animals as apology for sinning or doing wrong according to the laws set out by their faith. Christians believe that Jesus’ death on the cross was the ultimate sacrifice. As a result, making sacrifices of animals was no longer necessary. Christians also believe that Jesus was resurrected from the dead and went to heaven to live with God. There are a great many other stories about the life of Jesus. Most are found in the Christian religious book, the Bible. Many of these stories are depicted in art from this period, and continue to be represented in art today.

The Christian religion gained followers and power in Rome in the first three centuries after Christ’s death around 33 CE, even though it was illegal to be a Christian under Roman law. Those who practiced Christianity had to do so in secret. This changed in 313 CE, when the Roman Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan. This edict, or proclamation, granted religious tolerance to Christianity and all other religions. According to a biography by the historian Eusebius, Constantine himself converted to Christianity after having a vision the night before a battle. Despite his interest in Christianity, Constantine did not officially become a Christian until he was on his deathbed.

In approximately 330 CE, Constantine made an important decision. The effects of this decision can still be felt today. He decided to move the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium. The name of Byzantium was changed to Constantinople. This city is known today as Istanbul. The decision to move the capital was probably based on the fact that Byzantium was economically important to the eastern provinces. This made it a better place for him to base the Empire. After seven years of energetic building, Byzantium was ready, and the capital was moved. The new location of the Roman capital was also important for the Christian faith. This was because Byzantium was the heart of the most heavily-populated area of Christians.

Constantine's reasons for moving the capital were all very practical. However, ultimately, this decision would split the Empire. Less than 75 years after the move, the Roman Empire was divided into Eastern and Western empires in a permanent and official split. Because of the ties the Christian religion had with the state by this time, this led to a religious split as well. The Christian church divided into the Roman Catholic Church, which was based out of Rome, and the Eastern Orthodox Church.


Listen to this lesson
Early Christian and Byzantine Art
For the first several centuries after the death of Jesus, Christianity in Rome was banned. Because of this, Christian followers had to practice their religion in secret. Most Christian art we have from this time comes from paintings in catacombs. Catacombs are underground burial chambers that were also safe places for Christians to meet. Some of the art they left behind include this ceiling fresco.

Wall painting of the Good Shepherd, Capella della Velata, catacomb of Priscilla
✚


Wall painting of the Good Shepherd in the catacomb of Priscilla; Date: late 2nd century
This depicts Jesus as the "good shepherd." This allegorical, or symbolic, name for Jesus refers to the idea that the Christian people are his "flock" of sheep. Like a shepherd, Jesus provides guidance and protection for those who follow him. This depiction of Jesus would be appropriate to adorn a burial chamber, because it gives a sense of protection and the feeling that the dead were being taken care of. The depiction of Jesus as the good shepherd was also a common way of showing him during this period. At this time, he was usually shown either as the good shepherd or a teacher. The art also portrayed him a young man, focusing on his humanity and not his godliness. It wasn’t until Christianity became the official religion in Rome, centuries later, that he began to be shown as a mature man with a beard and a halo.

The early Christians viewed painting and architecture as more important than sculpture. Even so, some outstanding examples of early Christian sculpture still exist. Here is a representation of the highly-carved sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, a high Roman official who died in 359.

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus
✚


Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus; Date: 359 CE
A sarcophagus is a tomb for the dead to be laid in. This one includes intricate carvings. These relief carvings are in two levels and divided into ten compartments by columns. These compartments depict scenes from both the Old and New Testaments. The Old Testament is the first half of the Christian Bible, including stories from before Jesus’ birth. This is also the entirety of the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament is the second half of the Christian Bible. It tells stories of Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection, and of the early church.

Figures of Jesus hold the places of honor, filling the center opening on both the top and bottom levels. In the top middle compartment, we see Jesus teaching Peter and Paul. They were two of his disciples. In the lower middle compartment, we see Jesus triumphantly riding a donkey into Jerusalem. This happened shortly before his death. It is interesting that the artist has chosen to show Jesus’ teaching, a scene of heavenly triumph, over his earthly triumph of entering Jerusalem. This placement is interesting because it focuses more attention on the intellectual and spiritual triumphs of educating people over his earthly triumph of entering the city. Many of the other scenes show stories important to the early church. It is also interesting to look for the influences of Roman art on early Christian art. Although these compartments depict Christian stories, the way the figures are shown reflects the Roman interest in classical Greek figures.

Before Christianity was legal in Rome, the followers of the Christian faith had to worship in secret. They usually worshiped in someone’s home. After Christianity was legalized with the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, Christians were free to build places where they could worship together. The design of these churches was modeled after Roman basilicas, or public buildings. This early design for Christian churches was to become widespread throughout Western Europe.

None of these early Christian basilicas survive today in their original forms. But we do have a surviving floor plan for Old St. Peter’s Basilica. This Christian temple was built around 320 CE in Rome on the orders of the Roman emperor Constantine I, and was dedicated to St. Peter. St. Peter was Jesus’ first disciple. He was also the first pope of the Christian church. The design of this church was large enough to accommodate many people. It was built over the believed burial site of St. Peter. This gave the site of the church special meaning for Christians. Although this original temple is gone, the plan was used for many churches built after its time. Another church was built over the same site of the original St. Peter’s Basilica. It is the current St. Peter’s Basilica, at the heart of Vatican City, where the pope lives.


Listen to this lesson
Early Christian and Byzantine Art
In approximately 330 CE, the capital of the Roman Empire was moved east to the city of Byzantium. Constantine renamed the city Constantinople in honor of himself. The unity of the Byzantine Empire was challenged by hostile outsiders as well as fragmented by internal conflicts. In spite of all this, the Byzantine Empire was resilient and managed to prosper and flourish. The end of the Late Roman Empire and beginning of the Byzantine Empire was associated with the reign of Justinian, who ruled from 527-565 CE.

An interesting artwork from the early 6th century (500s) is this ivory panel of the Archangel Michael.

Archangel Michael
Detail of ivory panel depicting the Archangel Michael; Date: circa 525-550
Angels and archangels are heavenly beings associated with the Christian faith. The archangels were high-ranking angels. Michael is specifically named in the Christian Bible. The artist has carefully and delicately recorded details such as the draping of the garment and individual feathers in the wings. Yet, the image is not completely realistic. Take a look at the stairs. Although they are meant to depict depth, the way Michael’s feet are placed on them makes them appear quite flat. Also, notice that Michael’s upper body and wings are in front of the pillars that frame him, while his feet seem to be behind them. This image reflects the interest of artists in this period in showing images that are more symbolic than realistic.

During the reign of Justinian several important churches were constructed. One of the most important and most beautiful of these is the Hagia Sophia, which means "holy wisdom". This church was built as a Christian basilica. But when the Ottomans took control of the city in 1453, it became a mosque and the four minarets, or tall slender towers attached to a mosque, were added. In the 20th century, the building was secularized and turned into a museum. From the outside, this huge building is dominated by its dome. As we step inside, we can see the beautiful, enormous interior.

Hagia Sophia, interior
Hagia Sophia, interior; Date: 537

The space is so large and open, that it seems miraculous that it stays standing. The interior is also very well lit. In fact, if we look up at the inside of the massive dome, it almost seems to sit on a circle of light. This effect is achieved by the inclusion of 40 windows at the base of the dome. This is very unlike the lighting in the Roman Pantheon in which illumination came only from the oculus, or circular opening in the top of the dome. The inside of this church was once even more elaborately decorated. But through the passage of time and conflicts taking place in the city, parts of the interior have been damaged. What remains is still a beautiful and incredible testament to the artists and architects of Justinian’s time.

Another important church which was built during Justinian’s reign is San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. Old St. Peter’s, Hagia Sophia, and many other Christian churches were based on specific rectangular architectural plans. San Vitale was designed as an octagonal, or eight-sided, church. The dome rises above the center of the building. Inside are some fascinating mosaics, which serve both to glorify the God, for whom the church was designed, and Justinian, who had it built. The church is named after Saint Vitalis. He lived during the 2nd century and may have been an early bishop of Ravenna.


Listen to this lesson
Early Christian and Byzantine Art
On the top part of the apse, or semicircular recess in the wall, of the San Vitale is a mosaic showing Christ with the angels of Saint Vitalis and Bishop Ecclesius, who was the bishop of Ravenna at the time this church was built.

Christ Enthroned and Flanked by St Vitalis and Bishop Ecclesius
✚


Christ enthroned, flanked by St. Vitalis and Bishop Ecclesius; Date: circa 547
Christ is shown seated on a large blue globe, symbolizing that he is king of the world. He has a halo, signifying his holiness. Behind him the golden color represents a heavenly realm. This shows that he is not of this world, but of heaven. Bishop Ecclesius, who stands on the right side of the mosaic, holds a model of the church which he will present to Christ. This mosaic is made of tesserae, or small, semi-precious stones, and cut glass, which were placed in wet plaster to make the design we see. One of the reasons for using tesserae is their ability to reflect light. Because each shiny piece sits at a slightly different angle in the hardened plaster, the sun is reflected off of the mosaic in a way that makes it seem to sparkle.

On the walls on either side of the apse are two mosaics. One depicts Emperor Justinian; the other depicts his wife, the Empress Theodora. In the mosaic of Justinian, he is shown in the center, flanked by twelve people.

Click button below for descriptionClick for Long Description

Mosaic of Emperor Justinian and his retinue; Date: circa 547

On his left is Bishop Maximianus, who was responsible for the completion of San Vitale. The figure behind and between Maximianus and Justinian may be the benefactor of the church, or the person who gave the money for it to be built. There are also other figures representing the church, some administrators, and the military. In all, the number of figures with Justinian is twelve, paralleling the twelve disciples of Jesus. Justinian is also shown with a halo, which was unprecedented. At this time, only the figures of Christ, angels, and saints were shown with halos. Justinian further associates himself with Christ by wearing royal purple robes, like Christ wears in the first mosaic in this lesson. By doing this, Justinian is equating himself with Christ. That doesn't mean that he is pretending to be a god, though. Instead, he does this to state that he is a leader of men as Christ is the ruler of heaven. In a sense, by portraying himself this way, he is stating that Christ approves of his position as ruler.
On the opposite wall of the apse is another mosaic depicting Justinian’s wife, Theodora.

Click button below for descriptionClick for Long Description

Mosaic of Empress Theodora with her retinue; Date: circa 547

Theodora was an intelligent and strong-willed woman who helped Justinian rule the Empire through her counsel and advice. Theodora is also shown in purple and has a crown and halo. She is shown with her female attendants. Two men are there to assist the women as they enter the church. In the mosaic of Justinian, he carries a loaf of bread. Theodora carries a chalice of wine as she is shown entering the church. These are the two elements of the important Christian ritual of the Eucharist, or Holy Communion, which Justinian and Theodora will soon take part in.


Listen to this lesson
Early Christian and Byzantine Art
We have looked at Byzantine sculpture, architecture, and mosaics, but what about paintings? There were many wonderful paintings produced during this period. They were made in the forms of frescoes, illuminated manuscripts (decorations in books), paintings on wood, and many others. One we will look at is a fresco from the church of Saint Panteleimon in Nerezi, Macedonia.

Nerezi, St Panteleimon, detail of the Lamentation, wall painting, 1164
Detail of the Lamentation wall painting; Date: 1164

This painting comes from a later time, 1164 CE. It depicts the lamentation over the dead body of Christ. This scene comes after Jesus’ crucifixion. He is shown here after being removed from the cross. His mother, Mary, holds him and presses her cheek against his face. Saint John holds his left hand, and Joseph of Arimathea and the disciple Nicodemus kneel by his feet. The gospel books of the Bible, which tell of the life, teachings, and death of Jesus, do not specifically say that either Mary or John were present when Jesus was removed from the cross. However, they are often shown in scenes of the Lamentation. This serves the purpose of showing the viewer of the artwork that this was an intensely emotional time in the lives of Christ’s followers. The artist has striven to communication the emotion of the figures and scene, rather than to paint in the realistic manner that had been common in the ancient Roman world.

The last work of Byzantine art we will look at is this painting of the Virgin Mary and the Infant Jesus.

Miraculous image known as the Virgin of Vladimir, early 12th century
The Virgin of Vladimir; Date: 1130

Often called the Vladimir Virgin, this painting is housed at the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow. It is made of tempera painted on wood and would have served as an icon in a church. An icon is a portrait or image of a sacred person, which was displayed in the church and regarded as an object of veneration, or worship. This wooden panel would have been placed above an altar. The smoke from incense and candles has contributed to the darkening of the image. We see a young Mary holding the infant Jesus, who clings affectionately to her. The Christ Child wears a golden garment. This is symbolic of his holiness and the heavenly realm he will someday return to. Mary’s gentle embrace of her child, along with her contemplative gaze, make her appear to be thinking about the future of her small son. The figures of both Mary and Jesus are stylized, or more emotional than naturalistic and real. The subject of Mary holding the infant Jesus was popular at this time and would remain so for many centuries.


Listen to this lesson
Early Medieval Art
The first period we will study is the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages spanned about 1,000 years, from about 400 CE to about 1400 CE. The alternate terms for this period (the Dark Ages; medieval) indicate that scholars and art historians alike once thought that this period was unenlightened. Critics and historians originally saw art production as poor and the cultures of the period as uncivilized. The period was widely seen as a blank span of time between the high art of classical antiquity (the art of ancient Greece and Rome), and the Renaissance, or "re-birth," of the ideas of classical antiquity. Although scholars and historians have since changed their minds about the nature of the time period, the name stuck.

The first half of the Middle Ages was filled with conflict. The Roman Empire had collapsed after being overrun by the Visigoths, Huns, and Vandals. Without the strength of the Roman Empire to defend against outside tribes, these tribes could settle in Europe permanently. This period of movement and settlement kept people from producing large works of art or those bound to one location. Most of the surviving art from this period is small and portable, such as jewelry, weapons, and other objects for daily use. Although these tribes were mostly Christian, they also kept some pagan traditions. As a result, we see the depiction of monsters and dragons in their art and music. Animal motifs were also common in works from this period. An example is this weather vane from the Viking Age.

Metal engraved vane from the Viking Age
✚


Engraved weather vane from the Viking Age; Date: 7th to 12th century
The forms you can see represented on the weather vane are abstract rather than naturalistic. Although they are abstract, we can tell that they represent the figures of animals.

Another work of art from this period that includes abstracted use of animal figures is this wooden portal on the north wall of a stave church in Norway. A stave is a wedge-shaped timber placed vertically in the construction of a building. The church that this work of art is found on is located in Urnes, Norway.

Urnes  Church Carved Wood Door
✚


Urnes Church Carved Wood Door; Date: 12th century
This portal and a few staves are all that remain of a mid-11th-century church that was built in the same location. The fragments of this early church were incorporated into the walls of a church from the 12th century. In this wooden portal, we can see the elongated and abstracted forms of animals intertwined with gracefully-curving plant stalks and tendrils. This makes up an interlace pattern that was popular in art from this period.


Listen to this lesson
Early Medieval Art
Manuscript illuminations are also important art pieces from this time. Illuminated manuscripts were books that had illustrations depicting the story being told or decorating the page. Books are portable, so people could carry them when they moved someplace new. These books were made by monks in monasteries. They were often used by Christian missionaries to spread the Christian story and help bring stability to the religion. The art of manuscript illumination was popular and important during this period. Some of the most well-known manuscript illuminations come from the Lindisfarne Gospel Book. This page is called a carpet page. Carpet pages were common features of illustrated manuscripts.

Carpet page from the Lindisfarne Gospels, tempera on vellum, 340×240 mm, c. AD 700
Carpet page from the Lindisfarne Gospels; Artist: Eadfrith of Lindisfarne; Date: 698-721 CE

Like the stave church portal you looked at earlier, this page includes interlace patterns and some abstracted animal forms in the frame. This page shows a delicate interlace pattern. In the middle of the page, brought out by its red and green coloring, is a Christian cross. This shows the use of Christian imagery. This would have been a decorative page of the Bible. It shows the care and detail that went into the creation of these pages.

Another illumination from the same book depicts the evangelist Saint Matthew.

St Matthew Writing with a Quill Pen in a Codex; miniature from the Lindisfarne Gospels
Title: St. Matthew Writing with a Quill Pen in a Codex; Artist: Eadfrith of Lindisfarne; Date: 698-721 CE

The authors of the four gospel books of the Bible, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are called the four evangelists. Medieval art often symbolized them by including the winged creatures associated with each. Matthew’s symbol was a winged man, later represented as an angel. For Mark, it was a lion with wings. Luke was shown as an ox with wings. John was symbolized by an eagle. In this depiction of Matthew from the Lindisfarne Gospel Book, we can see his symbolic winged man over and behind him. Matthew is shown with a halo and is seated on a bench with his feet on a rug. He is shown writing his gospel book. Peeking from behind the curtain is a figure representing God. He is inspiring Matthew to write his book. There are words written in two different languages at the top of the page. In Latin, at the very top, are the words "In the Image of Man." This refers to God coming to earth in the form of Jesus to be with and relate to the people. Below it in Greek are the words "Holy St. Matthew." These words identify the author of the text. The style of this work is detailed, but quite flat. The artist was trying to show Matthew symbolically rather than realistically.

The Carolingian period in art began when Charles the Great (Charlemagne) was crowned Emperor of Rome in the year 800. This marked the beginning of a line of Holy (or Christian) Roman Emperors. Charles the Great united Europe and brought back some of the glory of the ancient Roman Empire. During this time, there was renewed interest in the art and culture of Rome's Early Christian period.

A later image of Saint Matthew from the Carolingian period offers a slightly different view of the evangelist. How are these two interpretations similar? How are they different?

Ebbo Gospels, St Matthew, author portrait, c. AD 816–35
St. Matthew from the Ebbo Gospels; Date: 816-835 CE

This was painted around 816-835 CE. Here we see a different style of painting. Matthew sits in a similar pose and writes in a book, and the winged man associated with Matthew is present in the upper-right corner of the page, but the art has a different mood than the version in the Lindisfarne Gospels. In the Lindisfarne Gospels, there is a feeling of calm to the scene. The Ebbo Gospels Matthew is shown with a sense of frenzy and excitement. This feeling comes from the lighter colors and the looseness of the brushstrokes.


Listen to this lesson
Early Medieval Art
We have already looked at several pages from inside illuminated books, but the covers of these books are just as beautiful. The example below shows the front cover of the Lindau Gospels from St. Gall in Switzerland.

Lindau Gospels
✚


Lindau Gospels; Date: 880 CE; Photographer: Jennifer Mei
Depicted in the center is Christ hanging on a cross. This image divides the cover into four balanced sections. Shown above Christ’s head are personifications of the sun and the moon. In the top sections are four angels. In the lower sections are figures of the Virgin Mary who was Christ’s mother, Saint John, and two unknown figures. Surrounding the gold sections with the figures are pearls and jewels. These are raised to catch and reflect light. They also protect the delicate gold decorations from wearing off due to contact with surfaces.

One of the most important institutions of this period was the monastery. A monastery is a community for monks. Monks are men who have devoted their lives to the Christian faith. These communities were self-sufficient. They contained religious centers, schools, places to live, halls to eat in, and anything else the monks might need to pass their days. They even included places for livestock and crops so the monks could grow their own food. The church, which was the most important building in the monastery, was placed in the center. Other buildings were adjacent to the church depending on how important they were. Monks placed great importance on learning, so the library and scriptorium were attached to the church. Scriptoriums were a “place for writing.” They were where the monks would copy manuscripts, such as the texts associated with the illuminations we have just looked at. Under an order of Charlemagne’s, monasteries even provided education to those not intending to become monks.

The final work of art we will discuss in this lesson is a wooden crucifix.

Gero Cross
✚


Gero Cross, 965-970 AD
This monumental sculpture was commissioned by Archbishop Gero and presented to the cathedral of Cologne in 970 CE. It is made of carved oak, which was then painted and gilded. This image of Christ is six feet tall, about life-size. It shows the part of the Christian story called the crucifixion. Jesus is shown hanging from the cross, the method used to execute him. Behind him is a golden halo, telling of his holiness. The purpose for statues like this is to remind Christian viewers of how much Christ suffered for them. The artist succeeds at expressing Christ’s pain and suffering. This image shows again the move toward naturalism, showing the human body in a realistic way.


Listen to this lesson
Romanesque Art
The Romanesque period lasted from about 1000 CE to 1150 CE. "Romanesque" is a word that literally means "Roman-like." It means that techniques used in art and architecture were similar to those of the ancient Romans. This term was first used to describe this art in the 19th century, and it effectively describes the architecture of the period.

In the early Middle Ages, the primary lifestyle was feudalism. The word feudalism comes from the Latin word foedus, which means "oath." In this way of living, a landholding lord would grant the use of parts of his land to serfs, or peasants. They cared for the land and gave military service to their lord in exchange for the use of the land and a promise of the lord’s protection. During the Romanesque period, there was an increase in trade. This resulted in the growth of cities and towns. As the peasants moved into these towns, feudalism slowly died out. It still existed in some places, but was being replaced by a growing middle class created by trade.

The building of churches and cathedrals was also important during this time. In the early Middle Ages, most art was small and easy to carry because people moved often. Now, as permanent living areas became more common, huge churches began to be built. There were a couple of reasons for this building movement. One was relief that the millennium of the year 1000 did not bring about the end of the world, as many had feared. There was an increase in church building as people gave thanks to God and money to the churches.

Another major reason for building bigger and grander churches was the increasing number of pilgrimages. A pilgrimage is a trip undertaken by Christians to visit relics possessed by particular churches. These pilgrimages were undertaken for different reasons. Some were seeking forgiveness for sinning, some were searching for a cure for an illness, and some just wanted to visit holy sites. Some of the most important pilgrimage sites were St. Peter’s and St. Paul’s in Rome, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, and Santiago de Compostela in northwestern Spain. If a pilgrim did not have the time or money to visit one of these potentially distant locations, many local churches also had relics. Relics include bones, clothing, or other items associated with a holy figure. A church claiming to have the relics of a holy person or saint would construct a large and elaborate building in which to display the relic(s). Not all of these relics were real, but churches with relics brought in a huge amount of revenue, or money, through donations made by pilgrims. Increased traffic among pilgrims led to new architectural techniques. Some of these changes simply enlarged the insides of the churches to allow for bigger congregations. This also supported the increasing numbers of pilgrims, or visiting Christians making a pilgrimage. An aisle between the pews and the church walls was also added, allowing visitors to wander around and view the church without disrupting the services. Take a look at this architectural plan for Cologne Cathedral.

Cologne Cathedral, ground-plan
✚


Cologne Cathedral, ground plan
You can see that the overall shape of the church is that of a cross. The altar, sometimes called a high altar, is the most holy place in the church. The altar is located where the cross intersects. The passage running along the middle of the long side of the church is called the nave. This is where the worshipers would attend services. Aisles run along both sides of the nave. In this plan, there are two aisles on each side of the nave. The inside aisle continues around the arms of the cross and the half-circle at the top of the cross shape. These arms of the cross make up the transept. The half-circle shape is called an apse. Sometimes the apse is extended into an ambulatory, which comes from the Latin word meaning "to walk." An ambulatory has chapels extending out from the apse. We can see those in this diagram as semi-circles attached to the apse. A chapel is a smaller place of worship, in this case attached to a large church. The area between the altar and the apse is is called the choir. The choir is the space reserved for the clergy and singers. As we look at other churches in this lesson, you may want to refer back to this diagram to help you understand the different parts of the church.


