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Eritrea (African Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Human settlement in Eritrea stretches back at least 10,000 years with tools discovered in the Barka Valley dating from 8000 BCE and cave paintings in Akele Guzai and Sahel from 6000 BCE. Egyptian trading expeditions reached the coast in 2500 BCE, which some scholars cite as the location of the ancient land of Punt. For nearly 1,400 years, starting in the 9th century BCE, the Red Sea port of Adulis was the center of a thriving regional trade, first as an independent city-state and later as the primary outlet for the inland empire of Axum. With Axum’s decline in the 7th century, the territory fell under a shifting succession of local rulers and invading armies, culminating with the establishment of a coastal enclave by the Ottoman Turks in the 16th century. Eritrea’s modern history has been marked by conflict, complexity, and controversy from the time its borders were determined on the battlefield between Italian and Abyssinian forces in the 1890s to its recognition as a state at the end of a thirty-year war for independence that pitted the nationalists, themselves divided among competing factions, against both US-backed and Soviet-backed Ethiopian regimes. Since then Eritrea has clashed with each of its neighbors, climaxing with a border war with Ethiopia in 1998–2000 after which it slid into repression and autocracy. It has nevertheless survived as a state, relying largely on its diaspora for support, even as it has produced a disproportionate share of the region’s refugees (some of these refugees fell victim to brutal trafficking schemes in neighboring states). This tempestuous history is reflected in the literature, much of it skewed by the loyalties or predilections of its authors; however, a growing body of well-researched scholarship covers the nation’s origins and its ongoing challenges and tribulations. The focus of this article is on key developments in Eritrea’s political, economic, and social development as a nation-state and includes sources from diverse perspectives to reflect the debates over competing narratives. Eritrean authors are listed by first name.
  3. General Overviews
  4. These sources, updated regularly, provide information on political and economic affairs. Lansford 2015 offers insights into contemporary political affairs. The CIA World Factbook: Eritrea is a good source on population, government, and economy, along with other basic data. Economist Intelligence Unit: Country Report Eritrea provides information on economic issues, as does World Bank 2016. United Nations Development Programme 2015 uses a broad range of social and economic indicators to assess the condition of the population.
  5. CIA World Factbook: Eritrea. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency.
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  7. A reliable source for basic information on the economy, geography, and the current government in Eritrea.
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  9.  
  10. Economist Intelligence Unit: Country Report Eritrea. London: Economist Intelligence Unit.
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  12. A regularly updated and useful resource for general information on Eritrea and detailed information on the economy.
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  14.  
  15. Lansford, Tom. “Eritrea.” In Political Handbook of the World 2015. By Tom Lansford, 456–461. Thousand Oaks, CA: CQ, 2015.
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  17. Provides a comprehensive overview of government and politics in Eritrea, including a list of opposition parties and government ministers. Available online.
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  19.  
  20. United Nations Development Programme. “Human Development Index: Eritrea 2015.” New York: United Nations Development Programme, 2015.
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  22. Reviews human development trends by factoring in such social indicators as life expectancy at birth, education, health, literacy, and gender participation as well as national income and economic growth.
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  24.  
  25. World Bank. “Eritrea Home: World Bank.” Washington, DC: World Bank, 2016.
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  27. Provides an overview of the economy and current development challenges with current available data.
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  29.  
  30. Reference Works
  31. Great Britain Foreign Office 1920 and Habtu 1993 contain important historical documents, while Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution 1991 offers a road map for key events leading up to Eritrea’s independence. The collections Research and Information Center on Eritrea 1979 and Research and Information Center on Eritrea 1986 provide insights into Eritrea in the late 1970s and early 1980s and how the media was covering (or not covering) it. Uhlig 2003–2014 covers a vast number of personalities, issues, and historical events from ancient history to the recent past.
  32. Great Britain Foreign Office. Handbook on Eritrea. London: H. M. Stationary Office, 1920.
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  34. Written under the direction of the British Historical Section of the Foreign Office in 1920 in preparation for the “Peace Conference.” Includes maps and geographical, historical, economic, social, and religious, and political background on Eritrea.
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  36.  
  37. Habtu Ghebre-ab. Ethiopia and Eritrea: A Documentary Study. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea, 1993.
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  39. A collection of key documents related to the root causes of the conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea. Includes analysis of documents and an explanatory introduction.
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  41.  
  42. Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution. Chronology of Conflict Resolution Initiatives in Eritrea. Fairfax, VA: George Mason University, 1991.
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  44. A detailed chronology of major developments in modern Eritrean history from the 1870s to 1991, this offers useful commentaries on the chronicled events with a comprehensive index that makes it an even more accessible and useful reference source.
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  46.  
  47. Research and Information Center on Eritrea. Revolution in Eritrea: Eyewitness Reports. 2d ed. Brussels: Le Comité belge de Secours à l’Erythrée, 1979.
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  49. The first of a series of anthologies on Eritrea published by the semi-official research arm of the EPLF and reprinted by a Belgian solidarity committee. Includes newspaper and magazine articles in English and French from the European and North American press on the war and the 1978 strategic withdrawal.
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  51.  
  52. Research and Information Center on Eritrea. War and Drought in Eritrea: A Collection of Clippings from Various English Language Newspapers and Magazines, 1984–1985. Rome: Research and Information Center on Eritrea, 1986.
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  54. This is a collection of print media coverage in English on the drought and famine in Eritrea between 1984 and 1985 compiled by the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front’s Rome-based research center.
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  56.  
  57. Uhlig, Siegbert, ed. Encyclopedia Aethiopica. 5 vols. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz Verlag, 2003–2014.
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  59. A four-volume set that carries more than 5,000 entries on the territory of the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia) from prehistoric times to 1974, drawn from a wide range of disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, the arts, geography, history, literature, and religion as well as the natural sciences. Indexed and with maps and illustrations.
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  61.  
  62. Conference Proceedings
  63. Gebre Hiwet Tesfagiorgis 1993 presents a range of ideas from the liberation front and the diaspora on Eritrea’s economic prospects at the point of independence. National Union of Eritrean Women 2002 provides a rare instance of critical scholarship and debate on gender issues within postcolonial Eritrea. Tekeste 2007 is valuable as much for its insights into new Eritrean scholarship as for its historical information, which is extensive and unavailable elsewhere.
  64. Gebre Hiwet Tesfagiorgis, ed. Emergent Eritrea: Challenges of Economic Development. Papers presented at a conference on economic policy options for Eritrea held on 22–24 July 1991 at the University of Asmara. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea, 1993.
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  66. An edited collection of papers from a conference on economic policy in Asmara. Explores potential frameworks to meet postwar development challenges.
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  68.  
  69. National Union of Eritrean Women. The Proceedings of the 20th Anniversary Conference of the National Union of Eritrean Women: November 27–29, 1999, Asmara, Eritrea. Asmara, Eritrea: National Union of Eritrean Women, 2002.
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  71. Includes summaries of fourteen presentations by members of the women’s union and local and foreign scholars and eight full-length papers that survey the historical position of women, their role in the liberation fronts, the challenges in post-independence Eritrea, and strategies for future social change. Includes the union’s self-assessment for the decade since the independence war.
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  73.  
  74. Tekeste, Melake, ed. Proceedings of a Workshop on Aspects of Eritrean History, 20–21 September 2005, Asmara. Asmara, Eritrea: Hidri, 2007.
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  76. A collection of research essays by young Eritrean historians on a wide range of topics from monastic history and translation of the Bible to Tigrinya to the problem of banditry in Eritrea, the emergence of Eritrean national sentiment, and topics in the history of armed struggle. These essays were first presented at a workshop on Eritrean history and historiography.
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  78.  
  79. Bibliographies
  80. Kassahun 1975 provides a useful list of early literature on Eritrea. AfricaBib is one of the most comprehensive sources for articles in a wide range of periodicals, and Connell and Killion 2010 has an extensive cross-referenced book list organized by theme. Abbink 2010 includes a number of studies not listed elsewhere. Yoh 1998 provides a roadmap for publications on Christianity in Eritrea.
  81. Abbink, Jan. A Bibliography of Ethiopian-Eritrean Studies in Society and History, 1995–2010. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa, 2010.
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  83. Covers a fifteen-year period during which the literature on the two countries grew exponentially. The main focus is on Ethiopian studies but lists titles on the development of the Eritrean state and studies of migration and diaspora communities.
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  85.  
  86. AfricaBib.
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  88. The Africana Periodical Literature Bibliographic Database (AfricaBib), based in Leiden, The Netherlands, lists close to 700 scholarly articles on Eritrea from a wide range of social science databases.
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  90.  
  91. Connell, Dan, and Tom Killion. Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. 2d ed. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2010.