Listen to this lesson
Romanesque Art
One of the churches we will look at is the Basilica of Saint Sernin, in Toulouse. In this photograph, we find ourselves looking down the center of the nave of the church.

Nave of Basilica Saint-Sernin
✚


Nave of the Basilica of Saint Sernin; Date: 11th century
At the end of the nave, we can see the altar. The wooden structures we see along the bottom of the photograph are pews, or benches to seat the worshipers. This gives us an idea of how large this church really is. Many arches connect the columns running alongside the nave. The arch is a strong structure used effectively by the earlier Roman civilization. In churches like this one, the arches help evenly distribute the weight of the building along the tops of each arch and down the columns to the ground.

While the churches built during this time were themselves amazing works of art, they were also decorated with sculpture and paintings. Look at this relief sculpture carved by Gilduin. It is from the church of Saint-Sernin.

Toulouse, St Sernin, Christ in Majesty
✚


Christ in Majesty, Toulouse, St. Sernin; Artist: Bernard Gilduin; Date: 1096
This small carving of Christ in Majesty is found in the ambulatory, which you will remember is an apse with surrounding chapels. It is a little over four feet in height and shows Christ in a mandorla, or almond-shaped area. This identifies his holy status. In this relief carving, Christ is shown with his right hand raised in a gesture of blessing. His left hand rests on an open book that contains the words Pax vobis, or "peace be unto you." The signs of the four evangelists are shown on the four corners, just outside of the mandorla.

Next we will look at a carving on the cathedral of Saint-Lazare in Autun, France. This carving is found above the main doors to the church. If we entered these doors, we would be facing down the nave toward the altar, as in the photograph we looked at of the inside of Saint-Sernin. The most interesting aspect of this carving is the tympanum, or the arched area above the doorway. We can see that this tympanum is heavily carved and highly decorative.

tympanum depicting the Last Judgement
✚


Tympanum depicting the Last Judgement; Artist: Gislebertus of Autun; Date: 1130-1135
There is a large figure in the center with many smaller figures shown around it. The large figure represents Christ. He is once again shown in a mandorla. While the figure from Saint-Sernin we looked at appeared kind, blessing the people who viewed it, this depiction of Christ is an artist’s vision of the Last Judgement. This is described in the Book of Revelation as occurring at the end of the world. Christ judges all of the people in it, sending some to heaven and condemning others. Depictions of the Final Judgement were often seen on tympanums of churches built during this time. Everyone who entered the church would see it as they passed under it. This was an easy way for the church to share their beliefs and ideas. Many people at this time were illiterate, or could not read, so artworks showing stories from the Christian religion helped to relate these stories or ideas to the people. In this case, the message is clear: do what is right or you will not be judged kindly.

In addition to Romanesque architecture and sculpture, wonderful works of art were created in other kinds of media. One that we will look at is a detail from the Bayeux Tapestry.

The Bayeux Tapestry
✚


The Bayeux Tapestry; Date: circa 1070
This tapestry is over 230 feet long. It shows the Norman invasion of England, which took place in 1066 CE. This work is actually embroidery (designs stitched into the fabric) rather than tapestry (designs woven into the fabric). It probably took many people to complete it. In this detail, which probably portrays the Battle of Hastings, we see men and horses charging. The strips along the top and bottom contain decorative elements. Although there is much excitement and vivid detail to this tapestry, it lacks the realism and three-dimensional forms seen with the ancient Greeks and Romans.


Listen to this lesson
Gothic Art
Remember how the term "Middle Ages" was meant to be a negative label about the period between the classical and Renaissance periods? The term "Gothic" is also used to make fun of a particular style of architecture. A mid-16th century scholar, Giorgio Vasari, used the term "Gothic" to mock styles he believed were derived from the Goths, a group of eastern Germanic tribes. In actuality, the style came from France. Vasari had made a mistake, but the name stuck. The Gothic style was popular in the 13th and 14th centuries. Gothic buildings were known as opus modernum (modern work) or opus francigenum (French work). The so-called "Gothic" style had actually first appeared around 1140 in northern France. By the 13th century, the style had spread throughout western Europe.

The abbey church of Saint-Denis, France, helped launch the Gothic style. Saint-Denis is named after Saint Dionysius (Denis in French), who brought Christianity to Gaul. Saint Dionysius died as a martyr in the 3rd century. This old church was important for its location. It was also important for the tombs and relics, or objects of religious significance associated with holy people, it contained. The church housed the tomb of Saint Dionysius. It also housed the tombs of the French kings, and a crimson military banner that many believe belonged to Charlemagne.

By the 12th century, the church of Saint-Denis had fallen into disrepair. It had also become too small for the growing number of visiting pilgrims. The abbot of the church, Suger, believed the abbey church lacked the grandeur necessary to be the official church of the French kings. He decided to enlarge the church and add to its splendor. The rebuilding began in 1135. In 1144 the king and queen and their court attended a dedication of the new choir, ambulatory, and radiating chapels.

Suger did not live to see the whole work completed. He was extremely proud, though, of the changes and additions he did witness. The new church made him feel transported to another world. Suger’s use of expensive decorations and lavish furnishings started a new trend in Christian art. Suger justified the expense because visitors to the church would feel transported. The church instilled a sense of awe. Rather than being stark, functional places of worship, Saint-Denis and the great cathedrals of the Gothic age included ornate, stained-glass windows, elaborate sculptures, costly furnishings, and beautiful decorations.

In this image of the abbey church at Saint-Denis, we grasp the sense of awe Suger achieved. Here we can see the façade, or front entrance of the church.

Saint-Denis Abbey
✚


Title: The Basilica of Saint-Denis in 1844-45; Artist: Felix Benoist; Date: 1844-1845
Inside, one can see the high ceilings, and even a view of the stained glass windows.

St Denis Nave
✚


Nave of St. Denis; Date: 1144 CE
One of the most important architectural developments of the Gothic period was the use of the pointed arch. In architecture, an arch is a curved half-circle connecting the tops of two columns. The arch was used frequently in Roman architecture because it is such a strong structure. In the Gothic period, architects began to use the pointed arch. While a normal arch supports a structure by balancing weight across the arch and down the columns to the ground, the pointed arch directs the weight to the ground more effectively. These helped make the structure even stronger than the traditional arch. The pointed arch also emphasizes the open space inside cathedrals. This gives the cathedral, an enormous, heavy structure, the impression that it almost floats. This lightness adds to the sense of awe and the transportation of the soul. In the above photo of the interior of Saint-Denis, you should be able to see the pointed arches and the x-shaped supports from the tops of the arches.


Listen to this lesson
Gothic Art
Chartres Cathedral, in Chartres, France, well demonstrates the Gothic style. This church was partly built starting in 1134, but most of the nave and choir had to be rebuilt after a tragic fire in 1194. Here we see a view of the façade of the massive cathedral.

Chartres Cathedral
✚


Chartres Cathedral; Date: 1194-1250
Its pointed arches can be seen when looking down the nave toward the beautiful stained-glass window at Chartres.

Chartres Cathedral, pointed arches
✚


Chartres Cathedral, pointed arches; Date: 1194-1250
One of the special things about Chartres Cathedral is that it is the only Gothic cathedral that still has most of its original, stained-glass windows. The light that pours through the more than 180 stained-glass windows is not bright like daylight. The windows change the quality of the light, give it the poetic and symbolic values and soul-transporting qualities described by Suger. Let’s look at one of Chartres Cathedral’s impressive windows. This is the Notre-Dame de la Belle Verrière window, from the choir of Chartres Cathedral.

the Notre-Dame de la Belle Verrière
✚


The Notre-Dame de la Belle Verrière (Our Lady of the Lovely Window); Date: 1194-1250; Photographer: Guillaume Piolle
The center part of this window survived the 1194 fire and was reused in the rebuilt portion of the cathedral. In the center panel, the Virgin Mary sits on a throne with the Christ Child in her lap. Above Mary’s head is a dove representing the Holy Spirit. The Christian religion sees God as made up of three distinct parts: God the Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit. The three are thought of as facets of the same god. That’s similar to how we think of ice, water, and water vapor as three facets of the same element. In art, the Holy Spirit is often shown in the form of a dove. Angels frame the central panel against a blue background. These panes were added when the window was reinstalled in the rebuilt choir. With the use of stained glass, the artist changed natural light into something more spiritual. This was also done in earlier Byzantine art, but in a different way. The mosaics of Byzantine churches reflected light at different angles, making the light sparkle. The stained glass filters light, darkening the atmosphere and creating a spiritual tone. Although different methods were used, the effect was to use light to enhance art, architecture, and the personal experience.

Below is an image of a sculpture from Chartres Cathedral. Like carvings from the Romanesque period, this comes from the tympanum of the church. The tympanum is the curved area above the door. This tympanum rests above the Royal Portal, named for the statues of kings and queens on each side of each of the three doorways. The sculpture depicts Christ in majesty above the center of the three doors.

Christ in Majesty with the Evangelist Symbols and Apostles
✚


Tympaneum showing Christ in majesty with the evangelist symbols and apostles; Date: 1194-1250
Christ is shown flanked by angels. The symbols of the four evangelists, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, also surround Christ. By depicting Christ in majesty and showing signs of the four evangelists, the artist reflects the Gothic trend of showing stories of salvation, rather than damnation.

The jamb statues alongside the doors of Chartres Cathedral portray images of kings and queens. Jambs are the side posts to a doorway. These kings and queens are from stories in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. They are the ancestors of Jesus Christ. The posts support the carvings of New Testament characters above them. The kings and queens are depicted in clothing from the 12th century, just like the people who would have seen them as they entered the church for services. Although they portray Old Testament kings and queens, the statues also symbolize the ruling kings and queens of France at the time. They represent authority both in heaven and on earth. In this detail, we see two kings and one queen.

Chartres Cathedral, Royal Portal, central door, figures on the south embrasures
✚


Chartres Cathedral, Royal Portal, central door, figures on the south embrasures; Date: 1194-1250

Listen to this lesson
Gothic Art
Another important Gothic cathedral is Notre-Dame de Paris, which is commonly referred to simply as Notre-Dame.

Paris, Notre-Dame, view from the south-east
✚


Title: Paris, Notre-Dame, Apse; Photographer: Edouard Baldus; Date: 1860s
Construction on Notre-Dame began in 1163. The cathedral took around 100 years to build. This cathedral became famous with Victor Hugo’s novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame. Located in Paris, this cathedral is still used as the seat of the Archbishop of Paris. The word cathedral actually comes from the Latin cathedra, meaning “seat.” Each cathedral was the seat, or home church, of a bishop in the Catholic church. Notre-Dame means “Our Lady” and refers to the Virgin Mary. Although there are other Notre-Dame cathedrals dedicated to the Virgin Mary, Notre-Dame de Paris is the best known.

When you looked at the image, did you notice the structures attached to the end of the building? These are open underneath.

Reims Cathedral
✚


Title: Reims Cathedral, Flying Buttresses; Photographer: Séraphin Médéric Mieusement; Date: circa 1874-1890
These structures are called flying buttresses. A buttress is an architectural structure built against a wall to help support and reinforce the wall. A flying buttress is an arched architectural structure attached to a wall or roof that arches away from the building and toward the ground. Flying buttresses provide support for a building and can offset a lot of weight. Because flying buttresses support so much of a building’s weight, architects could add more openings in the walls for windows. This allowed for many beautiful, stained-glass windows, which were common during this period. Flying buttresses make the many windows of Notre Dame cathedral possible.

Notre Dame Cathedral
✚


Notre Dame Cathedral; Date: 1345
The last cathedral we will look at in this lesson is the cathedral in Reims, France. Called Notre-Dame de Reims (Our Lady of Reims), this Notre-Dame is also dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Reims
✚


Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Reims; Architects: Jean d'Orbais, Jean-Le-Loup, Gaucher de Reims, and Bernard de Soissons; Date: circa 1211-1275
The windows look even more spectacular within the building.

Reims Cathedral, interior of hallway of the nave
✚


Reims Cathedral, interior; Architects: Jean d'Orbais, Jean-Le-Loup, Gaucher de Reims, and Bernard de Soissons; Date: circa 1211-1275
Let’s review a few things we have learned about Gothic cathedrals as we look at this image. Do you see the pointed arches? These allow the inside space to seem higher and roomier. We have already observed the stained-glass windows, which  were an important part of the Gothic style. Although we cannot see them here, remember that there are flying buttresses attached to the outside of the church. These support the great weight of the church, allowing it to be so tall and roomy inside.

When we discussed Chartres Cathedral, we looked at some jamb statues of kings and queens. There are also some wonderful jamb statues on Reims Cathedral.

The Gothic period was negatively named because of Vasari’s mistaken association of this period with the Goths. In reality, though, this was a fascinating and innovative period in the history of art. Changes in the culture and tastes of the time led to dramatic architectural developments. Larger churches and stained-glass windows reflected a desire to transport the soul through the use of awe-inspiring structures and otherworldly lighting. The name Vasari intended to be a negative label for the art produced during this time has come to represent a remarkable amount of skill, creativity, and ingenuity. The Gothic style influenced many generations of artists that followed.


Listen to this lesson
The Early Renaissance in Italy
During the Middle Ages, religion was the main focus of art and of the culture in general. Christianity was an important part of everyday life. Moving into the Renaissance, the focus began to shift toward the natural world and humanity’s place in it. There is also a renewed interest in classical cultures, mainly those of ancient Greece and Rome. In fact, the word renaissance is French, meaning "rebirth." It refers to this renewed interest in classical art and culture. The period historians refer to as the Renaissance includes roughly the 14th through 16th centuries.

The Renaissance began in the Italian town of Florence. Although much Renaissance art shows calmness and harmony, this time was not peaceful. Florence was involved in battles with armies from the north and the south of Italy. Led by the Medici family, Florence managed to fight off these armies and create amazing works of art and architecture. The Florentines took great pride in their city. Some of their amazing structures and artworks still survive today.

The first work of Early Renaissance art we will look at is in the town of Pisa, Italy, west of Florence. This carved pulpit was made by Nicola Pisano. It is located in the baptistery of Pisa Cathedral.

Pisa baptistery pulpit (detail)
✚


Detail of Pisa baptistery pulpit; Artist: Nicola Pisano; Date: 1255-1260
The baptistery is used for the Christian ritual of baptism. It is a small building located next to the cathedral. This pulpit is what the bishop would stand on when he spoke. It lifted him and made it easier for the people to see. This pulpit also told biblical stories through the detailed carvings on its sides. It is made of marble and granite. The lions supporting the structure at its base symbolize strength and protection. The tops of the columns were designed to resemble Corinthian columns from ancient Roman art. We will focus on the carvings on one of the baptistery’s top panels. This white marble panel shows three events from the birth of Jesus Christ.

We see the Annunciation in the upper left of the picture above. This refers to when the angel Gabriel came to Mary to tell her she would bear the Son of God. In the upper right, we see the baby Jesus lying in a manger next to Mary and Joseph. Joseph was Mary’s husband and the protector of Mary and the infant Jesus. There are also angels telling the shepherds about the birth of Jesus. In the middle, Mary is reclining while two women bathe the new baby. This foretells the importance of baptism. Baptism is a significant symbol in this work because it was used during the ritual of baptism. Pisano tries to show the figures naturalistically, with believable expressions, gestures, and postures.

Painting in the Early Renaissance was also beginning to be more naturalistic. Although it was not until the High Renaissance that artists were able to successfully depict believable human figures in painting, we see the beginning of this process in the Early Renaissance. We will first look at a painting by a Florentine artist named Cimabue.

Madonna and Child
✚


Title: Santa Trinita Maestà; Artist: Cimabue; Date: 1280-1290
The subject of this painting is the Virgin Mary sitting on a throne, holding the Christ Child (young Jesus) on her lap. This was a popular subject at this time. This painting would have been an altarpiece. An altarpiece is an artwork hung over the holiest place in the church, the altar. Mary is gesturing to Jesus, presenting him to the congregation. On either side of their throne are angels, and at the bottom of the painting are Old Testament prophets who foretold the coming of Christ. The golden background represents a heavenly realm, telling us that these figures are not of our world. This is a symbolic subject, or one that represents particular ideas, but is not meant to be real. In this case, the golden background represents a heavenly realm. The placement of the figures here does not mean to represent that Jesus was in heaven when he was a small child. It only means that Mary and Jesus are sacred figures. Cimabue does use light and shadow on the faces and bodies of the figures to try and make them look three-dimensional, but they are not completely convincing.


One of Cimabue’s students from Florence, Giotto, took these ideas further. He was slightly more successful in making figures appear three-dimensional. We can compare an altarpiece by Giotto which also depicts the Virgin Mary and the Christ Child with the painting of Cimabue’s that we just looked at.

Giotto, panel painting, the Ognissanti Madonna, Uffizi Gallery
Title: Madonna Enthroned; Artist: Giotto; Date: 1310

In Giotto’s altarpiece, the figures appear to be more bulky. They are not as flat as the figures in Cimabue’s painting. Once again we see Mary holding the Christ Child while seated on a throne, surrounded by angels. This time the figure of Jesus has his right hand raised in a gesture of blessing. We again see the gold background, representing heaven. Each of the figures has a golden halo to stress their holiness. Giotto’s altarpiece differs from his teacher’s in the believable placement of figures. Rather than stacking them together, he uses the profile, or side views, of the bodies of the kneeling angels. Gravity is indicated by the kneeling forms. Space is depicted more believably as a result. Giotto also uses brighter, more jewel-like colors in his altarpiece. Notice that the figures of Mary and Jesus are much larger than those around them. This shows that while all of the figures are holy, these two are the most important in this work.

We will next look at the frescos in the Arena Chapel, a chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Paintings all around the inside of the chapel show different stories from the lives of Mary and Jesus. They were all painted by Giotto.

Giotto's Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel

Lamentation, detail of the Arena Chapel frescoes; Artist: Giotto; Date: 1305

Each panel shows a different story from the life of either Mary or Jesus. Giotto has divided the panels with what appears to be inlaid marble, but is actually just painted wood. This type of illusionism was popular in the frescoes of the Renaissance, just as it had been in the frescoes of ancient Rome. The wet-plaster technique used to make this frescoes is difficult to master, but has preserved these beautiful frescoes for over 700 years. You can see a photograph of the Last Judgement fresco below.

Last Judgement
Last Judgement, detail of the Arena Chapel frescoes; Artist: Giotto; Date: 1305

Giotto is once again original in the bulk and three-dimensionality displayed by his figures, by the individually-expressive faces, and by the foreshortening seen in the angels at the top of the fresco. Foreshortening is the depiction of figures or objects at an angle to the flat front of the picture in a way that makes their forms more believable. Giotto also uses light and shadow to give the figures mass and three-dimensionality.


Listen to this lesson
The Early Renaissance in Italy
We will now look at a fresco with a non-religious subject. This large painting by Ambrogio Lorenzetti in Siena, Italy fills an entire wall of the Palazzo Pubblico, or "public palace." This is a civic building where leaders of the town would work in the interest of the town’s people. This town was a republic, meaning the town was ruled by officials the people elected, not by a king or dictator. The republic was new, and the fresco celebrates the idea of a happy and thriving town when the government is good and takes care of its people.

Effects of Good Government in the countryside
✚


Effects of Good Government in the countryside, by Abrogio Lorenzetti
In this fresco, Effects of Good Government, Lorenzetti uses allegory. Allegory is the use of figures to represent abstract ideas. Lorenzetti uses allegory to show the peace and success of a city and the surrounding countryside when laws are just, leaders take care of the citizens, and citizens obey the laws and pay their taxes. This fresco is found in the Room of Peace in the Palazzo Pubblico. All four walls of the room are painted with large frescos, including one showing the effects of bad government. In this fresco of good government, Lorenzetti shows the city of Siena in the left half. Some of the buildings are still recognizable. In the city we see many merchants and other people going about their daily business. There is a teacher and students in a classroom, merchants selling their goods, and an area of construction, showing that the city is wealthy enough to grow. An allegorical group of women dance in the foreground. This is allegorical because dancing was not allowed in the streets, but it is in this fresco to represent harmony. Noblemen are leaving the city in the right half of the fresco, heading to the countryside for the sport of falconing. Farmers are seen entering through the city gates, taking goods to sell in the city. At the top left of the countryside is an allegorical winged figure. It is holding a small gallows with a man to show what will happen if the laws are not obeyed.

We will look at one cathedral from the Early Renaissance. This is the Florence Cathedral, located in Florence, Italy.

Florence Cathedral
✚


Florence Cathedral, dome by Filippo Brunelleschi
The impressive structure is sided with marble panels in shades of green and pink bordered with white. Topping the already large church is a massive dome. It was designed and built by Filippo Brunelleschi. Brunelleschi was a very talented man. He was trained as an architect, but was also a skilled sculptor, goldsmith, mathematician, and clock builder. He was from Florence, but traveled to Rome to study ancient Roman architecture. He studied both the designs and the construction. This huge dome is octagonal, or eight-sided, and spans 140 feet. Because Brunelleschi spread the weight over the ribs dividing it into eight sides, no supports inside the dome are necessary. He also used a number of smaller domes around the outside to further support it. This drawing shows how the dome is constructed internally, giving us an idea of how the weight is dispersed.

Vasari's fresco
✚


Vasari's fresco, by Florence Duomo

Listen to this lesson
The Early Renaissance in Italy
The technique of bronze casting was perfected in ancient Greece, but the complicated method was lost for many years before it was rediscovered during the Renaissance. This Early Renaissance work is probably one of the first successful full-sized bronze sculptures since that time. The sculpture, by Donatello, depicts the Old Testament hero, David.

David
✚


Title: David; Artist: Donatello; Date: circa 1440s
This statue was commissioned by the Medici family. They were important leaders in Florence in both the military and as supporters of the arts. It uses imagery that refers to a recent Florentine victory over their Milanese neighbors. In the Old Testament, a shepherd boy named David battled a Philistine giant, Goliath, and knocked him out with a stone in a slingshot. He then slew Goliath with the giant’s own sword. By doing this, David saved his people and later became the king of the Jews. Notice that David used his intellect and wits to slay Goliath, not physical strength alone. During the Renaissance, intellect and wisdom were highly favored, and depicting a character with these qualities was popular. David is nude, representing the classical philosophy of nudity equaling truth and beauty. He also stands on a laurel wreath, a symbol of victory, wearing another on his shepherd’s hat. He stands with one foot on the severed head of Goliath. The giant is wearing a helmet with feathers similar to those worn by the Milanese foes of the Florentines in their recent battle. David looks lost in thought, thinking about what he has just done and what the future might hold. This philosophical depiction is appropriate for the ideas of this period in art. It is also important to note that David stands in a contrapposto pose. Contrapposto, meaning "counterpoise," refers to the depiction of a human figure in a dynamic, naturalistic pose, with the weight shifted to one foot, creating a slightly S-shaped curve to the body. Depicting figures this way was perfected in ancient Greece, and we see Renaissance artists using this technique to create naturalistic figures.

We will next look at a painting by Masaccio, located in the Brancacci Chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence. Masaccio was an important artist whose works would influence the Renaissance artists who came after him. This fresco by Masaccio is interesting in its artistic creation as well as its subject matter.

Tribute Money
✚


Title: Tribute Money; Artist: Masaccio; Date: between 1426 and 1427
Brancacci Chapel is dedicated to St. Peter, so you would expect it to depict stories about him, but of course Jesus figures prominently in many of the frescoes. This fresco depicts the New Testament narrative of the tribute money. In this story, Jesus and the disciples have reached the city of Capernaum. They are asked to pay a tax to enter the city. They do not have the money, so Jesus tells Peter to go to the edge of the sea and find a coin in the mouth of a fish with which to pay the tax. At first Peter is doubtful, but he does Jesus’ bidding. Peter finds the coin and pays the guard.

Besides the biblical theme of trusting in Jesus, this painting also communicates ideas about a contemporary event. Funds had been used up in the battle of Florence against Milan. To raise funds, Florence had to tax its citizens. This painting’s other message is that even Jesus pays taxes. In this painting, Masaccio, who uses the weighted figural type of Giotto, shows some of the figures multiple times in order to communicate three different scenes. In the center is Jesus with his disciples surrounding him in a semi-circle, all wearing the attire of holy people. They are being confronted by the guard, who is wearing contemporary Florentine clothing. The disciples are painted expressively, responding with different gestures and facial expressions. On the left, Peter is kneeling and removing the coin from the fish’s mouth at the edge of the sea. On the right, he hands the coin to the guard.


Listen to this lesson
The Early Renaissance in Italy
Another fresco we will explore was painted by Fra Angelico, a monk. This quiet, graceful fresco was painted in the hallway of a monastery.

The Annunciation
Title: The Annunciation; Artist: Fra Angelico; Date: circa 1437-1446

It depicts the Annunciation, the moment when the angel tells Mary she will bear God’s son. Writing at the base of the painting reminds the monks, who would view it as they came up the stairs from the library, to kneel in respect to the Virgin Mary. This depicts Mary sitting quietly in the portico (courtyard) of her humble home at the moment when the angel has just landed to speak to her. Mary covers herself modestly with hands crossed over her torso. The angel mirrors this gesture while he kneels in front of her, wings still extended. The architecture is contemporary, which in turn reflects classical architecture. We see a well-kept lawn and a beautiful wilderness beyond a fence, distancing Mary from anything not clean and pure. We can look into her home through an open door, which reveals a barred window that symbolically lets in light, but keeps out evil. These figures are graceful and more slender than those of Masaccio, but we can still sense the bodies under the draperies.

The next painting we will discuss has a Roman mythological subject. This is Sandro Botticelli’s famous painting of The Birth of Venus.

Sandro Botticelli: Birth of Venus, tempera on canvas
Title: Birth of Venus; Artist: Sandro Botticelli; Date: circa 1486

Venus was one of the major Roman goddesses. There are several different myths about how she was born, but the one Botticelli has chosen to represent involves the sea. In this myth, Venus was born out of the foam of the sea, then carried on a shell to her sacred island of Cyprus. She is nude because she has just been born. Her nudity represents her purity. Her pose is modest as she tries to cover herself. To the right of the painting, we see the nymph Pomona bringing a decorated robe with which to clothe the newborn goddess. The floating figures to the left of the painting represent Zephyrus, the god of the west wind, and a female wind god. They are gently blowing Venus to the shore. As they blow, a shower of fragrant roses falls on the new goddess. Venus is the goddess of love and beauty. Rather than being a worldly image of these attributes, Botticelli‘s Venus represents spiritual beauty. All of the figures are graceful and light, having a sense of weightlessness.

The last painting we will discuss is by Andrea Mantegna. It involves the use of trompe l’oeil, French for "deceives the eye." Trompe l’oeil makes use of illusionism, which was popular at that time. In this case, the painting is of a circular opening in the ceiling, from which many cupids and other figures look down into the room.

ceiling oculus
✚


Oculus of the Camera degli Sposi frescoes; Artist: Andrea Mantegna; Date: 1465-1474
This room was the Camera degli Sposi, or the Room of the Newlyweds. The artist has included the cupids to set a romantic mood, since they are the sons of Venus, the goddess of love. The peacock is a symbol of another Roman goddess, Juno, the protector of marriage. Mantegna has included elements that add to the illusion of the scene. There is a large planter balanced over the edge of the opening. Several cupids perched on the inside of the opening look like they could fall in at any moment. The cupids are strongly foreshortened.


Listen to this lesson
The High Renaissance in Italy
The High Renaissance

The High Renaissance is the name for the period beginning around 1500. This is the time of the great Italian artists Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael, as well as Titian, an artist from Venice in the northern part of Italy. Artists began to gain the reputation of being geniuses rather than just craftsmen. It was a common belief that artists created their work with divine inspiration.This was also a time of great learning and research in many other areas.

The art capital of Europe moved from Florence to Rome during this period. Some powerful and ambitious popes created a new force in Italy, and Rome was its capital. The wealthy popes brought in artists from all over Italy to create artworks for the city. Although the High Renaissance did not last long (only about twenty years), the works of art created during this time would influence European art for at least the next three centuries.

The first artist we will discuss is Leonardo. He came from the small town of Vinci, outside Florence. This is where the "da Vinci" part of his name comes from; it means "from" or "of " Vinci. Even if Leonardo had not become famous as a painter, his name probably would still have been well-known in history. Besides painting, he designed architectural structures; practiced the sciences of botany, geology, anatomy, and zoology; and was an engineer, studying hydraulics, transportation, and military weapons. He kept extensive notebooks of his ideas, in which he both wrote and drew. In all, Leonardo was an amazing man who left behind some wonderful works of art and many revolutionary ideas. We will be looking at three of his works.

The first work by Leonardo that we will look at is the Cartoon for the Virgin and Child with St. Anne and the Infant St. John the Baptist.

Virgin and Child with St Anne and John the Baptist
✚


Title: Cartoon for the Virgin and Child with St. Anne and the Infant St. John the Baptist; Artist: Leonardo da Vinci; Date: 1499-1508
This is not a painting, but is instead a sketch. It is drawn with charcoal and highlighted with white chalk. In this drawing, you can see one of the techniques Leonardo is famous for: chiaroscuro. Chiaroscuro, literally meaning "light-dark," uses strong contrasts of light and dark to give a form three-dimensionality. Most artists take a light background and add contour lines and shadows to create three-dimensional forms. Leonardo seems to do the opposite. Although he begins with a light background, he seems to visualize a dark background and slowly shine a light on the figures or images, bringing them out of the shadows. Instead of adding shadows, he seems to add highlights. His Cartoon for the Virgin and Child with St. Anne and the Infant St. John the Baptist illustrates this technique very well. We have seen this religious subject before—the Virgin Mary holding the Christ Child on her lap. Here, Mary sits on the lap of her own mother, Anne. On the right of the drawing is Jesus’ young cousin, John the Baptist, who would later perform Jesus’ baptism, an important Christian ritual. The forms of the figures are sculptural, or three-dimensional, with believable mass. They are graceful with peaceful and calm faces.


Listen to this lesson
The High Renaissance in Italy
Leonardo da Vinci
One of the works Leonardo is most famous for is a fresco in a Milan monastery.

Leonardo da Vinci: Last Supper
Title: The Last Supper; Artist: Leonardo da Vinci, Date: 1495

The Last Supper was painted on a wall of the refectory, or the place where the monks ate their meals. The monks saw this famous depiction every time they ate one of their own meals. This fresco has become damaged through the years—more so than other frescoes of similar age—because Leonardo used the fresco secco (dry fresco) painting technique rather than the more standard wet fresco technique. Instead of painting on wet plaster, which locks in the colors as the surface dries, Leonardo painted directly onto dry plaster. Colors have chipped off as a result, and the painting is quite damaged.

Even though The Last Supper is not as bright and clear as when it was painted, we can still see much of what Leonardo wanted to communicate in this work. It depicts the story of the biblical Last Supper. This is the last meal Jesus shared with his disciples, or followers, before he was put to death on the cross. During this meal, he told his disciples to remember him whenever they ate bread or drank wine, using the bread and wine as symbols of his body and blood. This is the beginning of the important Christian ritual of the Eucharist, or Holy Communion. Jesus sits at the center of the table with his arms outstretched, his body forming a calm and stable triangle. He gestures toward the bread and wine. Although artists at this time had moved away from showing halos on holy people, the lit window behind Jesus symbolically takes the place of a halo. As he gestures toward the bread and the wine, he tells his disciples that he will not be with them much longer because he will soon be put to death. He also tells them that one of them will betray him. This is the moment Leonardo has chosen to depict, showing the disciples as they react to his news.

The disciples react in a variety of ways. Some show confusion; others disbelief or anger. All of the figures and faces are extremely expressive and communicate the story to the audience. In the group to the left side sits one man in blue whose face is in shadow. He is leaning over the table and clutches a bag of money. This is Judas, the disciple who betrayed Jesus for money. The subject of the Last Supper had been portrayed by artists before, but one of the unusual things Leonardo did was to show them all on one side of the table. In a real eating situation, they would have sat along both sides of the table. Depicting them all on one side gives the painting the sense of a staged scene, as if they are actors and we are the viewers, waiting to see the action about to take place.

The last painting of Leonardo’s that we will look at, his Mona Lisa, is perhaps his most famous.

Mona Lisa
Title: Mona Lisa; Artist: Leonardo da Vinci; Date: 1503-1506

The real woman portrayed in this portrait was the wife of a Florentine banker named Giocando. In France, in fact, this painting is known as La Giocondo. In the title we know, the word Mona is a term of respect. It is a shortened form of the word Madonna, or "my lady." Lisa is the woman's first name. Beginning in 1503, Leonardo used oil paints on a wood panel. The oil paints allowed him to achieve great detail with a greater range of light to dark than earlier tempera paint would have allowed. She is shown sitting in a chair, with a view of nature out the open window behind her. The painting is half-length, or showing half of her body, down to about her waist. She sits at a three-quarter angle to the viewer. Her head is slightly turned and looking straight at the viewer. Although this pose was new, it would be used for portraits for many years after Leonardo painted this. In fact, it is still sometimes used today. Have you ever had a photograph taken of you in a similar pose?

One of the aspects of this painting that makes it so fascinating is her expression. What is it? Is she calm? Neutral? Happy? She seems to be smiling slightly, but why? No one really knows, and this adds to the mystery of the work. Her expression is considered an enigma. An enigma is something that we can not solve. Leonardo seems to have captured more than just a physical likeness of this woman. He has also captured her inner mind. We can sense a mind and personality behind the face, but cannot interpret it. Again in this painting, we can see Leonardo’s use of chiaroscuro. We can also see another of his techniques, sfumato, derived from the Italian word for "smoke." Sfumato is a smoky quality, a subtle blending of colors disguising any obvious transition between colors or tones. Leonardo’s use of sfumato and light and shadow in this painting add to the mystery of the work.


Listen to this lesson
The High Renaissance in Italy
Michelangelo

Another important artist of the Italian High Renaissance was Michelangelo. Like Leonardo, Michelangelo was a genius who excelled in many areas. Besides being a painter and sculptor, he was a poet, architect, and civil engineer. He was highly talented, and educated in the Medici court. He received a humanist education, or an education emphasizing the knowledge of classical antiquity, the exploration of human potential, and commitment to civic responsibilities and moral duties. He was trained to paint in the manner of the Early Renaissance, but broke away from some of the rules of this style of painting. He chose to make his human figures very expressive, and he gave them clearly three-dimensional forms. Although Michelangelo was from Florence and received his education there, he traveled to Rome, where he was given many commissions by the pope.

The first work of Michelangelo’s that we will discuss is the statue of the Pietà.

Pietà
✚


Title: Pietà; Artist: Michelangelo; Date: 1498-1500
"Pietà" means "pity." This marble statue depicts the Virgin Mary holding the body of her dead son, Jesus, on her lap. In the lesson on Early Renaissance art in Italy, we looked at two altarpieces in which a seated Mary held the infant Jesus on her lap and presented him to the congregation. This is a similar idea. Again, Mary holds her son on her lap and presents him to the viewers of the statue. Instead of a baby with his life ahead of him, however, this is Christ after his death and before his Resurrection. This is a devotional image instead of a narrative, reminding people of the suffering of Christ and those who loved him. Mary is shown here as a young and beautiful woman, not as the older woman she would have been at the time of Jesus’ death. This is done to emphasize her spiritual beauty. Her body is exaggerated and slightly elongated, allowing her to support the body of an adult male. She wears a large, flowing garment, making her appear large enough to support him. Her head is covered modestly, and she is grieving. Although she does appear sad, she also seems resigned and accepting. The statues is expressive and emotional, but also reserved and introspective. The work seems to invite the viewer to look at the scene and think about it. Mary’s gestures even seem to draw our attention to the body of Jesus, encouraging us to think about his death's significance. This statue shows Michelangelo’s great understanding of human anatomy and his ability to apply that knowledge to sculpture.

Michelangelo was just as skilled in painting as he was in sculpting. One of his most famous works is the enormous fresco on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. The Sistine Chapel is a part of the Vatican complex, but is a separate building from the church. This chapel is used for important rituals and ceremonies. A photograph of the ceiling gives you an idea of the sheer scale of this artistic endeavor.

Ceiling frescoes, Sistine Chapel
✚


Sistine Chapel ceiling; Artist: Michelangelo; Date: 1508-1512
The ceiling fresco in the Sistine Chapel was commissioned by Pope Julius II. Michelangelo managed to complete this amazing work in only four years, but not without great discomfort and difficulty. Michelangelo had done little painting prior to this. Most of the works he had completed were sculptures. The chapel ceiling was almost 70 feet high. In addition, the curve in the ceiling created problems for the artist when depicting believable space and figures. Michelangelo had to design his own scaffolding to stand close to the ceiling, and he endured great pain while working with his neck bent back to look up while he painted. The result of his great toil, though, is still with us today. The work depicts nine scenes from the Old Testament book of Genesis down the middle of the ceiling, and many other Biblical scenes and stories in the spaces surrounding the main subjects.


Listen to this lesson
The High Renaissance in Italy
We will focus on one panel of the nine stories from Genesis.

Creation of Adam
Creation of Adam, detail from the Sistine Chapel ceiling; Artist: Michelangelo; Date: 1511-1512

This panel depicts the creation of Adam, or the biblical story of God creating the first man. Here we see two main figures. On the lower left is the newly-created Adam, who has not yet received the spark of life. In the upper right is God, reaching out to give Adam life. Because of the placement of the figures, the rectangular panel is divided diagonally. This way of dividing an artwork helps add stability to the painting. Adam is shown resting on a patch of ground. His body is limp, and he seems barely able to support himself on his elbow and reach for God. A strong contrast is God, who seems to be crackling with energy and strength. To balance the area taken up by Adam and the land, God is shown surrounded by angels without wings and a large piece of fabric. Under God’s protective left arm is a female figure, peeking out at the newly-created Adam. Some art historians believe this is Eve, the woman God created to be Adam’s wife. The two figures of Adam and God are given some equality by the visual balance between the two. Adam and the surrounding land balances against God, the fabric, and the other figures.

What are some of the differences between God and Adam that set them apart in this painting? Adam is nude, showing his vulnerability and need for God’s protection. The body of God is covered, but we can still see that he has a powerful, muscular form underneath. The body of Adam is limp, and he seems to barely have the strength to lift his arm. God’s body is powerful and massive, filled with energy and strength. His chest curves outward and he seems to be flying through the air. Although all of the figures are strong and muscular, they are also very graceful. Each of the figures extends a hand, God with strength and grace, and Adam limply and without energy. When the fingertips touch, Adam will receive the spark of life. Although the presentation of the figures is simple, this is a powerful artwork that presents the subject in a direct way.

Raphael
The third important Italian High Renaissance artist we will discuss is Raphael. Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael were all active around 1500. Raphael was from the Italian town of Urbino, and was given a humanist education like Michelangelo. His father was a painter. Raphael was able to see the collection of art belonging to the Duke of Urbino when he was young. He apprenticed with the painter Perugino, learning the art of painting by helping and studying with an experienced artist. Raphael’s works are typically graceful and elegant.

The first work of Raphael’s that we will look at is this portrait of Baldassare Castiglione.

Baldassare Castiglione
Title: Baldassare Castiglione; Artist: Raphael; Date: 1516

Castiglione was an author who served in the Medici court. He wrote a book that was very important in its time, The Book of the Courtier. This book is a guide to teach aristocrats (the very wealthy) how to behave. It discusses how to be the ideal nobleman, and lists the qualities a nobleman should have. An aristocrat should be brave, dignified, truthful, cultured, learned, and skillful. These traits were admired in the Renaissance, and were considered necessary for all noblemen.

So how do you think the author of a book discussing these traits would appear in his portrait? We see Castiglione depicted as a dignified, reserved, and serious man. He appears to be intelligent and educated. Raphael chose to paint him in a simple setting. The wall behind him is plain, and his clothes are in dark, neutral colors. His dark beard and black hat frame his face, focusing the viewer’s attention on it. There is a light source coming from the upper left. We know this because Castiglione casts a shadow on the wall behind him, and his face, especially his forehead, is illuminated. This does more than just making the face a stronger focal point; the light shining on the forehead is symbolic of knowledge and learning. Raphael achieved great detail in this portrait by using oil paints. Also notice his pose. The portrait is half-length, at a three-quarter angle, and the subject’s head is turned slightly to look at the viewer—just like Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa. Some historians think Raphael intentionally chose this pose for his subject based on his admiration of Leonardo's work.


Listen to this lesson
The High Renaissance in Italy
Another wonderful painting by Raphael is a fresco in a room in the Vatican. This room is an administrative room, officially called the Signature Room. Raphael was commissioned by Pope Julius II to paint four frescos, one on each wall of the room. These four frescos represent the four branches of human knowledge: theology, law, poetry, and philosophy. These ideas, and the importance of these areas, came from humanist education. This fresco represents philosophy, although its name is School of Athens.

School of Athens
✚


Title: The School of Athens; Artist: Raphael; Date: 1510-1512
The humanists held ancient Greek literature in the highest regard, and the ancient Greeks regarded philosophy as the most important of all disciplines. The word philosophy means "love of wisdom," and involves the study of man. To the humanists, the Greek philosophers were extremely important. The most important was Plato. His writings could be interpreted in a Christian way, even though the Christian religion did not begin until long after Plato’s death. Raphael's fresco shows important philosophers and mathematicians gathered in a fictional academy. We see Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, and many others interacting together and discussing ideas. This is a symbolic grouping because these people did not all live at the same time and would not have been gathered together in one place like this. It is meant to represent great learning and the exchange of ideas and knowledge. The figures are depicted in a large building. People occupy the two different levels and the steps in between. The architecture seen represents that of ancient Greece, but also reflects that of Rome because of the renewed interest in all things classical during the Renaissance. The figures are all moving and interacting, and there is energy and excitement to the atmosphere of this work. The two most important figures are Plato and Aristotle. They stand at the top of the steps, framed and backlit by the arch, much like Jesus’ head in the fresco of the Last Supper. In this case, the light represents enlightenment and learning instead of holiness. Plato is the older man who holds his book while pointing upward with his other hand. He points toward a "heavenly realm" where his ideas come from, as he is inspired by spiritual ideas that rise above the earth. Aristotle, the younger man, is on the right. He holds his book, and his other hand gestures toward the earth. This is because he is more concerned with studying Earth, nature, and the affairs of man. They are surrounded by many great minds, respected philosophers and mathematicians. Because Raphael did not know what these figures actually looked like, he used the faces of his friends instead. Plato’s face is a portrait of Leonardo. Michelangelo appears as Heraclitus, the brooding philosopher sitting on the step at the front of the painting.


Listen to this lesson
The High Renaissance in Italy
Titian

The last High Renaissance artist we will discuss is Titian. Titian was from Venice, a city in the north of Italy. Titian was known for being a great colorist. His paintings beautifully reflect his use of gorgeous, vibrant colors. We will study this painting, known as Madonna of the Pesaro Family.

Madonna di Ca Pesaro
✚


Title: Madonna di Ca Pesaro; Artist: Titian Date: 1519-1526
This painting is found in the church of Santa Maria dei Frari in Venice, Italy. It depicts the Virgin Mary with the Christ Child, which we have seen in several works of art before, but this is an unusual presentation of them. The figures are placed on a diagonal, with the holiest figures, Mary and Jesus, at the top. Below them, wearing a brilliant blue robe, is St. Peter. St. Peter has the key to heaven, an object often depicted with him in art. Behind St. Peter is a Christian knight holding a banner. Next to Mary and Jesus stands St. Francis in his monk’s attire, and another Franciscan monk stands behind him. As in Leonardo’s fresco of the Last Supper, the holy figures are not shown with literal halos. This gives the painting a greater sense of naturalism. Titian has used symbolic halos for Mary and Jesus, though. Mary’s white veil, signifying her purity, takes the place of her halo, and this veil falls over the head of Jesus as well.

Kneeling at the base of the stairs on the left of the painting is Bishop Jacopo Pesaro, the man who commissioned this painting and for whom it is named. Kneeling to the right of the painting are other male members of Pesaro’s family, who he introduces to the holy figures that look down on him. One of the family members, a boy, looks out at the viewer. This is a technique used by artists to draw the attention of the viewer into the painting. Pesaro was a bishop, but he was also the commander of the pope’s navy. He had recently won a victory over the Turks, represented in this painting by the turbaned Turk seen behind Pesaro. He decided to have this painting made to give thanks for this victory, but it is also a piece of propaganda. Propaganda is something that promotes a message intended to influence the opinions or behaviors of others. In this case, the propaganda was telling the viewer of the painting that the reason he was successful in this battle was that God was on his side, and not the side of the Turks, who were Muslim. Pesaro also wanted the position of pope, and by depicting himself interacting with these holy figures, he is promoting himself as being approved by them.


Listen to this lesson
The Renaissance in the North
Northern Renaissance

The artistic styles popular in Italy were not as common in northern Europe during the Renaissance. Because of the distance and obstacles between the two regions, many ideas and styles were not shared. The Gothic style of architecture was popular into the early 16th century in the north. Rather than returning to classical ideas for artistic inspiration, the artists of the north moved toward creating art with a strong sense of realism. Painters in the Low Countries (Belgium and Holland) were the first to truly master the new medium of oil painting. The use of oil paint allowed for richer colors than ever before achieved. The paintings of this period and area tend to have bright, glowing colors as a result. Oil paint also allowed artists to depict great detail, and could be blended to produce an unlimited range of colors and values. Renaissance artists, both in Italy and in the north, used their art to combine religious subjects and figures with objects and scenes taken from real life. In the north, and especially in the Low Countries, the artists achieved this through the use of symbolism.

The Annunciation Triptych shows the bright colors and fine details allowed with oil, as well as great realism and religious symbolism.

Annunciation Triptych
✚


Title: Annunciation Triptych; Artist: Robert Campin and assistant; Date: 1425-1428
The artist of this work is called the "Master of Flémalle." Most scholars believe him to be the painter Robert Campin. This work is a triptych, or an artwork in three panels. In the central panel of this triptych we see the popular subject of the Annunciation. Mary sits reading and is approached by the archangel Gabriel. He will tell her that she is going to bear God’s son. Although the subject and characters depicted are biblical, the room in which they are shown is a contemporary middle-class Flemish home. This is seen through the architecture and the furnishings. The tidy, spotless room and vase of lilies on the table are symbolic of the Virgin’s purity. On the right panel of the triptych we see Joseph in his workshop. Joseph will become the husband of Mary, and the protector of Mary and the young Jesus. Joseph is a carpenter. In this painting, he has made a mousetrap. This mousetrap symbolizes how Jesus came in human form as bait set in the trap of the world for the purpose of catching the devil. Two people kneel in a courtyard on the left panel. This middle-class couple in their modest clothing represents the donors who paid to have the triptych made.