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  93. An accessible historical reference of alphabetized entries, from Eritrea’s early encounters with Christianity (4th century) and Islam (7th century) to the formation of the modern nation-state under a succession of colonial powers, its thirty-year war for independence, and its emergence as an independent country. Describes Eritrea’s numerous post-independence conflicts and crises and identifies key players. Includes a seventy-five-page bibliography organized by time period and theme.
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  95.  
  96. Kassahun Checole. “Eritrea: A Preliminary Bibliography.” Africana Journal 6 (1975): 303–314.
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  98. A seventeen-page bibliography divided into three parts: documents and items from and relating to the colonial era; political writings and journalistic reports from the 1970s; brief accounts, original documents, and warfront reports from the Eritrean Liberation Front.
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  100.  
  101. Yoh, John Gay. Christianity in Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Annotated Bibliography. Amman, Jordan: Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies, 1998.
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  103. Extensive list of published and unpublished works on Christianity in the region with an introduction on the history and practices of the Orthodox Church, the Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Seventh-Day Adventist Church.
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  105.  
  106. Journals
  107. Eritrean Studies Review, published externally, and Journal of Eritrean Studies, published in Asmara, together provide research and commentary from a variety of perspectives, many of them by Eritrean authors, though each has appeared intermittently. Aethiopica: Journal of Ethiopian and Eritrean Studies offers articles from a wide range of disciplines on historical and current topics. Review of African Political Economy carries peer-reviewed articles as well as topical briefings and debates. Africa Confidential offers information and commentary often unavailable through traditional media.
  108. Aethiopica: International Journal of Ethiopian and Eritrean Studies. 1998–.
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  110. A multidisciplinary journal first published in 1998 as the Journal of Ethiopian Studies and since 2002 as Ethiopian and Eritrean Studies that covers a wide range of topics on the Horn of Africa, both historical and contemporary, whose archives are available on open access.
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  112.  
  113. Africa Confidential.
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  115. A fortnightly subscription newsletter that provides analysis of political, military, and economic events and trends in Eritrea.
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  117.  
  118. Eritrean Studies Review. 1996–2007.
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  120. A publication of the Eritrean Studies Association that produced five volumes between 1996 and 2007 before a hiatus triggered by political differences among its editors and within ESA.
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  122.  
  123. Journal of Eritrean Studies. 2004–2006, 2012–present.
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  125. The first journal published by the University of Asmara after independence, with five volumes from 2004–2006 on history, culture, politics, economy, society, environment, languages, and related methodologies; reappeared in 2012 as a biannual journal of Eritrea’s College of Arts and Social Sciences.
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  127.  
  128. Review of African Political Economy. 1974–present
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  130. A quarterly journal published in Sheffield, United Kingdom since 1974 that frequently offers analysis of social, economic, and political issues in Eritrea as well as book reviews and review essays.
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  132.  
  133. Current Events Sources
  134. Eritrean media are state controlled and include television, radio, and newspapers in indigenous languages and English, accessible through Shabait: Ministry of Information. Dehai, a diaspora-based site, is an aggregator of reportage mostly favorable to the government. The best opposition sites are Asmarino, Assenna, and Awate. The best source for reporting on Eritrea by African and foreign media is Africa News. The UN Information Network (IRIN) is a good source for stories and analysis on social and economic issues.
  135. Africa News.
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  137. A US-based global news aggregator drawing from more than 130 African sources that also produces original news and commentary.
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  139.  
  140. Afrol.
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  142. An Africa-based news agency that operates with Norwegian support.
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  144.  
  145. Asmarino.
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  147. A California-based, diaspora-run site launched in 1997 that streams interviews, online forums and radio broadcasts, while archiving articles and radio and television programs appearing elsewhere, often critical of the Eritrean government.
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  149.  
  150. Assenna.
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  152. A London-based, diaspora-run site founded in 2007 that produces print publications and radio broadcasts, while providing links with other diaspora-based civic organizations and media outlets critical of the Eritrean government.
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  154.  
  155. Awate.
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  157. A diaspora-run site that posts historical documents and interviews with political actors and other commentators, while providing links to other information sources, political parties, and civic organizations based outside the country and opposed to the government in Asmara.
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  159.  
  160. Dehai.
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  162. The main pro-government diaspora-run website. Aggregates a wide range of reportage and commentary on Eritrea on a daily basis.
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  164.  
  165. IRIN.
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  167. A news agency run by the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (IRIN), launched in 1995, provides original news and commentary on humanitarian issues.
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  169.  
  170. People’s Front for Democracy and Justice.
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  172. The website for the ruling party, which carries articles, interviews, and commentaries, as well as party documents.
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  174.  
  175. Shabait: Ministry of Information.
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  177. The Eritrean government’s primary web outlet, hosting the Hadas Eritra, Hadith, and Eritrea Profile newspapers, EriTV broadcasts, and press releases and reports from the Eritrean News Agency (EriNa).
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  179.  
  180. Historical Background
  181. This section is divided into seven parts. The first includes periods of conquest and administration by the Ottoman Turks, the Egyptians, and a succession of Abyssinian lords and monarchs. The next three cover the colonial occupations of Italy, Britain, and Ethiopia, with a fifth on the war for independence, one on the period following statehood, and one on the 1998–2000 Eritrea-Ethiopia border war. See also Politics and Government.
  182. Precolonial
  183. Schmidt, et al. 2007 presents archaeological research since independence on Eritrea’s history from the earliest evidence of human settlement to the Ottoman Turkish invasion in the 16th century. Bowersock 2013 situates Eritrea’s roots in the early Christian era. Sabbe 1974 offers a sweeping overview of its evolving identity in response to external interventions. Miran 2007 and Reid 2007 focuses on the territory in the period leading to the Italian conquest. For more on early history of Axum and Ethiopia, see the separate Oxford Bibliographies Online articles “Northeastern African States, c. 1000 CE–1800 CE, Ethiopia”, and “African Christianity.”
  184. Bowersock, Glen W. Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
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  186. With its political capital at Axum (present-day Ethiopia) and its commercial capital at Adulis (present-day Eritrea), the Adulite-Aksumite Kingdom was for the seven centuries of the Christian era a potent regional force with far-reaching alliances. This book revives the discussion about its military operations in Yemen when the Arab-Jewish ruler of Himyar massacred Christians at Najran in 523 CE.
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  188.  
  189. Miran, Jonathan. “Power without Pashas: the Anatomy of Na’ib Autonomy in Ottoman Eritrea, 17th–19th c.” Eritrean Studies Review 5.1 (2007): 33–88.
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  191. Uncovers the history of the 19th-century port city of Massawa in Eritrea on the Red Sea as one of the key shipping centers in northeastern Africa. Miran also notes the important social, material, religious, and cultural exchanges that occurred within the city and how those exchanges influenced the development of the Horn of Africa.
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  193.  
  194. Reid, Richard. “Defining Frontiers: Violence and Identity in Nineteenth-Century Eritrea.” Eritrean Studies Review 5.1 (2007): 1–31.
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  196. Analyzes 19th-century Eritrea as a frontier territory and examines the role of violence in reinforcing existing identities and the emergence of new identities. Deals with northward expansion of Ethiopian polities and their treatment of Eritreans as rebellious or ungovernable and the socioeconomic effects of their military operations on the highland Eritrean society.
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  198.  
  199. Sabbe, Othman Saleh. Tarikh al-Irytriyya. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Mesira, 1974.
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  201. The earliest comprehensive attempt toward Eritrean nationalist historiography that shows Eritrea going through a centuries-long chain of colonialism from the Ottomans to the Ethiopians. Shows Eritrea’s historicity in a bid to challenge the Ethiopian doctrine of millennial history.
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  203.  
  204. Schmidt, P., M. C. Curtis, and Zelalem Teka. The Archaeology of Ancient Eritrea. Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 2007.
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  206. An anthology of research conducted after independence by scholars from Eritrea, Europe, and the United States whose focus ranges from the earliest human settlement to the rise of urban centers and the cultural complexity that has characterized the region.
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  208.  
  209. Italian Colonization, 1890–1941
  210. Tekeste 1987 offers a detailed account of Italian colonization and its impacts on Eritrea. Zaccaria 2007 examines Italy’s economic interests there. Jordan Gebremedhin 1983 and Uoldelul 2004 focus on Italy’s impact on rural and urban populations, respectively. Zemhret 2010a and Zemhret 2010b situate this in a regional context and recount Eritrean resistance to it.
  211. Jordan Gebremedhin. “European Colonial Rule and the Transformation of Eritrean Rural Life.” Horn of Africa 6.2 (1983): 50–60.