Another important Renaissance painting of northern Europe is Giovanni Arnolifini and His Bride, painted by Jan van Eyck.

Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami
✚


Title: The Arnolfini Wedding; Artist: Jan van Eyck; Date: 1434
This painting shows the wedding of Giovanni Arnolfini. It includes a great deal of symbolism about marriage. It is painted with oil paint, allowing van Eyck to achieve fine detail and rich colors. In the painting, Arnolfini stands hand in hand with his bride, Giovanna Cenami. They are repeating the wedding vows. Many viewers think that the woman is with child, but she is simply holding up her overly-long skirt in front of her with one hand. Almost every object in the room has some symbolic meaning. The shoes which have been cast to the side suggest that the couple is standing on holy ground. The small dog standing in front of them symbolizes faithfulness. The all-seeing eye of God is represented twice, once in the mirror on the wall behind them, and once by the single candle burning in the chandelier. If we take a closer look at the mirror and chandelier, we can see more interesting details.

Mirror, detail from Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami
✚


Title: The Arnolfini Wedding, detail; Artist: Jan van Eyck; Date: 1434
Surrounding the mirror are ten small medallions that tell the story of the Passion of Christ (his death on the cross). These represent God’s promise of salvation for all who lead good, respectable lives. If you look closely at the mirror, you will see that van Eyck has also included witnesses. We see in the reflection the clergy who is performing the ceremony, and van Eyck himself witnessing the marriage. In fact, above the mirror, van Eyck has written "Johannes de Eyck fuit hic" or "Jan van Eyck was here." The year of 1434 is included. Some people have described this painting as a visual marriage license. Can you think of why it might be described this way?


Listen to this lesson
The Renaissance in the North
Like Jan van Eyck, the artist Rogier van der Weyden influenced 15th-century painting in northern Europe. Rogier, as he is referred to by scholars, added great drama and emotion to his highly detailed religious works. He liked to focus on themes such as the Crucifixion and the Pietà. These were dramatic stories of Christ’s suffering that could have a strong emotional impact on viewers. We will look at the painting Descent from the Cross, a panel painted with oil paints.

The Descent from the Cross
✚


Title: The Descent from the Cross; Artist: Rogier van der Weyden; Date: circa 1435
This may have originally been part of a triptych. It was painted for a church in Louvain in 1435. It depicts the part of the Christian story when Jesus’ body was removed from the cross. The setting is symbolic. It takes place inside a sepulcher, or burial vault, rather than on the hill where the Bible describes it occurring. The figures are crowded together in a close space. This emphasizes the drama and emotional impact of the story. The bodies all twist and bend, underscoring the strong emotional expressions on each face. As Jesus’ limp body is lowered to the ground, his mother, Mary, collapses. Her crumpled form mirrors the S-curve seen in the body of Jesus. As Mary falls, her right hand almost touches a skull. This skull represents the skull of Adam, the first man. It was thought that Adam and his wife Eve committed the first sin, and that Christ's death on the cross allowed the sins of all people to be forgiven. As with the other oil paintings we have looked at in this lesson, Rogier’s use of oil paints allowed him to use vibrant, glowing colors, and show fine details.

We have looked at much artwork showing religious stories and symbolism. There were also artists at this time painting secular subjects. Secular refers to something not specifically religious. The work we will look at is a winter landscape by Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Bruegel was an especially skilled painter of landscapes. Like many artists of his time, he traveled to Italy, where he spent almost two years. The largest effect these years in Italy had on his art was the inclusion the Italian or Alpine landscape. He recorded these landscapes in many drawings during his travels. The painting we will study is Hunters in the Snow.

Hunters in the Snow
✚


Title: Hunters in the Snow; Artist: Pieter Bruegel I; Date: 1565
This painting is one of five surviving works from a set of six that illustrated changing seasons in the year. It shows a believable winter landscape that develops smoothly from the foreground to the background. The way this painting is put together draws the viewer’s eye into the snow-covered world. It is a typical winter landscape, and includes a bit of Alpine landscape in the distant right corner. These mountains show the influence of his travels. While Bruegel was an extremely skilled landscape painter, he always included human activity as the focus of his works. In this painting we see weary hunters returning home with their dogs. Women build fires while skaters glide around the frozen pond.

The next artist we will study is Albrecht Dürer. Interested in Italian art from a young age, he visited Venice in his early twenties. He followed the Italian Renaissance ideal of the artist as an educated humanist and gentleman. He came to include a wide variety of techniques and subjects in his paintings. He was also an extremely skilled printmaker. He greatly influenced 16th century art through his prints. The first work of his that we will look at is a self-portrait made in 1500.

Self-portrait
✚


Title: Self-portrait; Artist: Albrecht Dürer; Date: 1500
This painting is made with oil on wood and shows the artist at 28 years of age. Although this work does fit in with the style of portrait painting popular at this time, his forward pose and solemn expression set a serious tone. Like the portrait of Baldassare Castiglione by Raphael, he is shown with an illuminated face, brought out even further by his dark hair and beard and the black background.

Dürer believed, like the Italian artist Leonardo, that truth is found in observing the world around us. He believed that nature holds the beautiful, and it is up to the artist to find it. This means that beauty can be found in anything, including humble, insignificant things. Sometimes the natural, simple world can contain images even more lovely and touching than the ideal. He believed ideals can go so far that the subject is no longer beautiful. This attractive portrayal of the natural world can be seen in Dürer’s Large Piece of Turf.

Large Piece of Turf
✚


Title: Large Piece of Turf; Artist: Albrecht Dürer; Date:
This work is as scientifically accurate as it is beautiful. Botanists today can easily identify each of the plants he has painted.


Listen to this lesson
The Renaissance in the North
The last artist we will look at in this lesson is Hans Holbein the Younger. Holbein, who was trained by his father, excelled as a painter of portraits. His works combine the northern tradition of realism with Italian ideas regarding large, sculptural forms and realistic bodily structure. While Holbein began his career in northwest Switzerland, he moved to England and became painter to the English court. While working in the English court, he painted this fascinating double portrait of two French ambassadors who were visiting England.

Hans Holbein (ii):‘The Ambassadors
Title: The French Ambassadors; Artist: Hans Holbein the Younger; Date: 1533

Called The Ambassadors, this painting shows Holbein’s wonderful talents as an artist. This is also the only painting that Holbein signed with his full name. This indicates that he was proud of his work. The two men in this portrait were enthusiastic humanists, noted by the objects shown with them. They stand at either end of a table draped with an oriental rug and covered with a collection of objects showing their interests and hobbies. We see, for example, mathematical and astronomical models, musical instruments such as a lute and flutes, globes, compasses, and a hymnbook. One of the most fascinating parts of this artwork is the long, grey object that seems to be on the rug between them. This form is what is called an anamorphic image. An anamorphic image is an image that is distorted, but becomes recognizable when the painting is viewed at a special angle or with a special device, such as a cylindrical mirror. In this case, the object can be recognized if the viewer stands off to the right of the painting. It is a skull, and it probably refers to death or mortality in some way. This painting is made with oil and tempera on wood. Holbein has recorded the men and all of the objects with careful detail and great skill.


Listen to this lesson
The Baroque in Italy and Spain
The Baroque Period
The baroque period eludes clean categorization or start and end dates. It roughly envelops the 17th and early 18th centuries in the West. The term "baroque" is used as a blanket term to refer to varying styles of art from a vast geographical area. The word "baroque," like the term "Middle Ages" and the designation "Gothic," was probably originally intended as a negative label. The origin of the term is unclear. It probably comes from the French form of the Portuguese word barroco, which means "irregularly-shaped pearl." This idea came from an unfavorable comparison of this new style to the art of the previous period.

The Protestant Reformation in 1517 impacted the development of the styles we call baroque (although the baroque period did not truly begin until 1600). The Reformation began when the German theologian Martin Luther nailed 95 statements against the current practices of the Church to the door of the city church in Wittenberg, Germany. Luther’s statements spoke out against corruption in the Catholic Church. Although Luther is generally considered the leader of the Protestant Reformation, there were others who protested against such corruption. These Protestants eventually split from the Catholic Church.

The Catholic Church responded to this movement with the Catholic Counter-Reformation. Because the Protestants posed a threat to the power of the Catholic Church, it quickly formed the Council of Trent. The Council of Trent included the heads of the Catholic Church, who quickly established standards for all of the arts. The Council determined that art should always support Catholic beliefs. For this reason, a great deal of the art we will look at from the baroque period will be Christian and encourage Catholic doctrines. Very few people could read at this time, so they learned about issues and religion through images rendered in art. This is why the content of art was so important to the Catholic Church. Catholic leaders wanted art to promote the ideas of the Church. Art should be intense and passionate, Catholic leaders declared, and stir people’s emotions to devotion.

Important advances were made in the sciences during this time. Unfortunately for many scientists, some of their new findings challenged church doctrines. The Catholic Church was already on the defensive against the Protestants. As a result, church leaders were quick to persecute scientists and other thinkers who challenged Catholic doctrines. Despite these persecutions, many new scientific discoveries led to a greater understanding of the world around us. These discoveries changed how people understood characteristics of the natural world.

This shift profoundly impacted the artists of the time. Artists had a better understanding of such things as light and optical effects, which they incorporated into their art. Because of this, the art of this period shows great naturalism and a better understanding of the physical properties of motion, space, time, and light. Artists were also interested in depicting the momentary and instantaneous, much as the artists of Hellenistic Greece did. In other words, artists wanted to be able to capture a moment in time, such as the paused movement of someone or something.

One of the most important Italian artists working during the baroque period was Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Bernini was a talented and successful architect, sculptor, and painter. His father was also a sculptor, and both were favored by the clergy and papacy. He is credited with creating the new baroque style and moving away from the styles of the Renaissance.


Listen to this lesson
The Baroque in Italy and Spain
One of his best-known works is this baldacchino in St. Peter’s Cathedral in the Vatican.

Baldacchino
✚


Title: Baldacchino; Artist: Gian Lorenzo Bernini; Date: 1623-1634
A baldacchino is a sculpture resembling a canopy, which can be placed over something important. Bernini’s baldacchino is placed over the high altar of St. Peter's, the most holy place in the church. The altar, in turn, is located over the believed burial site of St. Peter. This makes the site even more holy. St. Peter was one of Jesus’ disciples. He is a very important figure in Catholic art because he was regarded as the first pope, or head of the Catholic Church. Bernini was commissioned to design and create this baldacchino by Pope Urban the VIII, a member of the Barbarini family. The design of this massive baldacchino is organic. That means that the canopy uses forms found in nature. The curved columns supporting the sculpture give a sense of movement to the entire work. These columns are based on an earlier eastern design. Vines appear to be growing up the columns. The work is made of gilded bronze and wood painted to match, but Bernini gives the appearance of other materials. For example, the lappits, or tassels, hanging from the top of the baldacchino are made of painted wood, but have the appearance of real cloth and tassels. There is much symbolism in this work. There are angels and cherubs holding a papal tiara (the crown-like object worn by the Pope). There are also keys, objects associated with St. Peter, and an orb and cross on top, showing Christ’s rule over the world. The Holy Spirit is represented on the underside of the canopy by the form of a dove.The laurel leaves are symbolic of victory but also associated with the Barbarini family, who paid Bernini to make this famous sculpture. Another symbol of the Barbarini family is the bumble bee, which is depicted throughout the work.

The next image we will look at is a statue of the Old Testament Biblical hero, David.

David
✚


Title: David; Artist: Gian Lorenzo Bernini; Date: 1623-1624; Engraver: Nicolas Dorigny, circa 1704
This marble statue (shown in this drawing) is also by Bernini. It was one of three works that the Cardinal Borghese commissioned for his villa in Italy. In the lesson on the Early Renaissance in Italy, you looked at a bronze statue of David, made by the artist Donatello. Donatello’s boyish David looked contemplative about having just killed the giant Goliath. This image of David, conversely, is filled with action and crackling with intensity. Bernini’s David, too, is depicted as an adult. Bernini used himself as a model for this statue. He posed and had assistants sketch him. The form of this statue is wonderfully dynamic. David’s body twists as he prepares to unleash the stone. David's intense focus on the giant breaks the statue out of its own space. It gives the viewer the impression that something in our own space affects the subject of the artwork. Behind him lies the armor the king offered, and that David chose not to wear. David’s face is tense with concentration. One of the important aspects of this story is that David used his wit and intelligence to beat a foe much larger and stronger than him. This story is also one of good conquering evil. It foretells the coming of Jesus to conquer the evil Devil. The mostly nude form of this figure shows Bernini’s understanding of human anatomy. The swirling drapery adds to the feeling of movement and that this statue has captured a moment in time.

We will next look at part of an enormous ceiling fresco by Andrea Pozzo.

Glory of St Ignatius Loyola and the Missionary Work of the Jesuit Order (detail)
✚


Title: Glory of St Ignatius Loyola and the Missionary Work of the Jesuit Order (detail), Artist: Andrea Pozzo, Date: 1688-94
This is The Glorification of Saint Ignazio. It is placed over the nave of the church of Sant’Ignazio in Rome, making it very visible to congregations. It was commissioned by the Jesuits, an order of monks which was founded by Ignazio. Ignazio had lived in the century before this was painted, making him recent and more accessible for the people of this time. Ignazio was a monk. He believed a lot in missionary work, traveling to other countries and telling the people there of his Catholic faith. This legacy of missionary work was continued by the Jesuits, making him and his followers very relevant to the Catholic Counter-Reformation. In the painting, he is depicted rising into heaven to be greeted by Christ himself. This is relevant because at the time it was believed that only the truly faithful went directly to heaven. All other people went to purgatory to await judgment. He is shown being greeted by many other saints and angels. There are four groups of figures representing the peoples of the four corners of the world. This work shows the Baroque interest in illusionism. For the congregation below, it appears that the roof has been magically lifted from the church, allowing them to witness this miracle of Ignazio’s ascent to heaven. The sky is blue with clouds, depicting realistic nature, except for the center where the holy figures are. This is gold, representing a heavenly realm. The many figures twist and turn, giving the impression of a great deal of movement and theatricality. This fresco is a wonderful example of an artist’s use of space and time to convey a powerful and effecting message, which also promotes the interest of the Catholic Church.


Listen to this lesson
The Baroque in Italy and Spain
An important painter of the Italian baroque was Caravaggio. He was an incredibly original artist and an unusual man. He led an unconventional life and was rather headstrong, and occasionally violent. Once, he even murdered a man and had to leave Rome. Caravaggio liked to use naturalistic figures in his art. He often had his friends pose for him. Most of these friends were of the lower levels of society, although most of the patrons who purchased his art were from the upper levels of society. Caravaggio is known for a technique called tenebrism. Tenebrism uses stark contrasts of light and dark to create a dramatic effect. The technique emphasizes forms and objects in ways not seen during the Renaissance.

You can see tenebrism in this painting by Caravaggio. This painting is known as The Calling of Saint Matthew. Caravaggio depicts Jesus calling the tax collector Levi (whose name was later changed to Matthew) to follow him.

Calling of Saint Matthew
Title: The Calling of Saint Matthew; Artist: Caravaggio; Date: 1600
This large 10 foot by 10 foot painting is in the Contarelli Chapel in a church in Rome. The chapel was begun in the mid-1500s, but its decoration was delayed. Caravaggio ended up with the commission decades later. The painting tells of how Matthew was called to follow Jesus. Matthew had been a tax collector named Levi. Here we see Levi busy at work. Jesus enters the room and calls him. Levi leaves his job and former name behind to follow Jesus. This dramatic painting shows the moment Jesus enters the room. The setting is inside a building, and the space is small. This keeps all of the figures close to the viewer, increasing the drama of the image. It is dark, but illumination is provided by a shaft of light coming from the upper right. A covered window is set into a plain wall, and the figures sit around a simple table. As Jesus and the disciple Peter enter the room, the figures around the table all react in different ways. Jesus gestures toward Levi, who seems surprised. It is as if he has just understood Jesus’ meaning, and he gestures incredulously to himself. His face is bathed in light, which is symbolic of his sudden illumination and wisdom. Jesus emerges quietly from the shadows as the other figures respond with naturalistic poses. The faces and figures are convincing. They wear contemporary Italian clothing from Caravaggio’s time, making the characters seem more relevant for the people of that time.

We will look at one more painting by Caravaggio, again with a religious subject. This is The Entombment from the Vittrice Chapel in Rome.

Caravaggio: Entombment
Title: The Entombment; Artist: Caravaggio; Date: 1602-1603
We have seen several artworks depicting the Lamentation, or the moment Jesus’ body was removed from the cross and his loved ones gathered around Him to mourn. This part of the story takes place after that, as they place the body in a tomb. Like The Calling of Saint Matthew, this painting incorporates a dark background and starkly lit figures. This is known as tenebrism, which Caravaggio is known for. We see the followers of Jesus lowering his body into a tomb. According to the Gospel books from the Bible, he was placed in the tomb of Joseph of Arimathaea. He may be the man in the brown robe holding Jesus’ legs. Other scholars believe this man is Nicodemus, another Biblical character. On the left, supporting the upper body of Jesus, is St. John the Evangelist, a much-loved disciple of Jesus who may have been a relative as well. There are also three women depicted. The older woman with her head covered is Jesus’ mother, Mary. Next to her is Mary Magdalene. Behind them, with her hands uplifted in grief, is Mary of Cleophas, a relative of Jesus’ mother. As in the first Caravaggio painting we looked at, the figures are all placed close to the viewer. This brings the drama of the scene to us more directly. The faces and gestures of the figures are expressive and draw the viewer into the emotion of the scene. This painting was originally placed above the altar, or the table from which the Eucharist is served. It would have appeared that the mourners were placing the body of Christ onto the table. This helps emphasize the importance of the ritual of Holy Communion.


Listen to this lesson
The Baroque in Italy and Spain
During this period, Spain was heavily involved in the Catholic Counter-Reformation. This was a violent period in Spain's history. There was great unrest among the people. Money was not proportionally distributed among the people. The royal family and the church remained powerful, while most of the population was poor and uneducated. The wealthy were extremely rich and often oppressive. Most of the population was made up of poor peasants. There was not much of a middle class. By the 1600s, Spain was weakening. It was losing battles to other countries and was behind scientifically and artistically. The monarchy and the church remained powerful, however, and used that power to keep the Spanish people ignorant. This was the time of the Spanish Inquisition. During this time, people who were not Catholic, or even disagreed slightly with the church on doctrine, were killed, tortured, or driven out of Spain. A great deal of Christian art produced in Spain during this period reflects this violence. The art serves as a reminder to the people to be pious, or faithful to the church.

Not all of the art reflected this violence, however. The last painting we will look at in this lesson is by Diego Velazquez. Velazquez was perhaps the greatest artist of 17th century Spain, and his paintings reflect vivid realism and naturalism. He also includes wonderful psychological insight, capturing the essence of the mind of the subject in his portraits. Velazquez came from a wealthy family in Seville and studied painting with the artist Pacheco. He later married Pacheco's daughter. Pacheco was favored by the church and had many important contacts. He was able to introduce Velazquez to many important people, opening doors for the young artist. Some of the contacts that Pacheco helped Velazquez make were with members of the Spanish court. Velazquez eventually became the court painter of Philip IV. Many of his works for the court were portraits. Here we can see an unusual and innovative portrait of his.

Las Meninas
✚


Title: Las Meninas; Artist: Diego Velazquez; Date: 1656
This painting is called Las Meninas, or "The Maids of Honor." It is a group portrait of some members of the royal family and their court. The setting is a picture room in their palace in Madrid. Rather than a formal, posed portrait, this is presented as if it were a genre scene, or a scene depicting everyday life. The young princess, daughter of the king and queen, appears to have just entered the room.The title refers to the two young women who tend to the young princess in the center of the painting. These "maids" are not servants. They are the daughters of fellow members of the nobility who have been tasked with entertaining the young princess. The two attendants with her focus their attention on the girl. One kneels and extends a tray, giving a sense of motion to the painting. The princess also stands in a pose that gives the impression of slow, graceful movement. In the lower right corner are two dwarfs and a large dog. The dwarfs were employed by the court to provide entertainment for the nobility. In the background of the painting are two people who are members of the court. The space of the painting seems to extend even farther back than the wall behind the figures because there is an open door leading out of the room. A man appears to be leaving the room, but not before stopping and turning back to observe the scene. The composition of this painting, with the princess in the center and surrounded by figures, is balanced.

One of the most interesting aspects of this work, though, is that Velazquez has included himself in it. Seen at the left side of the canvas, Velazquez is the man with the mustache. He stands behind a large canvas, which we see propped on an easel. Another interesting feature of the work is that the canvas that Velazquez seems to be painting on is about the same size as the actual size of this work, 10 feet by 9 feet. It appears that Velazquez is painting on the canvas and has paused a moment to step back and look out toward us. But what is he looking at? Look again at the frame in the middle of the wall. It seems to be illuminated differently than the paintings around it. This is because it is a mirror. It reflects the king and queen, who seem to be sitting for a portrait. These details reveal a new perspective on the scene. It appears that Velazquez painted himself painting the king and queen’s portrait. Their young daughter and several members of the court have come into the room to watch the work in progress. It shows the genius and creativity that Velazquez possessed. It places the king and queen in the same space as the viewer. This causes the painting to break out of its space, indicating a presence that is beyond the boundaries of the canvas. This approach was extremely innovative and new. This painting would have been made for the King and Queen. When they looked at it, it would show the reflection of themselves, but also include a beautiful portrait of their daughter.

As a whole, this work captures the same kind of moment in time that we have noted before in baroque art. It appears as if the young princess has just entered the room and stopped. The princess and all of the people around her give a sense of a quiet, dignified kind of motion. We can sense that people have just been moving.


Listen to this lesson
The Baroque in Flanders and the Netherlands
The Netherlands

In the 16th century, the Netherlands came under the rule of Habsburg Spain. Philip II, the son of the emperor Charles V, became the ruler of the area. His repressive measures against Protestants caused the northern provinces to break off from Spain and start the Dutch Republic. The southern provinces, which stayed under Spanish control, remained Catholic. Because of this separation, the art of Flanders was similar stylistically to the baroque art of Catholic Europe, but the Dutch painters went a slightly different direction, developing their own styles and subjects.

The first artist we will study is Rubens, the great Flemish painter. Rubens trained in Antwerp and received a humanist education. In the first decade of the 1600s, he traveled to Italy and Spain. These travels and the art that he saw were important influences on his personal style. He is known for his beautiful use of color, much like earlier Renaissance artists in the north were. His figures are attractive. The men are big and muscular, and the women full-figured and beautiful. His figures are also often stereotypical because he used general types, not individual people. He greatly admired Hellenistic Greek sculpture. This can be seen in his figures, which are active and in motion, full of drama and energy. Many of his works depict a moment in time, his figures pausing in the midst of movement. We will look at one of his works, The Consequences of War.