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  213. Addresses the impact of capitalist colonialism on the peasantry with special consideration for its role in developing Eritrean nationalism. Divided into three sections, covering the results of Italian colonization on Eritrean labor, breakdown of the traditional production process and subsequent radicalization of the peasantry, and peasant revolts and Ethiopian interference with the peasant population.
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  215.  
  216. Tekeste Negash. Italian Colonialism in Eritrea, 1882–1941: Policies, Praxis and Impact. Uppsala, Sweden: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1987.
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  218. Makes extensive uses of Italian colonial archives to write a history of the Italian colonial period. Author focuses on the development of Eritrean national consciousness as it was (or was not) influenced by Italian colonization.
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  220.  
  221. Uoldelul Chelati Dirar. “From Warriors to Urban Dwellers: ‘Ascari’ and the Military Factor in the Urban Development of Colonial Eritrea.” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 44 (2004): 533–574.
  222. DOI: 10.4000/etudesafricaines.4717Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. Discusses the development of Eritrean towns under Italian rule and examines the role of the military in urbanization. Argues that the major urban centers that emerged in this period developed around military fortresses and had defensibility as a principal driving force. Also shows that the Eritrean colonial soldiers, i.e., ascari, were important intermediaries of Italian urbanizing strategies.
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  225.  
  226. Zaccaria, Massimo. “Italian Approaches to Economic Resources in the Red Sea Region.” Eritrean Studies Review 5.1 (2007): 113–155.
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  228. Examines Italian perceptions of economic resources in Eritrea in the last half of the 1800s as a basis for its interest in the territory. Includes narrative accounts of successive expeditions and analysis of Italian efforts to take control of trade in salt, pearls, and mother-of-pearl.
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  230.  
  231. Zemhret Yohannes. Italyawi Megzaeti ab Ertra. Asmara, Eritrea: Hidri, 2010a.
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  233. Offers an extensive account of Italian colonialism in Eritrea from the wider context of intra-European rivalries to local northeastern African countries competing for external alliances and protection. It examines the dynamics of colonialism administration—(bureaucracy, infrastructure, education)—and Italy’s socioeconomic policies that gave to Eritrea a unified modern identity as a polity. Translated as “Italian colonialism in Eritrea.”
  234. Find this resource:
  235.  
  236. Zemhret Yohannes. Mekhete Antsar Italyawi Megzaeti ab Ertra. Asmara, Eritrea: Hidri, 2010b.
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  238. Describes how many Eritrean leaders and communities sought Italian protection from Ethiopian (Tigrayan) and Sudanese (Mahdist) fighting in their territories. Challenges accusations of Eritrean acceptance of Italian colonialism by showing that Eritreans resisted, albeit in a nonunified manner, first in the form of civil disobedience before turning violent. Translated as “Resistance against Italian colonialism in Eritrea.”
  239. Find this resource:
  240.  
  241. British Administration, 1941–1952
  242. Trevaskis 1975 is the classic text on Great Britain’s military and civilian administrations and the blossoming of Eritrean civil and political society during the 1940s. Alemseged 2001 documents the rise of Eritrean nationalism and the sophistication of Eritrea’s emerging political institutions and social movements. See also the separate Oxford Bibliographies Online article “British Colonial Rule in Sub-Saharan Africa.”
  243. Alemseged, Tesfai. Aynefelale: Eritrea, 1941–1950. Asmara, Eritrea: Hidri, 2001.
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  245. Documents Eritrean history from World War II and the Italian defeat, to the UN decision to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia. Draws from extensive interviews with living participants and archives in Eritrea, the united States, and Europe and analyzes the development of organized politics in modern Eritrea and the political thinking of Eritrean actors, and their shifting positions in the face of Ethiopian manipulation and superpower geostrategic interests.
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  247.  
  248. Trevaskis, Gerald K. N. Eritrea: A Colony in Transition, 1941–1952. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1975.
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  250. Covers the transition from the British caretaker administration in 1941 until the federation with Ethiopia in 1952. The author served in the British administration and participated in numerous commissions regarding Eritrea’s future. Includes four maps. Originally published in 1960 (London: Oxford University Press).
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  252.  
  253. Federation and Ethiopian Annexation, 1952–1991
  254. Bereket 1989 situates the Ethiopian takeover of Eritrea in an international political and legal context. Zewde n.d. recounts how these events were perceived in Ethiopian ruling circles, while Alemseged 2005 provides the perspective on these events from within Eritrea. Tekabo 1995includes a wealth of documents from one of the most important Eritrean actors in the 1940 and 1950s, Weldeab Weldemariam. For this and succeeding periods, see also the separate Oxford Bibliographies article in African Studies “Ethiopia.”
  255. Alemseged Tesfai. Federation Ertra ms Ityopiya: Kab Matienzo kesab Tedla, 1951–1955. Asmara, Eritrea: Hidri, 2005.
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  257. Presents an Eritrean perspective on the innerworkings of the Eritrea-Ethiopia Federation through the tenure of the first chief executive, Tedla Bairu, and documents the conflict between nascent Eritrean representative institutions and the Ethiopian crown up to the latter’s victory. Captures the vibrancy of the independent press and analyzes the emergence of intra-Eritrean provincial rivalries.
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  259.  
  260. Bereket Habte Selassie. Eritrea and the United Nations and Other Essays. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1989.
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  262. Analyzes Eritrea in the context of the United Nations and other international institutions, including the World Bank, by looking at specific treaties and their implications. Explores issues such as self-determination, prospects for peace, the international legal order, and the role of the Western powers with respect to Eritrea.
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  264.  
  265. Tekabo Arese’e. Merutsat ‘Anqetsate Ato Weldeab, 1941–1991. Asmara, Eritrea: Hidri, 1995.
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  267. A reproduction of writings, correspondence, and speeches of the founding Eritrean patriot, Weldeab Weldemariam, from the 1940s to the 1980s. Most are self-initiated but some are responses or rebuttals. From the earliest meta-histories of peoples and nations to more specific articulations on pressing issues of his time to canvassing for the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM) in 1963 and the defense of the gains made by the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF) in 1987, the collection captures the evolution of his political philosophy from conciliatory pacifism to condoning, if not actively advocating, violence. Translated as “selected articles of Mr. Weldeab Weldemarian.”
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  269.  
  270. Zewde Retta. Ye-Ertra Guday Be-Qedamawi Haile Selassie Zemene-Menghist, 1941–1963. n.p., n.d.
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  272. Presents an Ethiopian perspective on Haile Selassie’s successful bid to gain control of Eritrea and what followed; based on extensive research, proximity to important personalities such as Ethiopian foreign minister Aklilu Habte Wold, and personal knowledge. The author reveals that Ethiopian rulers who sought unconditional merger to have accepted federation because they had no choice; however, Zewde argues that Eritreans undermined the pact. No publication information listed but available in Addis Ababa bookstores.
  273. Find this resource:
  274.  
  275. Liberation War, 1961–1991
  276. Cliffe and Davidson 1988 tackles legal and political issues with regard to Eritrea’s independence war. Pateman 1990 focuses on military and political aspects. Connell 1997 provides a personal account of the war from 1976 through independence. Awet 2009 zeroes in on the 1978 “strategic withdrawal,” by the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF) a key turning point. Futsum 2001 recounts the experience of the EPLF’s “Revolution school.” Nharnet Team 2005 recounts the history of the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) army. Dawit 1989 narrates the 1984–1985 famine and relief effort from the perspective of a high-ranking Ethiopian official. Alamin 2002 provides an insider account of mostly failed peace talks.
  277. Alamin Mohammed Said. Hidget Zeyefiqid Mesel. Asmara, Eritrea: Hidri, 2002.
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  279. Recounts peace talks between Eritrean nationalists (mainly EPLF, later the government) and successive Ethiopian regimes, including ten secret meetings in the 1980s, the Carter initiatives, pre-independence talks mediated by the US assistant secretary of state for Africa, and the negotiations leading to the Algiers Accord that ended the 1998–2000 border conflict. The author argues that the government of Eritrea, like the EPLF, pursued a right to sovereignty that did made no allowance for compromise. Originally written in Arabic but released in Tigrinya.
  280. Find this resource:
  281.  
  282. Awet Tewelde Weldemichael. “The Eritrean Long March: The Withdrawal of the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front, 1978–1979.” Journal of Military History 73.4 (October 2009): 1231–1271.
  283. DOI: 10.1353/jmh.0.0423Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  284. Discusses the epic withdrawals of the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front in the face of large-scale Ethiopian offensives backed by the Soviet Union. Using primary documents from both sides and extensive interviews, the author examines the tactical and strategic moves and calculations of both sides and their long-term effects on the prospects of Eritrean independence.
  285. Find this resource:
  286.  
  287. Cliffe, Lionel, and Basil Davidson, eds. The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1988.
  288. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  289. Nine Eritrea scholars look into the origins, dynamics, and effects of the struggle for independence within the context of northeastern African history. Addresses the legality of Eritrea’s claim to independence, assesses the liberation strategy, reflects on human rights violations and the impact of famine, and concludes with a discussion of the next steps.
  290. Find this resource:
  291.  
  292. Connell, Dan. Against All Odds: A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1997.
  293. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  294. A journalistic account of Eritrea’s independence war from 1976 to 1991 mainly with respect to the EPLF: from the capture of urban and rural areas in the 1970s and the subsequent 1978 withdrawal to the mid-1980s famine and victory in 1991. Describes the EPLF’s efforts to promote social, economic, and political reforms and surveys the challenges facing the state in the 1990s. An afterword assesses the attempt to translate wartime experience into development strategies.
  295. Find this resource:
  296.  
  297. Dawit Wolde Giorgis. Red Tears: War, Famine and Revolution in Ethiopia. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1989.
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  299. The author served as the deputy head of Ethiopia’s Relief and Rehabilitation Commission after the overthrow of the Haile Selassie regime in the mid-1970s and then as chief administrator for Eritrea in the early 1980s. This book, written after he sought asylum in the United States, assesses his experiences, addressing the famine during the mid-1980s and the aftermath of the revolution.
  300. Find this resource:
  301.  
  302. Futsum Tesfamariam. “Reba’e.” In Kab Qiyatat Fitewrari: Temeharo Bet-Temherti Sewra. Asmara, Eritrea: Zara Clearing, Brokerage and Desktop, 2001.
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  304. Written by a former student, this book describes EPLF’s “Revolution School” in its rear base that from 1977 served the children of civilian supporters and fighters. Graduates were assigned to EPLF departments and fighting forces. Includes battlefield stories and photographs, including withdrawal to a safer location in the 1978 Ethiopian offensive.
  305. Find this resource:
  306.  
  307. Nharnet Team. From the Experiences of the Eritrean Liberation Army (ELA), 2005.
  308. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  309. An eight-part series by ELF veterans on the experience of the ELF’s liberation army from 1964 to the civil war with EPLF in 1980 and the ELF’s break into contending factions in 1981.
  310. Find this resource:
  311.  
  312. Pateman, Roy. Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1990.
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  314. A survey of Eritrea’s liberation struggle focuses on the role of the military, the complexities of the struggle with Ethiopia, the impact of famine on the population, and the political beliefs that infused the independence movement. Includes a discussion of US policy toward Eritrea as well as insights on the post-independent state.
  315. Find this resource:
  316.  
  317. Postcolonial Period, 1991–Present
  318. Wrong 2005 provides insight into the EPLF’s years as an isolated guerrilla movement and its impact on current policy. O’Kane 2015 examines the core issues of identity, land, and power. Bozzini 2012 examines the role of surveillance in sustaining the state. International Crisis Group 2010 situates Eritrea’s human rights record in a legacy of militarism and authoritarianism; International Crisis Group 2013 outlines options for political transition. Reid 2009 is the best guide available to understanding and predicting Eritrea’s regional behavior.
  319. Bozzini, David. “Low-Tech Surveillance and the Despotic State in Eritrea.” Surveillance and Society 9.1–2 (2012): 93–113.
  320. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  321. Documents the increasing use of surveillance mechanisms to prevent defection; argues that the surveillance apparatus reproduces uncertainties, fears, beliefs, and expectations at the coercive core of the national service and contribute to the perpetuation of a despotic modality of governance.
  322. Find this resource:
  323.  
  324. International Crisis Group. “Eritrea: The Siege State.” Africa Report no. 163 (21 September 2010). Brussels: International Crisis Group, 2010.
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  326. A concise reprise of recent Eritrean history that seeks to explicate the roots of its authoritarianism, with sections on the militarized state, the “war” economy, and Eritrea’s regional relations.
  327. Find this resource:
  328.  
  329. International Crisis Group. “Eritrea: Scenarios for Future Transition.” Africa Report no. 207 (28 March 2013). Brussels: International Crisis Group, 2013.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Outlines six potential scenarios for regime transition in Eritrea, warns of increased regional instability in the event of a chaotic transition, and urges greater international support for political mediation and attention to the country’s post-conflict socioeconomic needs.
  332. Find this resource:
  333.  
  334. O’Kane, David. An Eritrean Village Reacts to Land Reform. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, 2015.
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  336. A case study of the highland village of Embaderho that provides a window into the relationship between old and new identities, between these identities and land, and between land and power in the years following the border war with Ethiopia.
  337. Find this resource:
  338.  
  339. Reid, Richard J., ed. Eritrea’s External Relations: Understanding Its Regional Role and Foreign Policy. London: Chatham House, 2009.
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  341. Assesses Eritrea’s foreign relations especially as they pertain to the stability or instability of the Horn of Africa. Includes contributions from six experts who examine the relationship between Eritrea and Sudan, US policy toward Eritrea, the shortfalls of Eritrea’s foreign policy, and the impact of the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front and the People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) on Eritrea’s regional strategy.
  342. Find this resource:
  343.  
  344. Wrong, Michela. I Didn’t Do It for You: How the World Betrayed a Small African Nation. New York: HarperCollins, 2005.
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  346. Recounts the long line of foreign interference from Italy, Great Britain, Ethiopia, the Soviet Union, the United States, and others and the impact this had on both the worldview of the EPLF and the PFDJ. The author argues that the present government’s diffidence and mistrust stem from its lengthy isolation during the independence war.
  347. Find this resource:
  348.  
  349. Eritrea-Ethiopia Border War, 1998–2000
  350. Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission 2002 defines the outcome of the border arbitration process set up after the war. Murphy, et al. 2013 assesses the companion process of claims settlement. Tekie 2002 provides topical coverage of the war as it was unfolding from various Eritrean perspectives, while Jacquin-Berdal and Plaut 2005 offers critical perspectives following the cessation of the war and the border adjudication process. Ruth 2001 analyzses the conflict from the standpoint of the asymmetric origins of the two states, while Tekeste and Kjetil 2000 focuses on the differences between the political movements controlling them. Mosley 2014 suggests that new opportunities exist for tamping down the tensions between them.
  351. Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission. “Decision Regarding Delimitation of the Border between the State of Eritrea and the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.” 13 April 2002.
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  353. The judgment of a five-member commission set up in December 2000 to determine the precise location of the border and end hostilities between the two states, which were committed in advance to accept the outcome as “final and binding.”
  354. Find this resource:
  355.  
  356. Jacquin-Berdal, Dominique, and Martin Plaut, eds. Unfinished Business: Ethiopia and Eritrea at War. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2005.
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  358. A collection of writings from almost a dozen scholars, whose themes cover efforts by the United States to end the war, food insecurity within the two countries, the mission and duties of the United Nations, and attempts at neutrality by Djibouti, among other nations. Includes maps and a detailed appendix.
  359. Find this resource:
  360.  
  361. Mosley, Jason. “Eritrea and Ethiopia: Beyond the Impasse.” London: Chatham House, 2014.
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  363. A briefing paper that argues for increased international engagement with both states to foster improved relations and defuse the conflict between them, starting with confidence-building measures within each country rather than short-term efforts to promote direct dialogue or resolve the border crisis.
  364. Find this resource:
  365.  
  366. Murphy, Sean, Won Kidane, and Thomas Snider. Litigating War: Mass Civil Injury and the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
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  368. Examines the history and legacy of the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission and its legal practices, procedures, and decisions. Also discusses such topics as prisoners of war and battlefield conduct. Includes reproductions of key documents relating to the commission and a detailed table of contents for easy access to relevant treaties and cases.
  369. Find this resource:
  370.  
  371. Ruth Iyob. “The Ethiopian-Eritrean Conflict: Diasporic vs. Hegemonic States in the Horn of Africa, 1991–2000.” Journal of Modern African Studies 38.4 (2001): 569–682.
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  373. Examines interstate relations after Eritrea’s separation from Ethiopia. While partially attributing the border conflict to the failure of the two governments to formalize their amicable relations at independence, the author argues that the conflict has the hallmarks of a clash
  374. Find this resource:
  375.  
  376. Tekeste Negash, and Kjetil Tronvoll. Brothers at War: Making Sense of the Eritrean-Ethiopian War. Oxford: James Currey, 2000.
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  378. The authors seek to understand how two formerly friendly governments spiraled so quickly into war with one another. The two governments’ historical relationship is examined here, as are the complexities of the liberation movements (EPLF and TPLF), and local understandings of the contested border issues. Concludes with a critique of the various peace initiatives. Appendix includes presidential letters, minutes, testimonies, and government reports between Ethiopia’s enduring hegemonic ambitions and the emergent diasporic Eritrean state.