The Horrors of War
✚


Title: The Consequences of War; Artist: Peter Paul Rubens; Date: 1637-1638
This painting depicts mythological gods and goddesses, but it is also a political commentary. During his life, Rubens traveled as a diplomat through Europe and never ceased to promote peace. When he was commissioned to make a painting for the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Rubens chose to use this allegory to express his dislike of war. In the center we see Mars, the god of war, marching forward with his shield and blood-stained sword. Next to him Venus, his love, tries to dissuade him. She holds him back with gentle embraces and caresses and is surrounded by small cupid-like creatures representative of love. He pays little attention to her pleading. On his other side, he is being pulled forward by Alecto, a Fury who carries a torch. Other monsters represent famine and plague. A woman who has fallen to the ground with a broken lute symbolizes that harmony cannot exist amidst the discord of war. Another woman holds a child in her arms. She represents the idea that tenderness and new life will not flourish in the face of cruel, destructive war. Other symbols in this painting also speak against war and its horrors. Despite the grim subject of this painting, it still demonstrates the lovely colors and twisting, dramatic figures associated with the works of Rubens.

The next painting we will look at is by the artist Anthony van Dyck. Van Dyck was a student of Rubens, and later traveled to England. Van Dyck preferred more slender figural types than Rubens. His style of portrait painting would be admired for centuries. His portraits always seem to have a feeling of elegance. The painting we will look at is The King at the Hunt, depicting King Charles I of England.

Le Roi à la chasse
✚


Title: The King at the Hunt; Artist: Anthony van Dyck; Date: circa 1635
In this portrait, the king is depicted standing and surveying the landscape. Behind him is his horse and two attendants. The painting can be divided vertically, with the sky on the left and trees on the right. It can also be divided horizontally. The horizon bisects the painting. To bisect something is to divide it in half. Though the king appears in a natural setting without the usual signs of his office, symbols still indicate his royal status. The king is depicted wearing beautiful clothing, including scarlet breeches, a silvery jacket, and kidskin boots. He holds a riding stick, which takes the place of a scepter and represents his power. He wears a black hat, which takes the place of a crown. His hat also draws attention to his face by framing it along with his dark hair and beard. Behind him stands his horse, a beautiful grey, almost silver animal with a golden-colored mane cascading over its neck. The horse is scratching its leg with the side of its face, making it appear to be bowing to the king. A man and a young boy, attendants to the king, stand behind the horse. The branches of the tree fan out over the king, taking the place of a canopy and affirming his royalty. The king himself is depicted with a dignity and grandeur as well as a sense of intelligence.


Listen to this lesson
The Baroque in Flanders and the Netherlands
We have already learned that the northern part of the Netherlands freed itself from Flanders. This region, the Dutch Republic, would go on to flourish in the first half of the 1600s. This area was different from anywhere else in Europe at this time. Instead of being ruled by wealthy landowners, its provinces were self-governed and elected officials from professional classes, such as merchants and tradesmen, represented the people. Because of this, there was a greater focus on the people of the lower classes and an interest in having a good economy. There was a large middle class and people engaged in many different trades and jobs. Many lived comfortably by gaining wealth through careers such as banking, industry, print-making, agriculture, and more. This stability led these regions to be tolerant of most religions, avoiding the persecution going on in many other parts of Europe at this time. With such a large, modestly wealthy, and educated middle class, there was a widespread interest in art. No longer did commissions control what art got created or what artists got work. There was a wonderful art market, and much art was produced to sell in shops. One of the most popular types of paintings in these regions was the genre scene, which depicted everyday life. The Dutch loved this because it portrayed their own world, which they were proud of.

The first example of Dutch painting we will look at is Jacob van Ruisdael’s View of Haarlem.

Jacob van Ruisdael, View of Harlem
Title: View of Haarlem; Artist: Jacob van Ruisdael; Date: 1682

This lovely landscape painting depicts the church of St. Bavo in Haarlem in the distance. Our vantage point is from the dunes of Overveen. This painting is about two-thirds sky and about one-third land. The sky portion includes many large, fluffy clouds, which appear to be slowly moving and ever-changing. We can not see the sun, but can see patches of light on the ground where it breaks through the dense clouds. We know that as the clouds change forms, the patches of light on the ground will change. By painting the land and sky this way, Ruisdael is showing motion and the passage of time. On the ground, we see part of a rural landscape. In an open field in the foreground of the picture, long strips of linen are stretched out on the ground to be bleached. The production of linen was important to the Dutch economy.

One of the greatest artists of the 17th century was Rembrandt. His paintings include a wide variety of subjects that range from the biblical to the literary to the mythological. He also produced many different types of paintings, including portraits, landscapes, genre scenes, and others. He came from a lower-middle-class family that became wealthy enough to send him to university. He spent a great deal of time in Amsterdam but never went to Italy. In contrast to the religious upheaval in Italy and Spain, there was broad religious tolerance in the Netherlands. This even included the intermarrying of people of different faiths. Rembrandt’s parents had intermarried. His father was Protestant, and his mother was Catholic. This religious diversity profoundly influenced Rembrandt’s art. Rembrandt’s paintings have long been loved because of their naturalism. The figures appear lifelike and expressive. There is also often a sense of sadness in his paintings. We sense this sadness in a self-portrait Rembrandt painted when he was a middle-aged man.

Rembrandt, Self Portrait
Title: Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar; Artist: Rembrandt; Date: 1659

Rembrandt made many self-portraits throughout his life. The ones made when he was younger show a happier, more confident man. However, as he got older, there was often a discernible sense of melancholy. Rembrandt’s adult life was marked by several personal tragedies. He and his wife Saskia lost three children, each within two months of their births. A fourth child, a boy named Titus, lived, but Saskia died shortly after giving birth to him. Many of Rembrandt’s works, including this self-portrait, use dark neutral colors.


Listen to this lesson
The Baroque in Flanders and the Netherlands
One of Rembrandt’s most well-known paintings depicts a biblical subject. It is the story of the prodigal son. Called The Return of the Prodigal Son, this painting depicts the moment when a disgraced son is gently welcomed home by his forgiving father.

Return of the Prodigal Son
Title: The Return of the Prodigal Son; Artist: Rembrandt; Date: circa 1669
This scene is from a parable told by Jesus, which is a story meant to present a lesson to his listeners, not necessarily to tell of an actual event. In this parable, a wealthy father distributes his wealth between his two sons, at the vehement request of the younger son. The older son takes his inheritance and stays with his father to care for him. The younger takes his money, leaves home, and spends it all on material possessions. When famine hits the land, the younger son has nothing. He goes back to his father and begs for forgiveness. His father welcomes him and has a feast in his honor. The theme of the story is forgiveness. Artists had depicted this scene before but usually with drama and excitement as the father rushes out to welcome his lost son. In contrast, Rembrandt’s interpretation is quiet and contemplative. The setting of the painting is outside the home of the wealthy father. Figures recede into the background, probably those of family members or servants who have come out of the house to see the reception of the returned son. On the right is the elder son, whose brow is slightly knit, contemplating the return of his brother. The figures in the front left are those of the father and the returned son. The son is seen from the back. It is obvious that he has been through a rough time. He has lost his hair and looks thin and unhealthy. His garments are torn. One of his worn shoes has fallen off completely as he drops to his knees to ask his father’s forgiveness. We see the father frontally. He leans forward and places his aged hands on his son’s back. He draws his son toward him in a gentle, forgiving embrace. There is a sense of calm, slow movement in this work. The colors are warm and rich: browns, reds, and golds. This subject and its presentation appeal strongly to human feelings. Although Rembrandt lost many of his family members, he did have a surviving son who he loved very much. That love surely affected how he chose to present this story.

Another important artist from the Netherlands was Johannes Vermeer, from Delft. There is a sense of mystery about this artist and his paintings. Little is known about Vermeer's life, and he died young and did not paint many works. His father was a weaver and an art dealer, so Vermeer would have seen many beautiful fabrics and artworks in his life. We’ll take a look at Vermeer’s Woman with a Water Jug.

Young Woman with a Water Jug
Title: Young Woman with a Water Jug; Artist: Johannes Vermeer; Date: circa 1662
This is a small painting, only 18 inches by 16 inches. It is considered a genre painting, or a painting depicting everyday life and activities. The work portrays a young woman in a middle-class home. She stands in the corner of a room near a window, surrounded by objects. The woman wears the type of clothing that women of that time would have worn. She wears a yellow and blue jacket, a thick blue skirt, and a head covering of starched linen. Women of the period often wore such head coverings for extra warmth in the home and for modesty when they went outside.he painting shows the subject as she reaches toward the open stained-glass window. A map hangs on the wall behind her. This is typical of Dutch households at this time. The map symbolizes pride for the traveling that enabled Dutch merchants to increase their wealth. A heavy embroidered cloth covers the table in front of the woman. There are several objects on the table. Vermeer shows the woman as she reaches for a beautiful brass pitcher. Her gestures are graceful and subtle. They indicate a slow and natural movement. Like Rembrandt’s The Return of the Prodigal Son, this painting projects a quiet grace and a sense of timelessness.

The last baroque work that we will look at is a still life by Dutch artist Rachel Ruysch. Both genre scenes and still life paintings were popular with the Dutch during this time. A still life is a painting that is made up of inanimate objects, such as flowers, fruit, books, musical instruments, or anything else that cannot move under its own power. Women produced little art in this period in Europe because they had few rights. The Netherlands, however, was home to several notable women painters. Rachel Ruysch was the daughter of a professor of botany and anatomy. This probably added to her knowledge of and interest in plants and insects. She became famous as a painter of flowers. Ruysch even served as the court painter to Johann Wilhelm, the Elector Palatine of Germany. We will look at one of her floral paintings, Still Life with Flowers and Fruit. This painting shows her great skill and ability to realistically depict beautiful and lush flowers.

Flower Still Life
Title: Still Life with Flowers and Fruit; Artist: Rachel Ruysch; Date: circa 1726


Listen to this lesson
The French Baroque and Rococo Styles
The baroque period in France was a time when the increasing power of the king, which had been going on for centuries, reached a high point in the power of King Louis XIV. He obsessively controlled the culture and society of France during the Baroque period. Although the economy in France was not as expansive as that of the Dutch, France was the largest and most powerful country in Europe during the 17th century. Tension was caused by religious conflicts during the 16th and 17th centuries. When French Protestants challenged the authority of the king, a series of religious wars occurred between the Catholics and the Protestants. In 1598, King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, which granted religious tolerance. Even so, the Protestants were eventually driven out of France.

One of the most important French artists of this time was Nicolas Poussin. Poussin was instrumental in the establishment of the official French Academy, an important institution for artists. The French Academy taught about art and art theory as well as providing hands-on training as an artist. Poussin believed that there could be good art and bad art. Good art, Poussin believed, must be based on good judgment and a rational understanding of the subject. It should appeal to our intellect and evoke a calm, rational response in the viewer.

Although different from the dramatic and emotional works produced by artists in other regions during the baroque period, Poussin’s ideas would go on to influence generations of artists.

These ideas can be seen in Poussin’s painting Et in Arcadia Ego.

Nicolas Poussin: Arcadian Shepherds
Title: Et in Arcadia Ego; Artist: Nicolas Poussin; Date: 1637-1638

The title translates to "I too in Arcadia," or "I too am present in Arcadia." Arcadia is a mythical, ideal place, a place of eternal youth and poetry. It is talked of in the works of ancient Roman poets, such as Virgil. Virgil's description of Arcadia includes a tomb. We see that tomb here. It is set amidst a lovely, pastoral landscape. Pastoral refers to the lives of shepherds and the idea of the simplicity and sweetness of rural life. We can see bushy trees, mountains, and a lovely blue sky. The painting is balanced and symmetrical. The tomb in the middle has two figures on either side of it. The male figures are all similarly slender yet muscular. Although their bodies are covered, we can see that Poussin understands and can believably recreate human anatomy. The men are shepherds who have stopped to examine the tomb. The woman in the front right of the painting is believed by some scholars to be an allegorical figure of death. The message that the shepherds read on the tomb, Et in Arcadia Ego, refers to the idea that death comes to all men, even in the idyllic Arcadia, and it is vain to try to escape it. The overall theme of this painting is that life does not last forever. Poussin has achieved this message with a balanced and symmetrical painting, in which the movement is restrained but not stiff.

The next French artist we will discuss is Georges de la Tour. He was greatly influenced by the Italian baroque painter Caravaggio. We can see the influence of Caravaggio in Georges' use of tenebrism, with dark backgrounds and lit figures, as well as in the realism of his works. Although his paintings show the influence of Caravaggio, his style is still original. He often uses a candle as the only source of light in dramatic nighttime settings. This can magnify the intensity of his paintings. There is often a sense of seriousness and grandeur to his religious paintings, especially.

We will look at one of these, Joseph the Carpenter.

Georges de La Tour: Christ with St Joseph in the Carpenter’s Shop
Title: Joseph the Carpenter; Artist: Georges de La Tour; Date: circa 1645

This painting depicts a young Jesus assisting Joseph in his carpentry shop. According to the Bible, Jesus was God’s son, but Joseph was his human father and protector. Joseph married Jesus’ mother, Mary, and took care of them both. Joseph worked as a carpenter, and we see him here doing some work in his shop. The young Jesus stands near him and holds a candle to light the area for Joseph. The candle is the only source of illumination in this scene, creating an intense atmosphere. At the same time, this painting has a quiet sense of timelessness. As Jesus holds the candle, he brings his left hand up to guard against a draft. La Tour was a master of showing candlelight reflecting off of figures and objects. Here he skillfully depicts it shining through the small hand of Jesus. The light shining through Jesus’ hand also symbolically foreshadows the nail that will pierce it during the Crucifixion. The shape of the objects Joseph is working with is in the shape of a cross, further foreshadowing the same event.


Listen to this lesson
The French Baroque and Rococo Styles
French Baroque Architecture
We will next look at an example of French baroque architecture. See the artwork of the Palace of Versailles below.

Château de Versailles
Title: The Palace of Versailles; Artist: Pierre-Denis Martin; Date: 1722

King Louis XIV, known as the Sun King, had Versailles built over the site of his father’s small hunting lodge. He called in many architects, sculptors, painters, decorators, and landscape architects to transform the lodge.

When it was built, this huge palace became a symbol of Louis XIV’s ambition and power.

The west facade of Versailles before the construction of the hall of mirrors.
Title: The Palace of Versailles, Garden Facade; Artist: Unknown; Date: circa 1675

The complex includes not only a large palace, but also a huge park and a surrounding city to house members of the court, government officials, and others. The interior of the palace was richly decorated, and no detail was spared. There are literally hundreds of rooms within the palace, each exquisitely painted and decorated.

Of the 700 rooms in Versailles, the most famous is perhaps the Galerie des Glaces, or Hall of Mirrors.

Overview of the paintings in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles.
The Hall of Mirrors; Architect: Jules Hardouin-Mansart; Date: 1678-1684

Designed by Jules Hardouin-Mansart and decorated by Charles le Brun, this hall runs along the second floor of the palace, and overlooks the Versailles gardens. Although it no longer contains its original furniture, the hall still retains its splendor and incredible beauty. Hundreds of mirrors are set into the wall opposite the windows. These mirrors create the illusion that the room is twice as wide as it actually is. Mirrors are a favorite tool of illusionism. In the Hall of Mirrors, they added to the dazzling extravagance of the festivals that Louis XIV often hosted.

Rococo
This was a time of great changes in Europe. The 18th century saw the beginnings of industrialism. Later in the 18th century, revolutions in both America and France led to the birth of modern democracy. The art of this period reflected the confusion of the times. A variety of styles developed as art moved into the 18th century. The most distinctive of these is a style called rococo. Rococo, which is truly an extension of the styles of the baroque, was centered in France. In reaction to baroque drama and grandeur, a fresh charm and gaiety emerged.The name "rococo" is probably derived from the French words rocaille, meaning "rock," and coquille, meaning "shell." These objects were often used to decorate baroque gardens. The rococo style is characterized by wit and charm. It involves objects of grace and fantasy, but may also have a satirical undertone. No artists in this period emerged as giants in the art world the way Bernini, Caravaggio, Rubens, and Rembrandt did in the earlier baroque. In the music world, however, this was a time of great composers, including J. S. Bach, Handel, Vivaldi, Haydn, and Mozart.

The painter most associated with the Rococo style is Antoine Watteau. He was actually from Flanders, but was born slightly after it was annexed by King Louis XIV. Watteau’s works show the influence of Rubens, his countryman. His works seem to sparkle with color and life. For the most part, his works depict elegant society members or actors in park-like settings. His painting technique involved underpainting the canvas with a mixture of white, pale blue, and rose colors. After this was dry, he would paint in the trees and background with thin washes of color. The important figures were then added in thicker paint in brighter colors. He would add glazes to his paintings to give them a warmth and atmospheric feeling. This technique helped him to create works that imitated the colors and sheen of satin or silk, the fabrics favored by the aristocracy at this time.

His painting The Embarkation for Cythera displays this technique.

Antoine Watteau: Pilgrimage to the Isle of Cythera
Title: The Embarkation for Cythera; Artist: Antoine Watteau; Date: circa 1709

This painting involves imagery that refers to the ideas of love and courtship. It also includes elements of classical mythology. Cythera is the island of Venus, the goddess of love and beauty. A garlanded statue of Venus can be seen on the far right of the painting. The figures are all slender and elegant. Each moves with the grace and charm of actors.


Listen to this lesson
The French Baroque and Rococo Styles
Rococo

Frivolous, light-hearted art exemplified the Rococo style. Some artists preferred to temper their sentimental subjects with more naturalism than that of the fantasy-like works of Watteau and others. One of these is Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin. Chardin painted quiet scenes of domestic life, and often included moral values in his works. He seemed especially fond of painting mothers and young children. His paintings seemed to praise them for the goodness they were able to maintain by living away from the corruption of society.

In this painting, Grace, a mother and her two small children are about to sit down for a meal.

Saying Grace
✚


Title: Grace; Artist: Jean-Siméon Chardin; Date: circa 1740
There is a quiet grace in the worn furniture and objects seen in a hushed and mellow light. The mother and older sister observe the youngest child in the simple ritual of giving thanks to God before partaking of their meal. There is a sweetness and gentle sentimentality to this and to all of Chardin’s works.

After the death of Louis XIV, the nobility who had been a part of the royal court had to find new places to live. Many, who had originally come from the provinces around Paris, chose to stay in the city of Paris rather than return to their ancestral homes. This led to the building of elegant town houses, called hôtels for these aristocrats to live in. While the outsides of these homes tended to be rather plain, the insides were impressively decorative. The salon, or a gathering of other well-to-do people in a kind of party, became the center of the Parisian society. These involved good food and musical entertainment for the guests. The guests gathered to practice the art of conversation and to discuss intellectual subjects.

The salons were hosted by women who were financially comfortable, educated, and witty. Women’s rights were just beginning to change in Europe during the baroque period. Rococo art coincided with the expansion of women’s roles in society. Women could host social gatherings, and they could also achieve other accomplishments. One talented woman of the age was artist Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun. We see her here in a self-portrait. She shows herself painting, having paused in the middle of her work to turn to look at the viewer. She appears to be a pleasant, happy person. It is easy to see from the painting that she projects the self-confidence and self-possession of a woman who has won her own independent role in society.

Self-portrait
✚


Title: Self-Portrait; Artist: Elisabeth-Louise Vigée Le Brun; Date: 1790
In the self-portrait, Vigée-Lebrun works on one of the paintings that won her renown and respect as an artist. The painting is a portrait of Queen Marie Antoinette.

Queen Marie Antoinette, Elisabeth-Louis Vigee Lebrun: Marie-Antoinette and her Children.
✚


Title: Marie-Antoinette and Her Children; Artist: Elisabeth-Louise Vigée Lebrun; Date: 1787
The queen is depicted with her children in a lavishly-decorated room that emphasizes her wealth. A variety of richly-colored and -textured cloths are depicted, including silks, laces, and brocades. This portrait emphasizes Marie Antoinette’s motherhood. It gave her a gentle, approachable demeanor that the general populace could relate to. One of the queen’s daughters nestles against her shoulder, and she gently cradles a toddler on her lap. A young boy pulls back the cloth covering a crib, drawing attention to a new infant. This scene is calm and shows the Queen and her children in an approachable and human way.


Listen to this lesson
Neoclassicism
The Neoclassical period was born out of the chaos in the Western world. The period occurred between 1775 and 1815. The American Colonies gained their independence from England during this time. Napoleon Bonaparte was the dictator of France. Bonaparte dissolved the Holy Roman Empire and captured many lands. He liked to compare himself with the Roman emperors of ancient times. Because of this comparison, he preferred art representing the Classical Roman styles. Since he compared himself to Classical Roman themes, he was seen as an all-powerful ruler like the emperors of ancient times. In fact, the term "neoclassical" literally means "new classical." It refers to a revival of Classicism, or the styles from ancient Greece and Rome. Napoleon’s desire to revive Classical styles to promote his image led to a greatly renewed interest in Classical art and ideas. The discovery in 1738 of the two ancient cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum also led to renewed interest in Classical art and ideas. The art, architecture, and writing from Classical times were studied intensely during this period. In addition to this renewed interest in Classical themes, the Neoclassical movement was also a reaction against the lightness of the overly decorative Rococo art.

The most important artist associated with Neoclassicism is Jacques-Louis David. Although some artists tried to follow in his footsteps, David is the strongest figure in the Neoclassical school of painting. David was not only interested in the presentation of serious, Classical subjects, but he also uses them to promote themes of virtue. To David, heroic patriotism and noble self-sacrifice were very important and powerful themes in art. His subjects are designed to tell timeless truths. Often he uses Classical imagery to comment on events happening in his contemporary France. His style is designed to appeal to the viewer’s intellect and mind, rather than simply to their emotions. Another important theme for David is the sacrifice of the father for the good of the family. This is probably influenced by the fact that David’s own father was killed in a duel when David was only nine years old.

David was highly educated. He attended a boarding school where he studied Latin and Classical literature. He traveled and studied in Rome. During his study and travels, he met many important and influential people. This helped him to gain prestige and have his own strong political voice.


Listen to this lesson
Neoclassicism
The first painting by David that we will look at is The Oath of the Horatii.

Oath of the Horatii
✚


Title: Oath of the Horatii; Artist: Jacques-Louis David; Date: 1784
This work was painted in 1784 and publicly displayed in the annual salon at the Louvre Palace in 1785. This salon was an annual art exhibition of works by artists who had submitted their paintings to be judged. The works were deemed worthy of being displayed. The exhibition of this painting in the salon of 1785 was just four years before the French Revolution of 1789. The subject of this painting is believed to be based on a real event recorded by ancient Roman historians Levi and Plutarch. In 1639, the playwright Corneille wrote a play called "The Horatii," which is based on the same story.

The story behind this subject is the battling of two kingdoms, Rome and Alba. Rather than sacrificing more lives to the cause, the leaders of each country decide to end it with a single battle between each of their three sons. The leader of Rome is Horatius and his three sons are known as the Horatii. The sons of the leader of Alba are known as the Curatii. After the three brothers from each side battle, the side that is left becomes the leaders. The sons are willing to sacrifice themselves for the good of their people. The main theme of this subject is noble self-sacrifice. One of the Horatii brothers from Rome wons the battle, leading to the foundation of the Roman republic.