  379. Find this resource:
  380.  
  381. Tekie Fessehatsion. Shattered Illusion, Broken Promise: Essays on the Eritrea-Ethiopia Conflict, 1998–2000. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea, 2002.
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  383. A compilation of articles on the 1998–2000 Eritrean-Ethiopian border conflict as it was unfolding published either on dehai.org or visafric.com (inactive). The forty-four pieces cover the conflict from its purported root causes in the economic falling out between the two governments to the Algiers peace agreement that ended it. Includes useful chronology and index.
  384. Find this resource:
  385.  
  386. Politics and Government
  387. This section is divided into five themed parts, beginning with Eritrea’s emergence as a self-conscious nation, and goes on to examine the often contentious and sometimes violent struggles within the nationalist movement up to and including the current government. See also Historical Background.
  388. Colonial
  389. Redie 2007 situates the rise of Eritrean nationalism within a theoretical and historical framework. Favali and Pateman 2003 focuses on the development of Eritrea’s legal system based on both Italian and customary law. Yohannes 2004 examines the ways this system evolved during and after transition to statehood. Sishagne 2007 interrogates Eritrea-Ethiopian relations to shed light on the development of the nationalist movement. See also the separate Oxford Bibliographies article “Italian Colonial Rule.”
  390. Favali, Lyda, and Roy Pateman. Blood, Land and Sex: Legal and Political Pluralism in Eritrea. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003.
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  392. Based on extensive archival research from Italian documents to Eritrean customary laws, this study examines legal systems in Eritrea under successive colonial systems, the various Eritrean traditional legal systems, and the postwar government’s legal framework. Coverage ranges from land tenure and settlement of feuds to the redress of abuses and the rights of women and their place in the legal systems.
  393. Find this resource:
  394.  
  395. Redie Bereketeab. Eritrea: The Making of a Nation, 1890–1991. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2007.
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  397. Traces the formation of the Eritrean nation through its colonial phases. Argues that these outside forces were central to developing the nationalist movement within Eritrea, which, in turn, were key in creating a sense of Eritrean identity. Also explores and analyzes theories of nation formation.
  398. Find this resource:
  399.  
  400. Sishagne, Shumet. Unionists and Separatists: The Vagaries of Ethio-Eritrean Relations, 1941–1991. Hollywood, CA: Tsehai, 2007.
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  402. A history of the relationship between Ethiopia and Eritrea with a focus on the creation of the Ethio-Eritrean federation in 1952, the development of the Eritrean insurgency, the failures of the Ethiopian government, and the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front’s rise to dominance in the nationalist movement and post-independence Eritrea. Uses both local and foreign archival sources.
  403. Find this resource:
  404.  
  405. Yohannes Gebremedhin. The Challenges of a Society in Transition: Legal Development in Eritrea. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2004.
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  407. Looks at Eritrea as a case study of legal development among societies in transition. Traces Eritrean legal history from the customary laws and colonial legal regimes to independence and examines the legal changes within the overall context of Eritrea’s transition to independent nationhood. It offers extensive coverage of Eritrean land law and its postcolonial development.
  408. Find this resource:
  409.  
  410. Sources of Eritrean Nationalism
  411. Uoldelul 2007 sees Italian Colonization, 1980–1941 as the central determinant of Eritrea’s national identity. Jordan 1989 looks at how European colonialism transformed Eritrea’s peasantry and seeks to debunk Ethiopian dismissals of its national identity. Ruth 1995 examines the rise of the nationalist movements while challenging Ethiopian claims. Ellingson 1986 focuses on the rise of militant nationalism starting under the British Administration, 1941–1952 and the role of religious divisions in fostering divisions within it. Abbay 1998 compares and contrasts Eritrean and Tigrayan nationalisms. Gaim 2008 argues that wartime experience shaped the postcolonial government’s use of nationalism to suppress democratic development. Awet 2012 compares the rise of militant nationalism in two former European colonies annexed by predatory neighbors. Okbazghi 1991 considers Eritrean nationalism in the context of Cold War geopolitics.
  412. Abbay Alemseged. Identity Jilted or Re-imagining Identity? The Divergent Paths of the Eritrean and Tigrayan Nationalist Struggles. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea, 1998.
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  414. Examines the evolution of Tigrayan and Eritrean nationalisms and argues that colonialism had the effect of bifurcating the Tigrinya identity of present-day Eritrean highlanders and Tigrayans of northern Ethiopia. That bifurcation was further consolidated and their shared identity dissolved as a result of the divergent paths and goals of the Eritrean and Tigrayan nationalist movements.
  415. Find this resource:
  416.  
  417. Awet Tewelde Weldemichael. Third World Colonialism and Strategies of Liberation: Eritrea and East Timor Compared. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  418. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139381369Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. A comparative analysis of Ethiopia’s rule over Eritrea and Indonesia’s rule over East Timor that breaks down the notion of colonization as a strictly Western phenomenon. Explores the development of nationalist movements within the two colonies, the roots of their early government, and the military and non-military mechanisms by which Eritrea and East Timor responded to their colonization.
  420. Find this resource:
  421.  
  422. Ellingson, Lloyd Schettle. “Eritrea: Separatism and Irredentism, 1941–1985.” PhD diss., Michigan State University, 1986.
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  424. A political history from the start of the British Military Administration in 1941 through federation and the independence war up to 1985. Argues that placing Eritrea, with half its population being Muslim, under a traditional, Christian-dominated monarchy set the stage for revolt, while the failure of the nationalists to achieve unity demonstrated the importance that cultural diversity and religion played in determining relationships.
  425. Find this resource:
  426.  
  427. Gaim Kibreab. Critical Reflections on the Eritrean War of Independence: Social Capital, Associational Life, Religion, Ethnicity and Sowing Seeds of Dictatorship. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2008.
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  429. Analyzes the post-independence situation in Eritrea by reflecting critically on unexamined aspects of the war of independence and their impact on the society. Opens with a theoretical framework on civil society and explores the evolution of the nationalist movements and their impact on traditional life, social capital, and Eritrean society.
  430. Find this resource:
  431.  
  432. Jordan Gebre-Medhin. Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea: A Critique of Ethiopian Studies. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1989.
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  434. Offers a critical analysis of the main trends in Ethiopian studies with regard to Eritrea and challenges their arguments over the depth and legitimacy of Eritrean nationalism. Examines the evolution of Eritrean peasantry under European colonialism. Explores nation building and Eritrea’s complex relationship with Ethiopia, referencing peasant revolts and other flareups in the mid-20th century.
  435. Find this resource:
  436.  
  437. Okbazghi Yohannes. Eritrea, a Pawn in World Politics. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1991.
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  439. Traces the genesis and development of Eritrean nationalism and analyzes modern Eritrean history within the framework of Cold War geopolitics. Challenges the Ethiopian claims to Eritrea based on historical grounds and argues that the historical record is more in line with nationalist claims of an independent history. Drawing on archival material, the author argues that a convergence of Ethiopian interests with those of powerful Western powers decided the fate of Eritrea.
  440. Find this resource:
  441.  
  442. Ruth Iyob. The Eritrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941–1993. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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  444. A comprehensive study of the origins of Eritrean nationalism, the evolution of the nationalist movements, and the strengths and weaknesses of each. The author reviews the extant literature and challenges hegemonic claims of the Greater Ethiopia school, while framing the discussion within a regional and international context.
  445. Find this resource:
  446.  
  447. Uoldelul Chelati Dirar. “Colonialism and the Construction of National Identities: The Case of Eritrea.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 1.2 (2007): 256–276.
  448. DOI: 10.1080/17531050701452556Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  449. Examines the impact of Italian colonialism on Eritrean society beyond the debate over whether it legitimized Eritrean statehood or not, and the relationship of the colonial state with local elites. Argues that preexisting social and power relations among the would-be Eritreans determined the impact of Italian colonialism, which was not uniformly carried out across the territory.
  450. Find this resource:
  451.  
  452. The Eritrean Liberation Movement, 1958–1964
  453. Mohammed 1994 and Mohammed-Berhan 2001 present conflicting views on the politics and strategy of Eritrea’s first post-annexation underground nationalist organization. Tahir 1994 presents a middle ground from the standpoint of the movement’s foreign representative.
  454. Mohammed, Said Nawud. Harakat al-Tahrir Al-Irytriyah. Khartoum, Sudan: n.p., 1994.
  455. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  456. The founder of the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM) documents its history from its inception in 1958 to its demise in 1964. Articulates a strategy of “revolutionary coup d’état” (that is, peaceful takeover of government and unilateral declaration of independence) and documents the early relationship and rivalry with the emergent Eritrean Liberation Front that from the start advocated for armed struggle culminating in a clash that sealed the fate of the ELM. In Arabic.
  457. Find this resource:
  458.  
  459. Mohammed-Berhan, Hassan. Menqisiqas Harenet Ertra (Haraka): Me’arfo kab Me’arfotat Gu’ezo Hagherawi Qalsna. Welqawi Mezekir. Asmara, Eritrea, 2001.
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  461. One of the earliest leaders of the ELM inside Eritrea, Mohammed-Berhan rebuts Mohammed 1994, arguing that clandestine cells were convinced they were laying the foundation for armed struggle and never heard of “revolutionary coup d’état” until after independence. Documents the poor communications between activists inside Eritrea and the leadership in Sudan.
  462. Find this resource:
  463.  
  464. Tahir, Ibrahim Feddab. Harakat al-Tahrir Al-Irytriyah wa Masiretaha al-Tarikhiyah fi al-Fetrah ma bayna 1958 ila 1967. Kitab Watha’iqi. Cairo, Egypt: Metabi’ al-Shurq, 1994.
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  466. The chief diplomat and recruiter of the ELM offers an account of its history from the point of view of the center. Based on extensive analysis of firsthand documents, some of which are reproduced in the index. Published in Arabic but hard to find in the market; several, but there are a holdings are available in some libraries.
  467. Find this resource:
  468.  
  469. The Liberation Fronts, 1961–1991
  470. Alamin 1992 presents the view of the EPLF of the split within the ELF that produced contending wings of the national movement. Habtu 2013 provides details on one of the most notorious massacres in Eritrea’s independence war. Erlich 1983 argues that the weakness of Eritrean nationalism explains divisions in the nationalist movement. Sherman 1980 and Firebrace and Holland 1985 offer a positive view of a multidimensional nation-building project, largely from the perspective of the EPLF.
  471. Alamin, Mohammed Said. Al-Defe’ wa al-Teredi: Al-Thewra al-Iritriyah. Qisat al-Inshiqaq al-Dakhiliyah Lil-Thewra al-Iritriyah. Asmara, Eritrea: Dogoli, 1992.
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  473. The first public document by one of the earliest members of the reform movement in the ELF who later became a founding member of the EPLF. Supplemented by personal recollections on the reform movement, its splintering in 1968–1970, and the challenges breakaway groups faced up to the launching of the EPLF. Includes previously unavailable documents. Arabic with a Tigrinya translation.
  474. Find this resource:
  475.  
  476. Erlich, Hagai. The Struggle over Eritrea, 1962–1978: War and Revolution in the Horn of Africa. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1983.
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  478. Examines Eritrea’s political situation from 1962 until 1978 through the lens of Eritrean nationalism or, as the author coins it, “Eritreanism.” The author focuses on the challenges within each of the nationalist movements, the divisions that emerged between them, and the positive and negative implications of each. He contends that the roots of Eritreansim were “shallow,” resulting in divisions between the nationalist movements and in Eritrea’s inability to overcome Ethiopia.
  479. Find this resource:
  480.  
  481. Firebrace, James, and Stuart Holland. Never Kneel Down: Drought, Development and Liberation in Eritrea. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1985.
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  483. Written by the head of the British charity War on Want and a Labour Party activist. Makes a case for Eritrean self-determination, the progressive character of the EPLF, and Eritrea’s potential to be a model for self-reliant development; describes its famine relief effort, public health system, and education and training programs. Includes a lengthy interview with EPLF commander Isaias Afwerki and key legal documents.
  484. Find this resource:
  485.  
  486. Habtu [Fr. Athanasius] Ghebre-Ab. Massacre at Wekidiba: The Tragic Story of a Village in Eritrea. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2013.
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  488. In early 1975, besieged Ethiopian troops ventured to Wekidiba, a small village on the outskirts of Asmara and massacred its residents, though the incident received no coverage at the time. Fr. Athanasius draws from interviews, accounts by survivors and witnesses, and secondary materials to weave the history of the massacre in the context of the liberation struggle and Ethiopian patterns of counterinsurgency.
  489. Find this resource:
  490.  
  491. Sherman, Richard. Eritrea, the Unfinished Revolution. New York: Praeger, 1980.
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  493. Examines the development of the nationalist movements, the dimensions of the armed conflict, and the social programs created by the revolutionary organizations. Assesses the outlook for a viable independent Eritrea. Also addresses the larger impact of this conflict on the region and the international community.
  494. Find this resource:
  495.  
  496. Postcolonial Politics
  497. Isaias 1998 contains a vision of “participatory democracy.” Bereket 2003 recounts Eritrea’s constitution-making experience. Connell 2005 presents interviews with high-ranking dissidents, jailed for challenging the president. Gaim 2009 analyzes the transformation of the victorious EPLF into an authoritarian regime. Tronvoll and Mekonnen 2014 provides a detailed account of the consolidation of autocracy. Debassay 2003 locates this transformation in the conferral of absolute power on the EPLF at independence. Pool 2001 and Reid 2005 look at generational fissures within Eritrea’s postcolonial society and the continuing hegemony of the “struggle” cohort.
  498. Bereket, Habte-Selassie. The Making of the Eritrean Constitution: The Dialectic of Process and Substance. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2003.
  499. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  500. Traces the three-year period during which the newly independent country developed its constitution. The author, who chaired the constitution-drafting commission, explores the centrality of a constitution to a democratic system of government and includes analysis on important aspects of the document.
  501. Find this resource:
  502.  
  503. Connell, Dan. Conversations with Eritrean Political Prisoners. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2005.
  504. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  505. Interviews with former high-ranking officials on the innerworkings of the liberation front, the secret party that controlled it, and the regime it created. Recorded before September 2001, when they were arrested for organizing a dissident caucus—the “Group of 15.” Includes appendizes on the secret party, the G15’s critique, and a response from a government supporter.
  506. Find this resource:
  507.  
  508. Debassay Hedru. “Eritrea: Transition to Dictatorship, 1991–2003.” Review of African Political Economy 30.97 (2003): 435–444.
  509. DOI: 10.1080/07Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  510. The author argues that postcolonial Eritrea slipped into dictatorship because the population uncritically conferred absolute power on the leadership of the guerrilla movement that won freedom from Ethiopia.
  511. Find this resource:
  512.  
  513. Gaim Kibreab. Eritrea: A Dream Deferred. Oxford: James Currey, 2009.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Addresses how and why the PFDJ went from being “liberators” of Eritrea to becoming leaders of an oppressive regime. Ultimately, Kibreab asks how development in Eritrea went from a hopeful and optimistic place to one in which everything was perceived as “woefully wrong.”
  516. Find this resource:
  517.  
  518. Isaias Afwerki. “Democracy in Eritrea: An African View.” Eritrean Studies Review 2.2 (1998): 133–141.
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  520. A transcript of a speech at a London conference on “Building Political Stability in Sub-Saharan Africa,” in which the Eritrean president outlines a strategy to construct a participatory democracy anchored in social and economic as well as political rights, stressing the need for strong institutions and a supportive political culture. A rare documentary record of his early post-independence outlook.
  521. Find this resource:
  522.  
  523. Kidane Mengisteab, and Okbazghi Yohannes. Anatomy of an African Tragedy: Political, Economic and Foreign Policy Crisis in Post-independence Eritrea. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2005.
  524. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  525. Focuses on post-liberation difficulties in constitutional development, foreign relations, and the financial sector; approaches issues through a comparative analysis with other postcolonial African states. Presents ways leadership trends and structural conditions have shaped not only Eritrea, but also other postcolonial African countries.
  526. Find this resource:
  527.  
  528. Pool, David. From Guerrillas to Government: The Eritrean People’s Liberation Front. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2001.
  529. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  530. Investigates the EPLF’s rise to power and eventual transformation into the PFDJ despite the ethnic and religious divisions within Eritrea. Looks into the innerworkings and community relations of the highly secretive guerrilla organization as a means to understand how it gained so much power.
  531. Find this resource:
  532.  
  533. Reid, Richard. “Caught in the Headlights of History: Eritrea, the EPLF and the Post-war Nation-State.” Journal of Modern African Studies 43.3 (2005): 467–488.
  534. DOI: 10.1017/S0022278X05001059Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Analyzes the first decade of Eritrea’s independent statehood in light of its violent struggle for independence and the post-independence border war with Ethiopia. Argues that Eritrean society is divided between the struggle generation and younger Eritreans, the rural and urban populations, and those who feel vindicated by renewed war with Ethiopia and those who are frustrated by it.
  536. Find this resource:
  537.  
  538. Tronvoll, Kjetil, and Daniel Mekonnen. The African Garrison State: Human Rights & Political Development in Eritrea. Woodbridge, UK: James Currey, 2014.