Seen here, the three Horatii brothers stand united, ready to accept this honorable charge from their father. Seen in the background are the true sufferers in this story. There are three women. The one furthest back is a nursemaid who cared for the children seen there with her. The other two women represent the connections between the Horatii and Curatii brothers. One is the wife of a Horatii, but the sister of a Curatii. The other is a sister of the three Horatii brothers shown. But she is in love with and engaged to one of the Curatii brothers. Their postures show their sorrow and despair because no matter which family wins this battle, they will lose loved ones.

The setting of the painting is in a courtyard in the home of their father. There are three arches in the background. Each frames a different figure or group in the painting. The three brothers stand strong and tall with their arms around each other so that they present a united group. The father stands in the middle in a powerful pose as he prepares to give his sons the weapons he holds. There is energy and power in all of the men’s poses. Their legs form strong, stable triangles, anchoring the composition. In great contrast is the figural group of the women, whose curved and sorrowful poses represent their grief and pain.

David painted this right after the Seven Years' War, so this was a dangerous subject to depict. It was actually commissioned by the aristocracy. It was trying to use this subject to convince the people to be loyal to its country. Unfortunately for the aristocracy, the middle class saw this painting as a call to arms, to fight for the good of France, not for the king. David’s depiction of the subject is clean and clear. It draws attention alternately to the three groups or figures that are important to the story. The emphasis of the painting is on clean lines, and the use of color is minimal. All of the figures shown are idealized but based on real models.


The next work by David that we will look at is his The Death of Marat.

Death of Marat
✚


Title: The Death of Marat; Artist: Jacques-Louis David; Date: 1793
This work was painted in 1793, a few years after the revolution. It depicts a martyr to the French cause. A martyr is a person who is killed for what he or she believes in. Many martyrs depicted in art are Christian martyrs who died for their faith in their religion. Here we see a political martyr who also died for what he believed in. This painting depicts a man named Marat. He is depicted here after he was killed, making this painting a memorial of him as well as a record of an important historical event.

Marat was a hero of the French Revolution who used his gift of writing to inspire the people. He was a doctor, an educated, enlightened, and rational man who devoted his life to helping people. During the revolution, the people who were fighting against the king and aristocracy used the sewers to get around the city and to avoid the king’s men. Marat caught a skin disease from traveling through the unhealthy sewers. This disease caused him pain that was only alleviated by sitting in a bath of medicinal waters. Marat had helped with the fighting earlier in the Revolution, but helped after that from his bath by publishing his inspiring writings.

On the 13th of July, 1793, a woman came to his apartment with a note. Her name was Charlotte Corday. Her note asked for financial help for a mother of five children whose father was away and unable to support them. While he sat in his bath replying to the note, which the woman had written herself to gain admittance to his apartment, she rushed in and stabbed Marat. Corday was actually a member of an alternate faction in the Revolution, which Marat's writings had inspired violence against.

In this painting, Marat is depicted in his bath, after he has been killed by Charlotte Corday. David's presentation is simple and clean. Marat’s body is presented to us with the same stark simplicity used in paintings of the crucified Christ. David’s association of Marat with Christian martyrs does not end there. Although David is not implying that Marat is a holy figure, he uses imagery that associates Marat with Christ in order to communicate that Marat was unjustly killed while doing good and helping people. Some of this imagery can be seen in the nude torso, which is set off by the white towel. It can also be seen in the white turban, which takes the symbolic place of a halo. David has made the body somewhat idealized and has reduced the gruesome features to a minimum. We can tell that Marat is dead, but all we see to indicate how is a small stab wound. Rather than focusing on the blood and the gruesomeness of his death, or even indicating the skin disease he was afflicted with, David showed this as a heroic death.

The setting of this painting is simple and close to the viewer. This gives it a stronger emotional effect. Across the tub is the wooden board Marat used as a desk while sitting in his bath. We can see his lifeless hand holding the letter Corday brought him. Next to the tub is a wooden box with an inkpot and quill resting on it, as well as the banknote he was preparing to give to the woman with five children Corday’s note references. On the side of the box, David has included an inscription commemorating Marat, like a visual tombstone. On the floor next to the tub is the small knife used as a murder weapon. This painting by David is not just an affecting representation of a political martyr. It is also a way for David to pay tribute to Marat, who was a personal friend of his.


Listen to this lesson
Neoclassicism
The next work by David that we will look at is Napoleon Crossing the Alps.

Napoleon at the St. Bernard Pass
✚


Title: Napoleon at the St. Bernard Pass, Artist: Jacques-Louis David, Date: 1801
This painting was commissioned by Charles the IV, the Spanish king. Although Napoleon approved the commission, he said that he wanted to be shown sitting calmly on top of a spirited horse. The depiction of a strong leader atop a spirited steed is often seen in history. There are many examples from the classical period, further associating Napoleon with the leaders of that earlier time. The appeal of this pose is the contrast between the rational man and the wild animal. Although the man is smaller, his ability to control the great animal makes him appear stronger than if he were depicted alone. Also, portraying a man on horseback disguises his height, a factor that was important to Napoleon, who was sensitive about his portrayal in media.

This painting also depicts a particular moment in history, although it is not an accurate scene that took place. The artist was not there to witness it. Instead, it is representative of Napoleon’s great daring in leading 28,000 men across St. Bernard Pass as they traveled south to Italy to retake French holdings there. In reality, they would not have crossed this pass on horseback, but on sturdier, more sure-footed mules. David has taken the liberty of including a horse here, however, because horses looks more heroic than mules.

The landscape in the background is specific to the border of France and Italy. It provides a stirring backdrop to the heroic figures of horse and rider in the foreground. The mountains in the distance sweep upward across the painting from the lower right. This draws the viewer’s eye in the direction Napoleon is about to travel. The sky seems overcast, giving the painting a sense of drama and excitement. Napoleon calmly sits atop his wild steed and gracefully points in the direction he will travel.

On the rock in the foreground are some names: Hannibal and Charlemagne. These two historical leaders are the only ones before Napoleon to successfully cross the St. Bernard Pass. Napoleon’s name is included there as well. Although he has not yet crossed in the moment depicted, the inclusion of his name parallels him with other great leaders from the past and foretells the success of his crossing.

We will next look at a detail of one more of David’s works. This is from an enormous 20 by 30 foot painting depicting The Coronation of Napoleon.

Coronation of Napoleon in Notre-Dame
✚


Title: The Coronation of Napoleon; Artist: Jacques-Louis David; Date: 1805-1807
This painting depicts a historical event as well as being a narrative. It tells the story of Napoleon’s coronation. Because Napoleon was not descended from kings, he would not become emperor in the normal way. Instead, Napoleon had a ceremony at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, where he had Pope Pious VII crown him. The pope did not want to crown Napoleon, but had no choice. When the moment came for the pope to crown Napoleon, the new emperor took the crown from his hands and put the crown on himself. He then turned to crown his wife Josephine the Empress of France. This is the moment depicted in the painting.

David shows many richly-dressed people. David includes all of the attendants and members of the court, as well as many representatives of the clergy. This transmits Napoleon’s desire to show that even God supported Napoleon as emperor. Another intentional inclusion is that Napoleon’s mother is present in a gallery above and behind Josephine. In reality, Napoleon’s mother did not attend the coronation because she was unhappy over a dispute Napoleon had had with his brother. By including her in the painting, though, David shows Napoleon’s family connections. This implies that Napoleon’s family fully supported his actions. The scene in the painting takes place within the large religious space of the Cathedral of Notre Dame.


Listen to this lesson
Neoclassicism
David was the most important painter associated with the neoclassical period. The most important sculptor is Antonio Canova. Canova is especially famous for his ability to depict the nude form, making hard stone appear like soft flesh. He was the son of a stonecutter and the grandson of a mediocre sculptor. As a young man, he apprenticed with the sculptor Giuseppe Bernardi. To apprentice means to gain knowledge and instruction in a particular art or trade by working with someone who is more experienced at it. Canova's works appeared starting in 1774. The work we will look at is from later in his career, around 1798-1805.

This is the tomb of Maria Christina of Austria, found in the Augustinian church in Vienna, Austria.

Tomb of Maria Christina of Austria
✚


Title: Tomb of Maria Christina of Austria; Artist: Antonio Canova; Date: 1798-1805
A few years before this, Canova had developed some innovative designs for a tomb for the artist Titian, to be built in Venice. Although this was never built, he adapted some of these designs for Maria Christina’s tomb. Maria Christina’s tomb is unique in that the architectural structure and the figures attached to it are completely independent. We see a procession of mourners entering the tomb. The triangular shape recalls the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Rather than being a glorification of the deceased archduchess, this tomb sculpture is meant to make the viewer think about death and how all of humanity progresses toward it.


Listen to this lesson
Romanticism
The romantic movement began in the literary circles of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, but had soon spread to include the visual arts. Some of the artists most associated with romanticism include Friedrich, Goya, Gericault, Turner, and others. Art of the neoclassical school was intended to appeal to the intellect and reason. The art of the romantics was designed to affect the senses. It also showed a belief in the importance of individuals, not just the depiction of people representing intellectual ideas. There is an interest, especially by German romantic painters, in nature. They presented it in ways that are profound and sublime. Sublime refers to something that is lofty or grand and can fill us with awe because of its beauty and wonder. The theme of sublime nature is also used as a reflection of religion.

An example of this depiction of profound and sublime nature, and a representative of German romanticism, is Friedrich’s The Abbey in the Oakwood

Abbey in the Oak Forest
✚


Title: Abbey in the Oak Forest, Artist: Caspar David Friedrich, Date: 1809
This painting seems to depict the ruins of an abbey. But there is much more to it. Looking closer, we see the remains of an abbey with Gothic architecture. Large oak trees have grown up around it. A scattering of tombstones lie around the ruin, and the tiny figures of monks form a funeral procession coming to bury one of their deceased brothers in the ancient cemetery. The towering oaks take the place of the abbey’s fallen walls. This representation shows that while man-made things will not last forever, the nature that God created will continue. At that time, there was a great interest in seeing the wonders of God in nature.

This painting seems to depict the ruins of an abbey, but there is much more to it. The painting also presents a strong, underlying theme regarding the cycles of life. It is uncertain if the scene takes place at sunrise, which could represent rebirth and new life, or sunset, which represents the end of part of the cycle of life. Either interpretation can be applied to the dead monk being interred. Friedrich also presents the cycle of life by showing the scene in winter. The leafless trees and cold, barren ground represent the end of life, but there is also the promise of spring, just as man has the promise of eternal life (through religion). The ruins in this painting were based on actual ruins, which German romantics were intrigued by and enjoyed representing.

We will next look at a couple of paintings by the Spanish artist Francisco Goya. Just as Velazquez was the most important Spanish painter of the baroque period, Goya held a similar honor during the 19th century. At this time, there was a great rift between the aristocracy of Spain and the people of Spain. The peasants were desperately poor while the nobility held most of the wealth. The church at this time had the primary responsibility of keeping the uneducated peasants under the control of the monarchy. Goya, like Velazquez, was fortunate enough to be appointed painter for the nobility.

The first painting of his that we will look at depicts the Spanish royal family.

Family of Charles IV
✚


Title: Charles IV of Spain and His Family; Artist: Francisco Goya; Date: 1800
Charles IV of Spain and His Family shows Goya’s genius for depicting strong likenesses of living people while also revealing their minds and personalities. Goya greatly admired the baroque painter Velazquez. He actually drew inspiration for this painting from the Velazquez painting Las Meninas, which we looked at earlier in this lesson. Both paintings depict a royal family in a group portrait, and both painters included themselves in their work. You can see Goya in the shadows in the background of the left side of the painting. Just as Velasquez did, Goya stands before a large canvas, looking out toward the viewer. In Goya’s painting, the queen stands in the center, in a similar pose to the young princess in Las Meninas. Two of her children stand on either side of her, while the king stands to her left. They are flanked by other members of the family and court. The woman standing with her head turned back over her shoulder and face not visible to the viewer is a depiction of the bride-to-be of the Prince of Austria. He is seen to the left in a blue jacket. His bride had not yet been chosen when this painting was made. Goya could not know what she looked like, and has her head turned away to solve this dilemma.

The personalities of the royal family show through the artwork. Goya was not a member of the royal court, so he could capture his subjects honestly, not flatteringly. They appear incompetent, and less than intelligent in some cases. Goya used his skill to reflect the family of one of the worst leaders in Spanish history. We can see the wealth of the royal family through their clothing and jewelry, at a time when others had little.



Listen to this lesson
Romanticism
We will look at one more painting by Goya. This one depicts peasants and records a historical event. This is his The Third of May, 1808.

Third of May 1808
✚


Title: The Third of May 1808; Artist: Francisco Goya; Date: 1814
Goya has depicted a tragic and bloody event in Spanish history which occurred in 1808. This occurred during the time period in which Napoleon’s brother, Joseph Bonaparte, ruled Spain. The Spanish people were unhappy with their leader. On the second of May, 1808, the Spanish peasants rioted against the French army. Over 100 French soldiers were killed in this riot. In retaliation, the French rounded up Spanish citizens and slaughtered more than 1,000 of them at night by the light of a lamp. Goya has depicted this tragedy here, with the addition of religious undertones.

The painting is set outside the city of Madrid at night in front of a mound, which brings the drama closer to the viewer for greater emotional effect. The Spanish peasantry is lined up, awaiting execution. The French soldiers are shown from the side and behind, making their faces invisible to us. This causes us to not relate to them. We see them gathered in a terrifying group in almost identical poses, like machines bent on killing. As groups of peasants come up in front of the soldiers, they are illuminated by the single lamp. We can sense their fear and horror as they see their fate awaiting them in the bodies already upon the mound.

In the moment Goya has depicted, a figure in the center of the group stands with arms thrown out and up in a vain appeal for mercy. His expressive features display dismay and fear. He wears light colors that make him stand out and also appear larger than the figures around him. The color white, often associated with purity and innocence, indicates the killing of an innocent person. This is much like how Christ is depicted in scenes of his crucifixion. The man in this painting has another parallel with Christ. On each of his outstretched hands is a mark, much like the stigmata on Christ. Stigmata are marks or wounds on the body that correspond to the wounds on the body of Christ received during the crucifixion, such as the nail holes in his hands. These associations with Christ do not mean that Goya is saying that this man is Jesus. But like Jesus, this man is an innocent figure being killed. In this painting, Goya makes a strong differentiation between good and evil. Besides his use of composition to present the story in a dramatic way, his use of light and shadow, color, and loose brushwork make this painting even more affecting to the viewer in an emotional way. This, and its portrayal of humble peasants rather than important military or political figures, is what makes it romantic.

Charging Chasseur
✚


Title: Charging Chasseur, Artist: Theodore Gericault, Date: 1812
This painting is romantic in its highly dramatic presentation. It depicts an unknown officer charging heroically into the heat of battle. We do not know for whom it was commissioned, but the subject of a heroic man on horseback is seen frequently in history. In this painting, the officer sits on a wild, light-grey steed whose mane and tail are being whipped back by the wind and motion. The horse is supported only by the tip of its left hind hoof as it leaps forward. Foam flecks fly from its open mouth. The officer is twisted around in the saddle and has his saber drawn. The saddle pad is made of animal skin, reflecting the 19th century interest in exotic things from other lands and cultures than Europe. The horse and rider are charging into an area obscured by smoke and battle. Gericault made a study for this work, meaning he created two versions of the painting. While the finished, final painting has smoother brush work, both paintings use hot colors and a dramatic presentation.


Listen to this lesson
Romanticism
The next artist we will explore is Eugène Delacroix. Delacroix was born into a noble, moneyed family. Although he is now a well-known and respected artist of this period, during his life his works were not well-favored. The majority of the people found his works offensive. However, because of his place in society and his connections with the aristocracy, he kept receiving commissions. He lived the lifestyle of a bohemian, a term used in the 19th century to describe persons who lived nontraditional lifestyles, usually artists, musicians, writers, and actors. Like others living this way, Delacroix relied upon his own passions and intuitions as well as his intellect. He admired Greek mythology, classical history, the literature of Virgil, Dante, and Shakespeare, and exotic subjects.

We will look at his painting Liberty Leading the People.

Liberty Leading the People
✚


Title: Liberty Leading the People; Artist: Eugène Delacroix; Date: 1830
This painting was made in 1830 and commemorates the three-day revolution that occurred in France in July of that same year. During these three days, there were battles fought in the streets of Paris between the different classes. This painting does commemorate this event in a realistic fashion. But it also includes allegorical, or symbolic, elements. For example, the woman depicted in the center of the painting is not a real woman. Instead, she is an allegorical figure representing the idea of liberty. Although women did help fight in the revolution, the fact that this one is only partly clothed and barefoot indicates that she is a representation of particular ideas.

She wears a Phrygian cap, a type of hat worn both in ancient times and also in an earlier French revolution that occurred in 1789. She holds a French flag and carries a bayonet, or a type of rifle with a knife attached. She is depicted leading the people, who are surging over the remains of a barricade built during the fighting. We can see that the men following her are representative of several different classes. These include students, people from the working class, and especially the lower and middle classes. The dead men in the foreground of the painting represent both sides of the conflict, showing that both sides suffered.

In the background, a battle still surges. Delacroix was a great admirer of Gericault. We can see Gericault’s influence in the way Delacroix has painted the sky. It is depicted with dramatic colors, which are also the colors that make up the red, white, and blue French flag.

The next artist we will look at is Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. He was a contemporary of Delacroix, but his style is much different. He was a student of neoclassical painter Jaques-Louise David. As a young man Ingres enjoyed great success as an artist. He seemed to be carrying on the tradition of David. But he is categorized as a romantic painter rather than a neoclassicist because of his wider range of subject matter and for his figures, which are intentionally exaggerated for expressive purposes.

The first painting by Ingres that we will look at is the portrait of Louis-François Bertin.

Louis-Francois Bertin
✚


Title: Louis-Francois Bertin; Artist: Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres; Date: 1832
As indicated by the title, this is a portrait depicting a real person. Monsieur Bertin was the editor of the Journal des Debates, a journal that gave a voice to the middle class. He is a self-made man, meaning he was not born to wealth, but worked for it. He wears a suit, which was becoming the uniform of the middle class and helped to do away with class distinctions through clothing. All middle class men wore suits, though the quality and expense could differ. He sits in an almost lion-like pose and confronts the viewer with his direct, self-assured gaze. The wall behind him is plain, focusing the attention on M. Bertin. This portrait is not merely a physical likeness; you can also get a sense of the personality behind the face. The colors are muted. Like all of Ingres’ works, the emphasis is on line rather than color. The subject's suit is dark, but the white shirt collar draws attention directly to the face. Light illuminates M. Bertin’s forehead, perhaps suggesting the wisdom that lies beneath. This painting has a smooth, brushless surface, which is how Ingres would paint throughout his career.


Listen to this lesson
Romanticism
In contrast is Ingres’s Portrait of Madame Moitessier.

Madame Moitessier
✚


Title: Portrait of Madame Moitessier; Artist: Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres; Date: 1856
The insightful painting of M. Bertin shows him as a simple, self-made man. He is illustrated with an idea of the hard-working personality behind his face. On the other hand, the portrait of Madame Moitessier seems simply to show a pretty woman in pretty surroundings. But it does not give much idea about her real personality. The difference is that this portrait was commissioned by Madame Moitessier’s husband. She is shown in her fine clothes, which he had bought for her, sitting in a beautiful room in the home he owned, surrounded by lovely objects he had bought to decorate his home. At this time, women were often considered the property of their father or husband. This is not to say that women at this time were never treated well. Madame Moitessier is a member of the middle class and has obviously had her needs met. They just did not have a great deal of freedom to pursue their own interests. This painting, though, seems more like a way for Monsieur Moitessier to show people that he has a pretty wife and a lovely home than a real depiction of who Madame Moitessier really is.

The last painting we will study in this lesson is Rain, Steam, and Speed—The Great Western Railway, by Joseph Mallord William Turner.

Rain, Steam and Speed: The Great Western Railway
✚


Title: Rain, Steam, and Speed—The Great Western Railway; Artist: Joseph Mallord William Turner; Date: 1844
Turner was a Romantic painter but was set a precedent for the freer style of the impressionist painters that would come later. In this painting, we see a steam engine, which was important for the new new railway that allowed for expansion and the easier transportation of people and goods. But this subject is almost outweighed by the strong sense of movement and atmosphere. Turner has used thin oil washes in some places and thickly layered impasto in others to achieve this sense of movement. We see a steam engine rushing headlong into our space, surrounded and partially obscured by steam. This is how Turner presented the themes of man’s progress alongside nature’s endurance. This results both from the rain and fog created by nature and by the steam from the man-made train.

Turner’s paintings had a tendency to go beyond the beautiful to the sublime, and there is a sense of mystery and great urgency to this work. There is also a conflict between man and nature. While nature has rain, fog, rivers, and gorges in her arsenal, man tries to hold his own through buildin bridges and locomotives. This allows him to travel in spite of nature’s difficulties. The top half of the painting presents pale clouds across a blue-white sky, while the lower half of the work almost overflows the canvas with the bridge, the river, and the speeding locomotive. Because of its sense of atmosphere and excitement, this painting is representative of the romantic style of painting.


Listen to this lesson
Realism and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
The Neoclassicists focused on the intellect, and the Romantics emphasized emotions. The Realists depicted subjects derived from everyday life. They showed these subjects without embellishing them, or adding additional interpretations to the subjects. Sometimes Realist art shows truths which may be unattractive. The main goal of the Realists was to show subjects with truth and accuracy, regardless of the subject depicted.

The first Realist artist we will study is Jean-François Millet. Millet was a French artist who is best known for his scenes of peasant farmers.

We will look at one of these scenes, a painting called The Gleaners.

The Gleaners
✚


Title: The Gleaners, Artist: Jean-Francois Millet, Date: 1857
This painting is meant not only to depict a normal activity of lower class peasants. It is also meant to be a social commentary. This causes the viewer to consider the plight of the lower classes and even have sympathy for them. In this painting, we see three women gleaning for leftover wheat in a harvested field. This practice was allowed by the wealthier land owners in order to allow the peasants to pick up the otherwise wasted wheat left in the field. This was backbreaking labor. The women here are bent over, appearing to be tied to the land, while the horizon closes in oppressively over their heads.

In the background, we see some haystacks and buildings and men and women working. An overseer on horseback watches the women from a distance. These women are of the lowest class. This can be observed by their worn garments. Millet chooses not to show their faces, having them turned away or obscured by shadow. This is important because it allows the viewer to feel for all of the lower class laborers and not get caught up in the individual stories of these three women. The colors are muted earth colors with touches of reds and blues for the women’s garments. The shapes of the women are solid and almost geometricized. In other words, the shapes of the women are similar to circles and squares.

The next artist we will explore is Gustave Courbet. Also a French artist, he was born into a wealthy farming family who wanted him to study law. He instead went to Paris to study painting and soon developed his own independent style. Courbet is also the artist credited with coining the term "Realism."

He was born in the town of Ornans. One of his most famous works, and one of the first truly outstanding works in the Realist style, is his Burial at Ornans.

A Burial at Ornans
✚


Title: A Burial at Ornans, Artist: Gustave Courbet, Date: 1849-50
This painting shows an event which Courbet witnessed in September of 1848, the funeral of his grand uncle. He has painted the townspeople who were present at the burial in a very truthful and realistic way. He didn’t make the figures and faces idealized nor did he include important people. This painting is very large, 10 feet by 22 feet. When it was made, it caused a fuss with the public and critics. Prior to this, paintings of this size depicted subjects of a religious or royal nature. Eventually, though, the public became more interested in this Realist style of painting.

We will now study one of the few women artists to gain fame during the 19th century. Rosa Bonheur was a French Realist painter and one of few female sculptors. She was known primarily as an animalier, or an artist who specializes in the depiction of animals. Her most famous works are two paintings depicting animals in an outdoor setting.

The first of these is Ploughing in the Nivernais Region.

Ploughing in Nevers
✚


Title: Ploughing in Nevers, Artist: Rosa Bonheur, Date: 1849
In this large painting, made in 1849, we see strong men working the land with six strong cattle. This shows an event from everyday life and depicts normal people, not kings or peasants. This type of subject was becoming popular during Bonheur’s time because people took more pride in themselves and their activities. They wanted to see everyday life depicted rather than religious or heroic subjects. Perhaps her most famous work is The Horse Fair, which she completed in 1855.

The Horse Fair
✚


Title: The Horse Fair, Artist: Rosa Bonheur, Date: 1853-55
This painting also shows strong people and animals outdoors participating in activities which occurred every day. Although these types of paintings became increasingly popular, they did not have the same impact as the works of Millet or Courbet because they do not make any kind of commentary on the life of the lower classes. An interesting anecdote about Bonheur is that she is famous for wearing pants. This was during a time when women were expected to dress in a certain way. She had to get special government permission to wear pants in order to work outdoors with animals more comfortably.


Listen to this lesson
Realism and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
The next group we will study is the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. This group was made up of English painters and poets. It included the following people:

Dante Gabriel Rossetti
William Michael Rossetti
James Collinson
Joen Everett Millais
Frederic George Stephens
Thomas Woolner
William Holman Hunt
The purpose of this group was to reform art through the rejection of what they considered a mechanistic approach. This approach was adopted by the artists following Raphael and Michelangelo. It was continued through the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood’s time. This is where they take their name from. They wished to revert back to the styles of the artists coming before Raphael and other High Renaissance artists. They wanted to do this rather than continuing in the style of Classical poses and elegant settings which developed through, and continued after, Raphael. They were especially interested in medieval culture, and this was emphasized in their art. Although many of their ideas and styles follow in the Realist tradition, this interest in medieval culture clashed with the principles of the Realists. The Realists showed everyday events and truthful depictions of the lower classes.

We will look at two paintings by Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood painters. The first is by John Everett Millais. Millais showed great artistic talent as a youth, and his parents prepared him from a young age to become an artist. When he was accepted into the Royal Academy Schools in 1840, he was its youngest student ever.

One of his most well-known paintings is Ophelia, painted in 1851-52.

Ophelia
✚


Title: Ophelia, Artist: John Everett Millais, Date: 1851
This painting depicts the character of Ophelia from Shakespeare’s play Hamlet. While out picking flowers, Ophelia slips and falls into a stream. Having lost her mind with grief after her lover Hamlet has murdered her father, she chooses to let herself die. In this painting, she holds flowers which have symbolic meanings. The poppy represents death, the daises innocence, and the pansies refer to love in vain. This painting is a wonderful study of nature. The background was painted from life near the Hogsmill River in Surrey, England.

As the model for Ophelia, Millais used Elizabeth Siddal, the wife of fellow Pre-Raphaelite-Brotherhood painter and poet, Dante Gabriel Rossetti. In order to paint a realistic image of Ophelia floating in the water, Millais had Siddal pose in a bath of water, which was kept warm by lamps underneath. Occasionally, the lamps would go out and the water would become cold. Millais, absorbed in his painting, did not notice, and Siddal would not complain. As a result, she became ill, either with a severe cold or pneumonia. Millais paid for her doctor bills, but poor health plagued her for the rest of her life.

Siddal’s husband, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, often used her as the model for his own paintings. Rossetti was an English poet, painter, illustrator, translator, and critic. Along with John Everett Millais and William Holman Hunt, Rossetti was the founder of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. The son of an Italian immigrant scholar to England, he was originally named Gabriel Charles Dante Rossetti. But in honor of the writer Dante Alighieri, he chose to put "Dante" first in all of his publications. We will look at one of his paintings which was inspired by one of Dante Alighieri’s poems and uses his wife Elizabeth as the model. Elizabeth Siddal had become his wife in 1860. A year later, she delivered their still-born child. In 1862, she died from an overdose of laudanum, a drug given for pain. There is speculation about whether the overdose was accidental or was a suicide. But in a painting made between 1864-70, Rossetti memorialized his wife.

This is the painting Beata Beatrix.

Beata Beatrix
✚


Title: Beata Beatrix, Artist: Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Date: 1857
It is inspired by Dante’s poem La Vita Nuova, about his beloved Beatrice at the moment of her death. Her death is symbolized by a spiritual transfiguration. Beatrice appears to be in a trance. A bird, a messenger of death, drops a white poppy into her open hands. The sundial in the background indicates the number nine, a number Dante associated with Beatrice and with her death. The figures in the background represent Dante and the figure of Love whom he gazes at. Beatrice is painted to look like Rossetti’s deceased wife, as a memorial to her, who also suffered a premature death.


Listen to this lesson
Impressionism and Post-Impressionism
In the year 1874, the artist Claude Monet exhibited his painting Impression, Sunrise.

Impressionism, Sunrise
✚


Title: Impressionism, Sunrise; Artist: Claude Monet; Date: 1873
This work presented a dramatic new style of painting, and it drew a great deal of attention. It had abbreviated forms and brushstrokes that almost seemed to sketch the scene, thus capturing a "first impression." Monet's abbreviated forms gave a sense that the work was recorded quickly instead of being carefully and painstakingly detailed. The edges are not carefully blended. Instead, the individual brushstrokes can be seen. Monet desired to achieve the elusiveness of the conditions he painted. "Elusiveness" means that something has a vague or mysterious quality. An artist can do this by depicting a particular moment at sunrise or sunset, capturing the play of water, portraying a moment in the movement of people or trains, or by presenting an impression of anything impermanent and quickly-changing.

When the painting was displayed in Paris in 1874, a critic sarcastically used part of the title of this work to refer to it and other paintings in the same style. Although the critic intended for this to be a negative use of the word, the painters who worked in this style chose to adopt the word to describe their art. Around this time, similar movements in music were also called "impressionism," and in other forms of art were called "symbolism."

Monet is the best known of the impressionists, but many other artists were associated with this style of painting. Some of these are Manet (especially in his later works), Degas, Renoir, Pissarro, Cassatt, Sisley, and Morisot. This movement began as a reaction against the realist movement. Realists attempted to depict subjects in a fixed, permanent manner, preserving them for their viewers. The impressionists desired instead to capture a fleeting moment, underscoring the constant change in the world around them.

One of the artists who ushered in the modern era of painting is Édouard Manet. His paintings often included subtle social commentaries or challenge the expectations of his day. He painted many scenes of urban Parisian life, but the way he renders them makes them appear to be objective, detached representations of the subject matter. He came from an upper-class family and received an upper-class education. But he is associated with a variety of different classes. He is especially associated with the more unconventional bohemians, a group made up mainly of artists, writers, musicians, actors, and other like-minded people. Manet studied artists of the past, especially those from the Renaissance, as well as Titian and Velazquez. He wanted to create great art like these artists from the past. But he wanted it to be new and original. Even while he was working as an artist, he already saw himself as an important figure in the history of art. Whether that was an accurate assessment of his contribution or not, his innovative treatment of subject matter has made him a significant artist in art history. He was particularly interested in non-Western art, such as the Japanese prints popular in Europe at this time. These prints affected his art as well as the art of other painters working at this time. We see spaces becoming flatter, the colors more pure, and less concern for naturalism.

We will look at his painting A Bar at the Folies-Bergère.

A Bar at the Folies-Bergère
✚


Title: A Bar at the Folies-Bergère; Artist: Edouard Manet; Date: 1881-1882
Painted in 1882, this depicts a bar at a large entertainment hall, which was open to the public. This was a place for leisure attended by both the upper- and middle-classes. This painting shows one of the many bars or counters within the hall where patrons could go to purchase a drink. A woman stands behind the bar in front of a large mirror which shows the music hall. We see a male customer in the mirror, who appears to be standing in the same place as the viewer. We are seeing the woman from his perspective. You can see that Manet’s brushwork is looser than painters of earlier eras. As we explore impressionist art further, we will see the brushwork continue to become looser, until it merely gives an impression of the subject, not a detailed and accurate depiction of it.


Listen to this lesson
Impressionism and Post-Impressionism
The next artist we will look at is Edgar Degas. Degas was a friend of Manet’s. He came from a family of aristocrats that had at some point lost their wealth. Although he was not wealthy, he did live comfortably. Like Manet, he was interested in Japanese prints. He also had an interest in the effects of daylight on the natural world. Like Manet, he broke away from the traditional Western standards. His brushwork varies, but is often loose and rich. One of the subjects he is famous for depicting is ballet dancers. Often his placement of the dancers in a composition is off-center or otherwise unbalanced, adding interest and innovation to his work.

Here is an example of one of his works depicting dancers, called Dance Class.

Dance Class
✚


Title: Dance Class; Artist: Edgar Degas; Date: circa 1870
As with many of his paintings of ballerinas, Degas has captured them not while they are performing, but in the practice hall.

We have already discussed the artist Claude Monet and how his painting Impression, Sunrise inspired the name of this movement in art. During the Franco-Prussian War, Monet went to England to get away from the fighting. While he was there, he was fascinated by the English fog. It inspired him to paint fog in the town, on the water, in the early morning with the sun cutting through, and similar images. He is known for quickly recording visual and optical sensations and for experimenting with lighting and painting the same subject at different times of day to see the different effects of the light. While his Impression, Sunrise captures nature and how it is affected by light in the early morning, another fascinating painting of his shows how light can be affected not only through natural means, but also through man-made objects.

This is his La Gare Saint-Lazare.

Arrival of the Normandy Train, Gare Saint-Lazare
✚


Title: La Gare Saint-Lazare; Artist: Claude Monet; Date: 1877
Painted in 1877, this painting is set inside a railway station. Monet painted multiple views of railway stations, and this interest in trains depicts something new and modern in the city of Paris. This painting makes it appear that the viewer is standing inside the railway station under the covering for the trains. These sheds were new in their design and materials. The structure is made of cast iron but has panes of glass to let in light. There are three sets of tracks, and one train has steam coming out of it, probably having just pulled into the station.

This painting captures a moment in time, with the moving steam depicted just as it was in a particular instant. It is difficult to tell what season it is. In the distance, we can make out an overcast sky. The light is being filtered by the clouds as well as by the glass panes of the shed and the steam of the train. Even in this depiction of a heavy iron steam engine under a heavy iron shed, Monet’s use of light and rapid brushwork has dissolved the scene into a softened array of colors. This painting implies a slow state of movement with the swirling steam and the knowledge that trains are coming in and departing from the station. This painting visually expands beyond its frame, making it seem more expansive, and effectively drawing the viewer into the space.

Another important impressionist artist was Auguste Renoir. He loved painting people, especially people he knew. His brushwork is sweeping and feathery, and his subjects, like those of most of the impressionists, are pleasant and appealing to the general public. We will look at Renoir’s painting Dance at the Moulin de la Galette.

Ball at the Moulin de la Galette
✚


Title: Ball at the Moulin de la Galette, Artist: Auguste Renoir, Date: 1876
he work depicts a place called Montmartre, where mainly the middle classes went. In this class, there were artists, musicians, students, and others that had greater social freedom than those of the upper-classes. The middle class at the time was made up of artists, musicians, students, and others who had greater social freedoms than those of the upper classes. In this painting, Renoir depicted the people who would have lived in this area, like his friends and family. However, scholars aren't sure whether Renoir actually depicts real people in this painting, or if the figures just represent types of people. This painting does capture a moment in time and gives a sense of gentle movement. The painting is structured with different groups balancing each other. Some of the figures are cropped to indicate that the space extends beyond what we can see. The light is seen filtered through the tree branches, creating a dappling of light and shadow. Visually the light colors and the dark colors balance each other, giving the work a sense of balance and structure. Overall, the painting shows Renoir’s love of painting beautiful, happy people. Although his paintings are depictions of real life, he does not choose to include social or political commentaries. Instead, he simply chooses to make pleasant representations of the world he knew.


Listen to this lesson
Impressionism and Postimpressionism
Camille Pissarro was especially important to the impressionist movement. He organized many of the impressionist exhibitions, and was the rallying spirit behind the group. He was also responsible for bringing in younger artists.

We will look at his painting Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning.

The Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning
✚


Title: The Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning; Artist: Camille Pissaro; Date: 1897
Here we see a view of the same street where the Moulin de la Galette, seen in the painting by Renoir, is located. This view of the street is seen from the window of the room Pissarro stayed in at the Grand Hotel of Paris. Pissarro stayed there in 1897. During this time, he painted the Boulevard Montmartre 13 different times, showing it at different times of day and night and in differing weather conditions.

We will look now at the postimpressionist movement in art. While impressionism developed as a reaction against realism, the postimpressionist movement grew out of a reaction against the impressionist movement. The postimpressionists turned away from the naturalistic depictions of light and color favored by the impressionists. Postimpressionists instead embraced art with more abstract qualities and symbolism. The leaders of the postimpressionist aesthetic were Cézanne, Gauguin, van Gogh, and Seurat. This movement began in roughly the year 1886, which was also the year of the last impressionist exhibition.

We will first look at the artist Paul Cézanne. Like the impressionists, he believed that the study of nature was essential to art. But he wanted to create more enduring works of art. He believed that form and color were inseparable. His works emphasize structure and solidarity, features he believed that the impressionist works were lacking.

We will look at his painting Mont Sainte-Victoire from 1904-1906.

Mont Sainte-Victoire
✚


Title: Mont Sainte-Victoire; Artist: Paul Cezanne; Date:1904-06
He made a series of paintings of this mountain from 1900 until his death in 1906. They are made up of patches of color, which show a tendency toward abstraction. Abstraction refers to art that does not depict objects in a realistic way. Instead, abstraction uses form and color to suggest or represent objects.

Another painter of the postimpressionist school was Georges Seurat. As a teenager Seurat took some informal art lessons from an uncle and began his formal training when he enrolled in the local municipal school. He developed his own technique of painting known as pointillism. Pointillism is a technique in which an artist uses small dots, or points, of color to create overall works of art.

We can see this technique employed in his famous painting, "A Sunday on La Grande Jatte."

A Sunday on La Grande Jatte
✚


Title: A Sunday on La Grande Jatte; Artist: Georges Seurat; Date: 1984-1886
If you look closely at this work, you can see how Seurat used small dots of color to create the overall composition. This painting shows a scene of everyday Parisian life. People of the city enjoy a lovely afternoon in a local park. The composition is beautifully balanced and has its own mystery and emotional appeal. Although we can see that there are children playing, and even a man playing a bugle, there is a sense of peacefulness and calm to this work.

The last postimpressionist painter we will discuss is Vincent van Gogh. Born in the Netherlands, van Gogh produced some of the best-known paintings in the world. His works are also some of the most expensive in the world today. He led a fascinating and unusual life. Toward the end of his life, he suffered recurring bouts of mental illness, which eventually led to his suicide. In May of 1889, van Gogh committed himself a mental hospital in a former monastery in France. It was while he was here that he produced one of his most well-known paintings, The Starry Night.

The Starry Night
✚


Title: The Starry Night; Artist: Vincent van Gogh; Date: 1889
This painting shows the swirls that characterized some of his works at this time.


Listen to this lesson
Twentieth-Century Painting
There were two main movements in European art in the first half of the 20th century. These were expressionism and abstract art. The artists who worked in the expressionist style looked for strong ways to express their feelings. The abstract artists were more interested in design than in depicting realistic imagery. Later in the century, abstract art led to fantasy art and surrealism. Fantasy art was an attempt to visualize the world of the human imagination. Surrealist artists presented familiar subjects in illogical and hard-to-understand ways.

We will first look at the art of the expressionist movement. Some young painters were deeply impressed by an exhibit of postimpressionist works, including works by Cézanne, Gauguin, and van Gogh. These young artists developed their own style, inspired by the postimpressionists. This new style combined the rich colors of van Gogh with the bold distortions associated with Gauguin. When these young artists first displayed their art, the viewers were so shocked that they referred to the artists as les fauves, or "the wild beasts." The artists adopted this name and bore it with pride. Although the group dissolved a few years later, the fauvist movement is important to the development of modern art.

The leader of the fauves was Henri Matisse. He was the oldest of the group’s founders. We will look at his painting The Red Studio.

The Red Studio
✚


Title: The Red Studio; Artist: Henri Matisse; Date: 1911
Because Matisse uses the color red for most of the work, the color itself becomes a structural element. There are no clear shadows or color changes to differentiate between the walls of the room and the furniture. Matisse is able to communicate the forms of the objects around the room with a few simple lines. He repeats a few basic shapes, hues, and motifs around the room.

Fauvism greatly influenced the expressionist movement that occurred at this same time in Germany. While there are similarities between fauvism and German expressionism, there are also distinct differences. German expressionism was characterized by spontaneity and great emotional extremes, but also often had a greater sense of morbidity than the fauvist artists. We will look at the works of two German expressionist artists, Franz Marc and Wassily Kandinsky. Franz Marc painted many different subjects, but his animal paintings are some of his most important works. He often used color in a symbolic way, adding drama to the integration of creatures within nature by combining unusual colors with the shapes of figures or objects. We see here his Little Blue Horse, painted in 1912.

Little Blue Horse
✚


Title: Little Blue Horse; Artist: Franz Marc; Date: 1912
Wassily Kandinsky was from Moscow, but studied art in Munich. He returned to Germany from Russia to teach at the Bauhaus, a German art school. His early works were similar in style to the fauves, but he slowly simplified and abstracted his forms. Eventually only shape, color, and line were left, and the subject matter could not be identified. Kandinsky was also trained as a musician, and this is reflected in the musically-named titles of these works. This example is called Composition VII.

Composition VII
✚


Title: Composition VII; Artist: William Kandinsky; Date: 1913
This brings us to the second major movement in the first half of the 20th century: abstraction. Abstraction literally means to "draw away" or to "separate" from the subject. Abstraction actually goes into the production of every work of art, whether the artist intends it or not. This is because no matter how realistic a portrayal is, it will never be a completely faithful representation of the subject. Until the Early Renaissance, however, abstraction was not conscious or controlled by the artist. By the twentieth century, artists began abstracting subjects intentionally. Abstraction is a distinctive feature of modern art. It was not always popular with critics, though, especially those who preferred representative art.


Listen to this lesson
Twentieth-Century Painting
A facet of the abstraction movement is cubism. Cubism rejects naturalistic images in favor of compositions made up of shapes and forms that have been abstracted from the world around us. The first phase of cubism was called analytic cubism. It was developed by the artists Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. Their technique involved the observation of the subject from different points of view. They would then combine those different viewpoints to make a picture. An example of analytic cubism is Georges Braque’s The Guitar.

The Guitar
✚


Title: The Guitar; Artist: Georges Braque; Date: 1909-1910
The next painting we will look at is Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 by Marcel Duchamp.

Nude Descending A Staircase
✚


Title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2; Artist: Marcel Duchamp; Date: 1912
This extremely controversial painting quickly brought Duchamp to the attention of the public. It includes some elements of cubist painting, but also includes elements of futurist style. The cubist elements include the blending of broken-up pieces. Futurism is interested in speed, youth, technology, violence, cars and planes, and anything representative of humanity’s technological triumph over the natural world. Of particular interest to futurist art is a sense of movement. We see an element of futurism in the sense of movement conveyed in Duchamp’s painting.

Another 20th-century movement was fantasy art. Fantasy art grew out of artists’ attempts to show the fantastic world of the human imagination. Many 20th-century painters turned to this movement as a means of expressing themselves. It was soon after this that groups such as the Dadaists and the surrealists began promoting their own philosophies with words and paint.

The surrealists depicted actual objects, but in ways that were not logical and were often not understood by the viewer. Some early surrealists used "objective chance" techniques to begin works, using objects found in nature to inspire their creations. One technique was to rub a pencil over paper placed on wood to see what shapes the grain in the wood underneath would suggest. As the surrealist movement became more sophisticated, artists used recognizable subjects in strange and unrealistic contexts, or sometimes with odd associations. There were often personal aspects of the work that only the artist knew and understood.

Take a look at a famous surrealist painting by Salvador Dali. This is The Persistence of Memory.

Persistence of Memory
✚


Title: The Persistence of Memory; Artist: Salvador Dali; Date: 1931; Photographer: Tony Hisgett
The painting depicts pocket watches, which are usually solid metallic objects, draped over surfaces in the painting. This painting reveals a barren place where time has ended. The eerie but unseen sun seems to never set. A face stretched out along the ground appears to sleep. A melted pocket watch partially covers this sleeper. Another watch is draped limply over a tree branch jutting from an unexpected tree which has grown unexpectedly out of a block-like architectural form in the foreground. Yet another watch hangs from the edge of this block, where large ants crawl over a small gold watch depicted facedown. A fly walks over the larger watch that is draped over the edge of the block. The fly and the ants give the impression that this collection of limp watches is a dead assembly of decaying organic matter. Dali painted the details of this strange, dream-like painting extremely carefully.

The surrealists were also interested in the separation of an image from its meaning. In this painting by René Magritte, we see what looks like a pipe. However, the French text accompanying it says, "Ceci n’est pas une pipe," or "This is not a pipe."

Reproduction  of the Treachery of Images
✚


Title: Reproduction of the Treachery of Images; Artist: Rene Magritte; Date: 1929
As odd as that statement might seem, it is actually correct. An image of an object is not the same as the object itself. By telling the viewer that what they believe they see is not actually what they see, the artist is challenging the viewer's beliefs about the underlying meaning of the visual arts. Like the work of many other surrealists, this painting is designed to challenge the rational mind of the viewers.


Listen to this lesson
Twentieth-Century Painting
We will now look at a painting in a style that would be considered abstract expressionism. Abstract expressionism is the first major American avant-garde movement in art. Avant-garde comes from the French for "advance guard," referring to the advance guard in a platoon. Artists who challenged the established conventions and pushed for innovation were considered avant-garde. The photograph below is of Jackson Pollock working in his studio.

Jackson Pollock Working in his Studio
✚


Title: Jackson Pollock Working in His Studio; Photographer: Hans Namuth; Date: approximately 1950
Pollock’s works are wonderful examples of gestural abstraction. His technique for painting works like this one was to use brushes or sticks to drip paint onto a canvas. He sometimes even flung the paint onto the canvas. He used traditional oil paints, aluminum paints, and even household enamels in his works. He would drip or fling the paint onto a section of canvas unrolled across the floor of his studio, and would respond to and change what he was doing based on how the artwork evolved.

The last movement we will discuss in this lesson is pop art. This movement came about as a way of gaining back the average person as a viewer. During some of the earlier movements, the artists created art for themselves as artistic expressions. This art was not necessarily created for the viewer. Sometimes, artists even intentionally confused their viewers. With pop art, short for "popular art," artists made their works more accessible and friendly for the average person.