  539. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  540. Describes the formation and consolidation of autocracy in Eritrea, which the authors characterize as a country under siege by its own government. Chapters examine judicial development and the use of special courts, the crackdown on dissent and conditions in the prisons, the marginalization of ethnic minorities, and the militarization of the society.
  541. Find this resource:
  542.  
  543. Human Rights and Trafficking
  544. Rights researchers routinely start with annual reports from monitoring groups, but themed reports offer greater depth and context. One of the best is Human Rights Watch 2009 on Eritrea’s national service and its political prisoners. Gaim 2017 provides a comprehensive analysis of the national service, assessing it in terms of its stated goals. Van Riesen, et al. 2012 provides searing detail on the trafficking, torture, and ransoming of refugees, while van Riesen, et al. 2014 maps the routes, describes the practice in detail, and makes proposals to stop it. Van Riesen and Rijken 2015 situates the plight of refugees within international law and practice.
  545. Gaim Kibreab. The Eritrean National Service: Servitude for “the Common Good” & the Youth Exodus. Woodbridge, UK: James Currey, 2017.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. This is the only comprehensive attempt to analyze the impact and efficacy of Eritrea’s national service in meeting the government’s goals of national defense, nation-building, and social engineering since initiating the program in the 1990s. It was extended indefinitely in 2002.
  548. Find this resource:
  549.  
  550. Human Rights Watch. Service for Life: State Repression and Indefinite Conscription in Eritrea. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2009.
  551. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  552. Characterizing Eritrea as “one of the most closed and repressive societies in the world” the report surveys its human rights record and documents a wide range of abuses, draws on extensive personal testimonies to explore the role of the national service as a form of indentured servitude, and provides detail on conditions faced by those detained for political crimes. Includes an annex listing known detention facilities in Eritrea.
  553. Find this resource:
  554.  
  555. United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. “Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea.” New York: United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2015.
  556. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  557. The 458-page report, based on interviews with refugees conducted outside the country, accuses the government of systematic, extensive, and unaccountable human rights violations and the absence of the rule of law and suggests that extrajudicial killings, torture, and forced labor may rise to the level of crimes against humanity. Includes appendixes with a list of sixty-eight detention centers, maps, and satellite photographs.
  558. Find this resource:
  559.  
  560. van Riesen, Mirjam, Meron Estafanos, and Conny Rijken. “Human Trafficking in the Sinai: Refugees between Life and Death.” Tilburg, The Netherlands: European External Policy Advisors, Tilburg University, 2012.
  561. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  562. The most comprehensive documentation available on the kidnapping, torture, and ransoming of Eritrean refugees by criminal gangs in eastern Sudan and the Sinai Peninsula.
  563. Find this resource:
  564.  
  565. van Riesen, Mirjam, Meron Estifanos, and Conny Rijken. The Human Trafficking Cycle: Sinai and Beyond. Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Wolf Legal, 2014.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Narratives of Sinai trafficking victims, a description of the trafficking cycle, accounts of torture and captivity within the Sinai, the plight of trafficking victims once they escape or are released, and an assessment of applicable international law with recommendations for action to halt the practice.
  568. Find this resource:
  569.  
  570. van Riesen, Mirjam, and Conny Rijken. “Sinai Trafficking: Origin and Definition of a New Form of Human Trafficking.” Social Inclusion 3.1 (2015): 113–124.
  571. DOI: 10.17645/si.v3i1.180Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  572. Describes Sinai trafficking as a new set of criminal practices but frames it within the internationally accepted definition of human trafficking. The authors connect it with slavery, torture, ransom collection, extortion, sexual violence, and other crimes and examine the plight of survivors in Israel and Egypt.
  573. Find this resource:
  574.  
  575. Economy
  576. Araia 1981 assesses Eritrea’s economic potential at a time when many commentators doubted its viability. Killion 1996 examines the impact of successive colonialisms on its postcolonial prospects, De Waal 1991 considers the effects of war and famine, Amanuel 2004 looks at the challenge of postwar demobilization, and Kidane 1998 critiques the government’s approach to the land question. Doornbos and Alemseged 1999 and Tesfa 1996 explore policy options for future development.
  577. Amanuel Mehreteab. Wake Up, Hanna! Reintegration and Reconstruction Challenges for Post-war Eritrea. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea, 2004.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Drawing on extensive interviews and surveys, the author examines the relevance of reintegration programs to target communities; the impact of national policies; the distribution of services, employment opportunities, and resources; and the role of international agencies, with special consideration to gender inequalities.
  580. Find this resource:
  581.  
  582. Araia Tseggai. “The Economic Viability of an Independent Eritrea.” PhD diss., University of Nebraska at Lincoln, 1981.
  583. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  584. Offers a favorable analysis of the prospects for an independent Eritrea to have a viable economy. Documents economic transformations during Italian Colonialization, 1891–1941 and examines economic decline after World War II under British Administration, 1941–1952 and then by Ethiopia and concludes that Eritrea’s developed infrastructure and mineral and agricultural resources would make its economy viable.
  585. Find this resource:
  586.  
  587. de Waal, Alex. Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991.
  588. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  589. A Human Rights Watch report on the conflicts and famines in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Spread throughout the extensive coverage of mainland Ethiopia are analyses of counterinsurgency strategies of successive Ethiopian governments in Eritrea during the thirty-year independence war through five distinct phases. Also discusses Addis Ababa’s use of humanitarian disasters to its advantage during the devastating drought and famine of the mid-1980s.
  590. Find this resource:
  591.  
  592. Doornbos, Martin, and Alemseged Tesfai, eds. Post-conflict Eritrea: Prospects for Reconstruction and Development. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea, 1999.
  593. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  594. Scholars address five priority areas for reconstruction and development within postwar Eritrea: the challenge of social reintegration, infrastructure development, food security, human resource development, and principles of governance. Includes informational tables on key issues.
  595. Find this resource:
  596.  
  597. Kaplan, Seth. “Eritrea’s Economy: Ideology and Opportunity.” Washington, DC: Atlantic Council, 2016.
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. Taking Eritrea’s egalitarian, statist development model as a starting point and comparing the country with such socialist nations as post-revolution Cuba, Vietnam in the 1980s, and pre-reform China, the author argues for increased international engagement to promote economic reform, while cautioning prospective actors to resist the inclination to dictate its pace or its terms and accept a process that will be cautious and incremental.
  600. Find this resource:
  601.  
  602. Kidane Mengisteab. “Eritrea’s Land Reform Proclamation: A Critical Appraisal.” Eritrean Studies Review 2.2 (1998): 1–18.
  603. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  604. Assesses 1995 land reform proclamation and its limitations and impact on peasant farmers, nomads, and urban development. Also discusses administrative and bureaucratic shortcomings in carrying out this policy and offers policy recommendations.
  605. Find this resource:
  606.  
  607. Killion, Tom C. “The Eritrean Economy in Historical Perspective.” Eritrean Studies Review 1.1 (Spring 1996): 91–118.
  608. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  609. Recounts the impacts of successive colonial regimes on Eritrea’s economy, examines post-independence resources, and assesses the potential for development.
  610. Find this resource:
  611.  
  612. Tesfa G. Gebremedhin. Beyond Survival: The Economic Challenges of Agriculture and Development in Post-independent Eritrea. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea, 1996.
  613. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  614. Addresses issues of economic recovery, poverty, underdevelopment, women’s rights, and environmental degradation in the newly independent nation. Reviews the technical and institutional constraints and economic potential of agriculture and provides policy recommendations.
  615. Find this resource:
  616.  
  617. Society
  618. Miran 2009 provides an insightful case study of the Red Sea port of Massawa where Eritrea’s diverse cultures and modes of existence intersect. The rest of this section focuses on ethnicity, women, and gender, and the experiences of Eritrea’s many refugees.
  619. Miran, Jonathan. Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009.
  620. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  621. Uncovers the history of the port city Massawa, Eritrea, on the Red Sea in the 19th century as one of the key shipping centers in northeastern Africa. Miran also notes the important social, material, religious, and cultural exchanges that occurred within the city and how those exchanges influenced the development of the Horn of Africa. Includes maps and historical photographs to further illustrate the significance of the city.
  622. Find this resource:
  623.  
  624. Education and Nation-Building
  625. Riggan 2016 opens a window into the ways formal education contributes to and, at times, undercuts the nation-building project within Eritrea, while Bernal 2014 looks at new ways Eritrea’s diaspora both participates in and contests that process.
  626. Bernal, Victoria. Nation as Network: Diaspora, Cyberspace, and Citizenship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.
  627. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226144955.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  628. A pathbreaking study of how Eritreans use the Internet to both support and subvert the state and the role this virtual community has in nation-building.