Pop art began in England and found its greatest success in the United States. The greatest pop artist in the United States was Andy Warhol. Warhol worked as an illustrator and commercial artist before gaining fame as a visual artist. His background gave him a good understanding of what would be appeal to the general population. He often produced images of products, such as Campbell’s Soup cans or Coca-Cola bottles, or images of Hollywood celebrities. Here is an example of his depiction of a Hollywood celebrity in the work Turquoise Marilyn. Marilyn Monroe was a famous actress of the time.

Turquoise Marilyn
✚


Title: Turquoise Marilyn; Artist: Andy Warhol; Date: 1964

Listen to this lesson
Twentieth-Century Sculpture
Like the paintings of this time, 20th-century sculpture includes a wide variety of techniques, aesthetics, and ideas. Some of the aesthetics mirror the painting styles we have already discussed. Others are unique to sculpture. Some of the leaders of the new ideas in 20th-century sculpture include Auguste Rodin and Constantin Brancusi.

Auguste Rodin was a French sculptor born toward the end of the 19th century. He is usually considered the founder of the modern idea of sculpture, although he did not originally set out to rebel against traditional art. He was a skilled craftsman schooled in traditional sculpting techniques. Although he was never accepted into the most important art school in Paris, he remains one of only a few sculptors whose works are recognized outside of the community of visual art scholars. Despite this, many of his most famous works were severely criticized during his lifetime. He was sensitive to the public criticism, but never attempted to change his style. One of his most famous works is The Thinker, made in 1902.

The Thinker
✚


Title: The Thinker; Artist: Auguste Rodin; Date: 1902
This bronze and marble sculpture depicts a man sitting in meditation. What is he thinking about? We cannot know, but he seems to be meditating over some kind of powerful internal struggle. Some critics believe that this sculpture represents the idea of philosophy, or the pursuit of wisdom through intellectual means. This work was part of a commission given to Rodin by the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris. It was originally called The Poet. The figure is nude, in the tradition of the heroic figures of the High Renaissance artists. During his career, Rodin was even compared to Michelangelo, a significant artist of the High Renaissance.

Another artist who helped bring in the modernist era of sculpture was Constantin Brancusi. Brancusi was a Romanian-born artist whose sculptures have a sense of sophistication and simplicity that impacted later artists. His early life was difficult, but through his strong will and determination, he was able to educate himself and eventually graduate with honors. He enrolled in the Bucharest School of Fine Arts, and there received training in sculpture, for which he had shown potential. In 1903 he traveled to Munich, and then on to Paris, where he lived and worked for a couple of years. He was welcomed by the artistic community there. Although he was invited to become a part of the workshop of Rodin, he did not stay there long. He developed a unique and revolutionary style of his own, which involved abstracted forms and non-literal representations of ideas. His work Fish is an example of this style.

 Fish
✚


Title: Fish; Artist: Constantin Brancusi; Date: 1926
He made several models of this work constructed of materials such as wood, stone, and marble. The one is made of bronze. The abstracted work consists of a single, oblong shape which sits on its base. The work has a beautiful simplicity, and its smooth, gentle form gives the work a sense of grace.

Pablo Picasso was one of the most well-known and innovative artists of the 20th century. His style evolved to include many of the different aesthetics we have discussed. Along with artist Georges Braque, Picasso pioneered the new genre of collage. Collage involves the combination of different elements which are often glued together. In some cases, a collage can be flat. Two-dimensional objects, such as paper or leaves, are glued onto a flat surface. We will look at a Picasso collage which is slightly three-dimensional. Head is made of cut and pasted colored paper, gouache, and charcoal on paperboard.

Head
✚


Title: Head; Artist: Pablo Picasso; Date: 1913-1914
Another interesting type of sculpture invented in the 20th century is the mobile. A mobile is composed of carefully-designed parts that move, especially in response to wind or air currents. The inventor of this type of sculpture was the American artist Alexander Calder. Here is Calder’s artwork, called Mobile. This abstracted work shows the kind of delicate balance that Calder achieved in his art. It is made from painted sheet metal and wire.

Mobile
✚


Title: Mobile; Artist: Alexander Calder; Date: 1932

Listen to this lesson
Twentieth-Century Sculpture
Another artist who combined objects to create works of art was Louise Nevelson. Her way of combining objects is similar to the collages begun by Picasso and Braque. Nevelson was a Ukrainian-born American artist. She is best known for her abstract expressionist "boxes," which she grouped together to create something new and unique. She assembled her art from used and discarded objects that she found. She believed that using discarded items gave the objects new life and greater meaning than new materials could. Here is her Atmosphere and Environment XII.

Atmosphere and Environment
✚


Title: Atmosphere and Environment XII; Artist: Louise Nevelson; Date: 1970
Take a look at this piece and see if you can identify some of the individual shapes that she has used to create the overall sculpture.

Claes Oldenburg is a sculptor who was born in Sweden as the son of a Swedish diplomat. While he was still a child, his family moved to the United States. He studied at several high-status schools, including the Art Institute of Chicago. He is known for his large replicas of everyday items. These were meant to be viewed by the public. Many of his large public artworks received criticism before becoming accepted and loved by the public as fun and unusual outdoor art. He and his works became linked with the pop art movement, or art designed to appeal to the general public. Many of his works also have interactive qualities, which associates him with performance art. Performance art refers to art that involves live events taking place at a specific time. This can involve interaction of the artist with the work, the audience with the work, or the artist with the audience. Some of his sculptures include a 45-foot-tall pair of binoculars, a 45-foot-tall clothespin, and this lipstick.

Lipstick on Caterpillar Tracks
✚


Title: Lipstick (Ascending) on Caterpillar Tracks; Artist: Claes Oldenburg; Date: 1969
These overly-large representations of simple household items encourage viewers to see these items in whole new ways.

Earlier in this lesson we discussed futurist painting. This style dealt with speed, youth, technology, violence, cars and planes, and anything representative of humanity’s technological triumph over the natural world. The 20th century saw a similar movement in sculpture. Futurist sculpture centered on movement, speed, and technology. We will look at a sculpture by futurist artist Umberto Boccioni. Boccioni was born in Italy and studied in Rome. He was a painter as well as a sculptor, and he studied the styles of the impressionists and postimpressionists in Paris. His sculpture titled Unique Forms of Continuity in Space is seen as a wonderful expression of movement.

Unique Forms of Continuity in Space
✚


Title: Unique Forms of Continuity in Space; Artist: Umberto Boccioni; Date: 1913
This sculpture is so well-regarded that it was even used for the reverse side of the twenty-cent Euro coin issued by Italy. The piece shows a human-like figure that seems to glide through space. The clothing that drapes the figure is swept back as it strides forward. This effect gives the work an even greater sense of movement. It is not seen on a pedestal, which would have tied it more to the ground, but is instead balanced on small blocks attached to each foot. The figure does not have arms, and we cannot discern a face. These aspects make it more abstract. We are not allowed to think of it too much as a human being, but as a fluidly moving, human-like creature.

There is also a sculptural counterpart to the surrealist movement in painting. One of the artists most closely associated with the surrealist movement in sculpture is Meret Oppenheim. Oppenheim was not only associated with the surrealist movement, but is also sometimes associated with a movement called Dadaism. The Dada movement is characterized by artists revolting against traditional styles and values, and instead producing works that do not make sense. Oppenheim’s art is not actually of the Dada aesthetic, however. The Dadaists did not care about public opinion, or about the aesthetics of the works they created, but Oppenheim did. Many of her works involve everyday objects shown in unusual ways.

One of Oppenheim’s most famous works, Object (Le Dejeuner en Fourrure), translates to "the lunch in fur." This work is a cup, saucer, and spoon, covered with the fur of a Chinese gazelle. The work was inspired by a conversation between Oppenheim and Pablo Picasso at a café. Picasso was admiring Oppenheim’s fur-covered bracelets, and commented that anything could be covered with fur. Oppenheim replied with the comment, "Even this cup and saucer." The surrealist movement portrayed strange or bizarre objects or combinations of objects that brought to mind a dream-like state. Object (Le Dejeuner en Fourrure) is one of the works of art most commonly associated with the surrealist movement.


Listen to this lesson
Twentieth-Century Architecture
Twentieth-century architecture includes a variety of styles shown by fascinating and diverse structures. The term modern architecture is used for building styles of this period. While there are many different building styles represented, many of them include similar characteristics. The strongest common characteristic of modern architecture is that of simplified forms with no unnecessary decoration. These styles were first seen around 1900. By the 1940s, many of these styles came together and became known as international style. This style was the main type of architecture used for buildings, especially for corporate or institutional use. Remember as we go through this lesson that architectural styles are still changing, and the way we label styles from earlier in the century is debated by some scholars. Some structures do not clearly fall under a particular style, leaving them open to discussion.

The first work we will look at is Casa Milá by Antoni Gaudí.

Casa Mila, Barcelona, Spain
✚


Title: Casa Mila, Barcelona, Spain; Architect: Antoni Gaudi; Date: 1906-1912
This fascinating building is found in Barcelona, Spain. Sometimes called La Pedrera, which is Catalan for "the quarry," this building is a Modernist work that has a biomorphic appearance. Biomorphic refers to its use of organic shapes, creating the impression that it is a living creature. Biomorphism was also a 20th-century movement in art that was linked with surrealism and art nouveau. Casa Milá was built between 1906 and 1910, and was officially completed in 1912. It was designed and built for married couple Pere Milá and Rosario Segimon. It is now an apartment building. Today it is often used for cultural exhibitions, allowing visitors to see the interior design.

One of the most influential and well-known American architects of the 20th-century is Frank Lloyd Wright. He designed over 1,000 structures, and more than 500 of them became completed works. Wright developed his own style, ignoring popular construction techniques and criticism. He was a supporter of natural architecture, and was also an important leader in the Prairie School movement. He designed structures serving a wide variety of purposes, including homes, churches, offices, museums, schools, and hotels. He also cared about the internal details of his structures, often designing the furniture and stained-glass windows. In addition to his great skill and fame as an architect, Wright wrote 20 books and many articles. He was also a respected speaker in both the United States and Europe. At the beginning of his career, Wright was known for designing suburban homes in the upper Midwest. They seemed to grow out of the land around them. This is what is known as the prairie style in architecture. Prairie-style buildings often have low roofs with overhanging eaves. They tend to have horizontal lines and open floor plans. They were designed to blend in with flat prairie landscapes. The first structure by Frank Lloyd Wright that we will look at is Robie House, a building in the prairie style.

The Robie House
✚


Title: The Robie House; Architect: Frank Lloyd Wright; Date: 1908-1910
This structure was one of his first ground-breaking designs. It is located in Chicago, Illinois. It is designed as a number of open, block-shaped areas around a central chimney. Wright not only designed the outside of the structure, but also designed much of the interior. He believed that buildings have a great influence on the people who live, work, or worship in them, and that all of the details are important. This makes the architect, whether it is conscious or unconscious, someone who has the ability to mold people.

The second work we will look at by Frank Lloyd Wright is his Kaufmann House. It is popularly referred to as "Fallingwater" because of its placement over a natural waterfall.

The Kaufman House, Fallingwater
✚


Title: The Kaufman House (Fallingwater); Architect: Frank Lloyd Wright; Date: 1936-1937; Photographer: Sxenko
Located at Bear Run near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, this structure is another wonderful example of the Prairie style. It is easy to see how Wright integrated the natural world into the structure of the building. This building uses reinforced concrete terraces. Reinforced concrete is concrete that has been strengthened by including an internal structure such as wire mesh or rods. Both this building and the Robie House employ cantilevering, or the use of structures that seem to project without support from underneath. This gives the sense that they are hovering. In the Kaufmann House, we can see the cantilevering in the structures that project over the waterfall. They seem to echo the structure of the rocks underneath in both their shape and color.


Listen to this lesson
Twentieth-Century Architecture
While Frank Lloyd Wright stands for his ground-breaking new approach to modern architecture in America, Walter Gropius was one of the modern innovators in Europe. Together with Adolf Meyer, Walter Gropius designed the next building we will review, the Fagus Shoe Factory in Alfeld, Germany.

Built between 1911 and 1913, this building marks one of the first steps toward modernism in the world of European architecture. One of the most interesting parts of this building is its walls. They are a nearly continuous surface of glass. While we may be used to seeing this in buildings today, at the time it was a new idea. This had been possible for several decades, since the invention of a structural steel skeleton had taken away the need for the walls to bear heavy loads. However, architects before Gropius did not imagine walls made of windows in this way. Before this, windows were openings in walls, not walls themselves. Gropius’ ability to think of windows in this way is one of the things that makes this building truly remarkable. Designing walls made up mainly of windows allows the building to take on a kind of life of its own. The glass not only allows light into the structure, but it also reflects light on the outside, reflecting changes in the weather or season.

Among the European architects influenced by Frank Lloyd Wright was Gerrit Rietveld. Rietveld was a Dutch architect. Between the influence of Wright and a working relationship with a painter by the name of Mondrian, Rietveld developed a distinct architectural style. We will look at his Shröder House, built in 1924 in Utrecht, a city in the Netherlands.

Schroeder House
✚


Title: Schroeder House; Architect: Gerrit Rietveld; Date: 1924
This work has crisp lines in the style of one of Mondrian’s paintings. The steel beams, rails, and some other elements are painted using bright primary colors. This helps emphasize the design of the building and add interest to the structure.

We will look at another building by Walter Gropius, the Bauhaus of Dessau, Germany.

Bauhaus
✚


Title: Bauhaus; Architect: Walter Gropius; Date: 1925-1926
While the Fagus Shoe Factory was original in its use of windows, the Bauhaus, built ten years later, takes these ideas to a new level. This structure is an example of the architectural movement known as international style. International style, popular in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s, used materials such as glass for outside walls. The structures were not overly decorated, and their interiors were characterized by open spaces that flowed into each other. The Bauhaus is a four-story, box-like structure, and the walls are a continuous surface of glass. Just as important as its structure is what this building stood for. This building housed a school in Germany that combined the fine arts and crafts. The Bauhaus school was founded by Gropius. It was a physical manifestation of his vision for the combination of these two areas of study. The school operated for 14 years before being shut down in 1933 by the Nazis.

The next structure we will look at is one created by German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. He left Germany in the 1930s due to Hitler’s determined suppression of modernist art and those who created it. Van der Rohe was fascinated by skyscrapers, and his designs for skyscrapers after World War I were extremely influential to the modernist period. We will look at a building he designed with Philip Johnson, the Seagram Building.

Seagram Building, New York, NY
✚


Title: Seagram Building, New York, NY; Architect: Ludwig Miles van der Rohe and Philip Johnson; Date: 1954-1958
Built between 1954 and 1958 in New York City, this building is 38 stories high. The outside is made of bronze-finished steel and amber glass. It is set on a plaza that is a block long. The building is set upon steel stilts, giving the bottom an airiness that differs with the solid form of the rest of the building. The pavement underneath is made of pink granite. Lateral pools with fountains lead visitors to a canopy and three sets of revolving doors. This structure is beautiful in its simplicity, and is a wonderful example of modernist architecture.


Listen to this lesson
Twentieth-Century Architecture
We will next study two works by Swiss-born architect Le Corbusier. Corbusier grew up working in international style. The first work of his that we will look at shows the lightness and simplicity possible even when working with materials like concrete and glass. This is Villa Savoye, or Savoye House, built between 1928 and 1931 in Poissy-sur-Seine in France.

Villa Savoye
✚


Title: Villa Savoye; Architect: Le Corbusier; Date: 1928-1931
This structure looks like a box sitting upon reinforced concrete pillars. These pillars seem to reappear to interrupt the ribbon-like windows running along each side of the building. Corbusier’s love of clean, exact architectural shapes can be easily seen in this structure.

A later work by Corbusier is the chapel of Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp, France.

Notre-Dame-du-Haut
✚


Title: Notre Dame du Haut; Architect: Le Corbusier; Date: 1953-1955; Photographer: Rob Deutscher
Built between 1953 and 1955, this building attracts tens of thousands of people each year, drawn to Corbusier's unique design as well as the site's status as a pilgrimage chapel. Turning away from international style, the structure seems to bend and twist as if it is a living creature. The roof flares out, the walls slope, and the windows are of different sizes and placed unevenly. The interior of the structure, which is designed to fit only about 50 people, is flooded with light from hidden skylights. The structure is natural and original in design and look.

The last structure we will study is another by architect Frank Lloyd Wright. This pioneer of the first half of the 20th century continued to have a strong influence on architecture into the second half. Even at the height of modernism, he continued to develop original and creative structures. One of his later works is the design for the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York.

Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum
✚


Title: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum; Architect: Frank Lloyd Wright; Date: 1943-1959
The design is based on a circle which slowly spirals out. Wright originally battled with critics about this design. It was only after a great deal of criticism that this building received praise. The building does function as a museum, contrary to the fears of those who worried the building would overshadow the art, and the galleries spiral gently around an inclined walkway. The galleries are lit by askylight strip which is placed around the structure in a spiral. Whether seen from inside or out, the structure gives the viewer the sense that the building is turning in on itself. For the person walking inside, the design of the interior gives a sense of a sheltered, secure environment, away from the busy outside world of the city.


Listen to this lesson
Twentieth-Century Photography
Photography has been around for less than two hundred years. It was invented around 1822, when Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce made the first permanent photographic image. After this, he began working with Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, the man who designed the first camera. After ten years of study and experimentation, the daguerreotype was invented. Named for Daguerre, a daguerreotype is a photographic image created using a mixture of silver and chalk, which darkens when exposed to light. After the daguerreotype was presented publicly, William Henry Fox Talbot, a man who had quietly done his own work in the field of photography, completed the research on his own photographic method. Rather than a mixture of silver and chalk, Talbot used a paper negative. Since the ground-breaking research done by these men, there has been great research and testing in this field. This has led to the advanced methods we have today.

Several notable photographers emerged early in the 20th century. One of them was Eugène Atget. Atget was a French photographer, and most of his works document Paris street scenes and architecture. After finishing his education, Atget spent some time as a sailor and cabin boy on transatlantic liners. After several voyages, he tried a career in acting without much success. He then turned to photography, buying his first camera in the mid-1890s. Even after he began to gain some attention as a photographer, he continued depicting the lower class and working people of Paris. Over his career, he took more than 10,000 pictures of people and sights in Paris.

During this time, it was common for artists to paint scenes from photographs, and Atget capitalized on this. He advertised his photographs as documents for artists’ use. Here we can see his photograph Shop Front of ‘Courone d’or,’ Quai Bourbon, Paris.

Shop Front of Courone dor Quai Bourbon
✚


Title: Shop Front of “Courone d’or,” Quai Bourbon, Paris; Artist: Eugene Atget; Date: 1922
This photograph was taken about five years before his death. Atget knew this little shop well. He also knew that Paris was changing a great deal at that time and that the shop would likely change completely within the next ten years. He used his camera to capture this well-known image, and thus preserved the shop in memory even as it changed drastically in reality.

The next photographic artist we will look at is Alfred Stieglitz. Stieglitz was an American photographer who was key in turning photography into an important and acceptable art form. Before it was mostly considered a scientific method of copying an image. He backed up this belief in photography-as-art by publishing the magazine Camera Work. He also supported his contemporaries in American photography by showing their works in his New York galleries. We will look at one of his best known works, The Steerage. It was taken in 1907 while he was on a trip to Europe.

The Steerage
✚


Title: The Steerage; Artist: Alfred Stieglitz; Date: 1907
This photograph realistically captures the images of people on a ship. Like many of Stieglitz’s works, it presents an inherent balance and composition of forms. The photo also effectively communicates the feeling of a voyage. The composition and underlying shapes tell the story. There is drama in the human stories this photograph tells. Even today, we can sense the differences in the comfort and quality of life of the people below the deck in steerage, and those observing from the upper deck.

The last photographer we will discuss in this lesson is Ansel Adams. Adams is famous for his black-and-white photographs depicting nature and the American West. Adams was born to an upper-class family. As a youth, Adams studied music and was a skilled pianist, but found his true artistic outlet in photography. He took his first photographs during a visit to Yosemite National Park with his family. His father gave him a Kodak Brownie box camera, which the 14-year-old Ansel was eager to use. His interest in and skill with photography grew until he became a master of photographic technology. He could record the tiniest details in sharp focus through his use of small lens openings. We can see here one of his works showing great detail and beautiful arrangement. This is his In Zion National Park.

In Zion National Park
✚


Title: In Zion National Park; Artist: Ansel Adams; Date: 1941

Listen to this lesson
Twentieth-Century Photography
The next photographer we will study is August Sander. Sander was a German photographer who specialized in portraits and documentary photographs. Sander was the son of a carpenter working in the mining industry. Sander was first introduced to photography while working at a nearby mine through helping a photographer working for the mining company. Sander later purchased his own camera and darkroom equipment with financial help from his uncle. A darkroom is a work area completely sealed off to eliminate light. Processing film at that time required darkrooms because exposing the film to light during processing could ruin the photos. Sander’s time in the military was spent as a photographer’s assistant. He then began working for a photo studio. Sander was interested in photographing people from a wide variety of classes and backgrounds. He is perhaps best known for his book Face of Our Time, published in 1929. This book included sixty portraits of ordinary German citizens during the rise of the Nazis. Most copies of the book were taken by the Nazis in 1936, but Sander later had the book reprinted from the negatives he was able to save.

We will next look at a work by Dorothea Lange. Lange was one of the best documentary photographers and photojournalists in America. She is best known for her work during the Depression. Lange began her photographic career in New York and later opened a portrait studio in San Francisco. When the Great Depression began, she turned her attention from studio work to recording the images of the world around her. She was employed by the government to photograph migrant workers in California. The purpose of these photographs was to make the public and the government aware of the sad living conditions of these migrant workers and their families. Her best-known photograph is Migrant Mother, Nipomo Valley, which was taken in 1936.

Migrant Mother
✚


Title: Migrant Mother; Artist: Dorothea Lange; Date: 1936; Courtesy of Library of Congress, FSA 8b29516
This moving image shows a worn mother whose worried expression shows her concern for her children and herself. A baby lies nestled in her lap, and two older children cling to her, hiding their faces from the camera. Newspapers across the nation printed Lange's photos, bringing the struggle of these poor and forgotten people to the attention of the public.

The last photographer we will study is Man Ray. Born Emmanuel Radnitzky in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he changed his name to Man Ray for his artistic work. He worked in a variety of artistic forms, but is perhaps best known for his painting and photography work. From the time he gained respect as an artist until his death, Man Ray did not reveal much about his childhood or family background. He denied ever having any name but Man Ray. It is known that he was the son of a garment factory worker. His father also ran a small tailoring business in the family’s home. His mother made many of the family’s clothes from her own designs. Despite his later attempts to remove himself from his background, many of his works show objects associated with his parents’ occupations and interests. Even his collage and painting techniques have similarities to techniques used for making clothing. We can see that in this photograph, titled Cadeau.

Cadeau
✚


Title: Cadeau; Artist: Man Ray; Date: 1958
The object shown is made of a flatiron, used for ironing clothing and fabric, with tacks attached to it. The French word cadeau translates to "gift," a title seeming to be at odds with this object. The heat of the iron and the sharpness of the tacks suggests an idea of violence. Man Ray created the original object, which was given as a gift to composer Eric Satie. Although the object itself is lost, it has become well-known through Man Ray’s photograph of it.