  629. Find this resource:
  630.  
  631. Riggan, Jennifer. The Struggling State: Nationalism, Mass Militarization and the Education of Eritrea. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2016.
  632. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  633. Focusing on the experience of conscripted teachers and the role of education in nation-building, the author attempts to show how citizens’ coercive encounters with state actors shape their ideas of that state, the nation, and the linkage between them.
  634. Find this resource:
  635.  
  636. Ethnic Groups
  637. Munzinger 1967 and Longrigg 1945 offer detailed ethnographic portraits of Eritrean society in the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries. Tesfa and Gebre Hiwet 2008 provides a bridge to modern Eritrea and its diverse ethnic constituents. Humphris 2012 looks at the Rashaida role in human trafficking.
  638. Humphris, Rachel. “Refugees and the Rashaida: Human Smuggling and Trafficking from Eritrea to Sudan and Egypt.” New Issues in Refugee Research, Research Paper No. 247. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2012.
  639. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  640. Looks at the movement of refugees from Eritrea through eastern Sudan to Egypt and the role the Rashaida play in the kidnapping and trafficking operations there; argues that Rashaida involvement is a product of insecurity and poverty and situates the practice in the region’s history and politics.
  641. Find this resource:
  642.  
  643. Longrigg, Stephen H. A Short History of Eritrea. Oxford: Clarendon, 1945.
  644. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  645. An ethnographic study of Eritrean society between 1942 and 1944 undertaken by the chief administrator of British military administration in Eritrea. Offers a unique, if skewed, perspective of Eritrean society after the devastations of World War II and the frustration of Eritreans over their future despite their support for Britain in defeating Fascist Italy.
  646. Find this resource:
  647.  
  648. Munzinger, Werner. Ostafrikanische Studien. New York: Johnson Reprint, 1967.
  649. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  650. A reprint of the original Swiss edition published by Schaffhausen in 1864 by a Swiss explorer who served as both a British and French administrator before assuming the role of governor of Keren and Massawa for the Egyptian khedive. He was killed in 1875 during an Egyptian attempt to conquer the Ethiopian highlands. The volume provides an excellent ethnographic study of several Eritrean peoples.
  651. Find this resource:
  652.  
  653. Tesfa Gebremedhin and Gebre Hiwet Tesfagiorgis, eds. Traditions of Eritrea: Linking the Past to the Future. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2008.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. Offers a rich description of Eritrea’s many cultures with a focus on how its early traditions and practices have affected the country’s current socioeconomic situation and long-term development goals.
  656. Find this resource:
  657.  
  658. Women and Gender
  659. Tesfa 2002 is an excellent guide to the varied cultural practices and social position of women in Eritrea. Burgess 1989 and Wilson 1991 present a somewhat romanticized but nonetheless informative portrait of women fighters in the EPLF, but Bernal 2000 finds postwar reintegration of women into civilian life a major challenge. Müller 2005 warns that women’s advances could be at risk in the absence of a democratic political context.
  660. Bernal, Victoria. “Equality to Die For? Women Guerrilla Fighters and Eritrea’s Cultural Revolution.” Political and Legal Anthropology Review 23 (2000): 61–76.
  661. DOI: 10.1525/pol.2000.23.2.61Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  662. Women played an instrumental role in Eritrea’s war of independence, making up nearly one-third of the EPLF and serving alongside men. But reintegration into civilian life was a challenge for many due to strict gender roles in Eritrean society.
  663. Find this resource:
  664.  
  665. Burgess, D. “Women at War: Eritrea.” Review of African Political Economy 45–46 (1989): 126–132.
  666. DOI: 10.1080/03056248908703832Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. Documents the experience of women fighters in the EPLF. Includes archival photographs and personal stories.
  668. Find this resource:
  669.  
  670. Müller, Tanja R. The Making of Elite Women: Revolution and Nation Building in Eritrea. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
  671. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  672. A thorough study of the lives of different groups of elite women during and after the armed struggle for liberation. Argues that although the revolution created new possibilities for women, these opportunities are at risk if the country is unable to implement democratic practices.
  673. Find this resource:
  674.  
  675. Tesfa G. Gebremedhin. Women, Tradition and Development: A Case Study of Eritrea. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea, 2002.
  676. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  677. Provides a rich account of the social values, cultural patterns, customary practices, and political forces that shape the lives and development of Eritrean women. Addresses issues of gender inequality within the country and provides strategies for developing more gender equitable thinking, not only for Eritrea, but also for other developing countries.
  678. Find this resource:
  679.  
  680. Wilson, Amrit. Women and the Eritrean Revolution: The Challenge Road. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1991.
  681. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  682. Traces the armed struggle for liberation through the lives of women from many different backgrounds and their contribution to the fight. Uses extensive personal stories and interviews to document the impact made by women in transforming Eritrea socially and politically.
  683. Find this resource:
  684.  
  685. Refugees and the Diaspora
  686. Wolde-Yesus 1992 looks at the causes and consequences of refugee flows during the independence war. Gaim 1987 assesses their experience in Sudan, while Abbebe 2010 focuses on postwar repatriation. Harmon-Gross 2009 provides a case study of border war refugees seeking resettlement elsewhere. European Asylum Support Office 2015 examines the legitimacy of grounds for asylum in Europe; Danish Immigration Service 2014 advances a counterargument. Hepner 2009 examines the experience of migrants and refugees in the United States and the links to political developments within Eritrea, while Chait 2011 studies a group of refugees from several Horn of Africa states and the relations among them. Poole 2013 looks at how the Eritrean state seeks to harness the outflow of refugees through remittances and taxes.
  687. Abbebe Kifleyesus. Recollections of Return, Resettlement, and Reintegration from Gash Barka in Eritrea. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Ossrea, 2010.
  688. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  689. Explores the social, economic, psychosocial, and ecological factors that influenced people’s decisions on whether to be repatriated. Considers the impact of resettlement on Eritreans who never left and explores themes of culture, community, reintegration, and economic reconstruction.
  690. Find this resource:
  691.  
  692. Chait, Sandra. Seeking Salaam: Ethiopians, Eritreans, and Somalis in the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, DC: University of Washington Press, 2011.
  693. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  694. Traces the hardships and experiences of more than forty east African immigrants living in the United States Pacific northwest. This book looks particularly at the dynamics among people who were formerly enemies or at war with one another in their home country and who must act as allies and neighbors in an unfamiliar country and culture.
  695. Find this resource:
  696.  
  697. Danish Immigration Service. “Eritrea: Drivers and Root Causes of Emigration, National Service and the Possibility of Return.” Copenhagen: Danish Immigration Service, 2014.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. A controversial report based on interviews with officials and observers within Eritrea that argues that reports of human rights abuses there were exaggerated and the situation was improving; cited by some European officials as a basis for reconsidering the asylum status of Eritreans.
  700. Find this resource:
  701.  
  702. European Asylum Support Office. “Eritrea Country Focus: A Country of Origin Information Report. Malta: European Union, May 2015.
  703. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  704. Drawing on sources both within and outside Eritrea, as well as documentary sources and interviews with human rights monitors, nongovernmental organizations, government officials, and others, this report assesses the human rights situation in Eritrea in an effort to determine the legitimate grounds for those seeking asylum in Europe.
  705. Find this resource:
  706.  
  707. Gaim Kibreab. Refugees and Development in Africa: The Case of Eritrea. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1987.
  708. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  709. Situates Eritrean refugees in Sudan within a broader context of refugees around the world and traces their influx into Sudan from its earliest days in the 1960s and examines the patterns of their resettlement in Sudanese territory, their efforts to sustain themselves mainly through agriculture, the landholding systems under which they operate, and their labor dynamics and household structures.
  710. Find this resource:
  711.  
  712. Harmon-Gross, Elizabeth C. “Seeking Resettlement and Navigating Transnational Politics: The Intersection of Policies, Human Rights and Individuals in Shimelba Refugee Camp.” MA thesis, University of Tennessee, 2009.
  713. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  714. Focuses on the expectations of refugees before and during group resettlement and complicating factors in the process, including US policies on terrorism, political interference by Eritrean political groups, and pressures to thematize personal narratives to achieve success. Based on interviews with refugees expecting to be resettled in the United States and employees of international organizations in the protection and resettlement sector.
  715. Find this resource:
  716.  
  717. Hepner, Tricia Redeker. Soldiers, Martyrs, Traitors and Exiles: Political Conflict in Eritrea and the Diaspora. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.
  718. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  719. Drawing on the experiences of Eritreans in the United States and Eritrea, the author explores the transnational aspects of both the war for independence and the process of nation-building and addresses the complexities of political transformation on a personal, structural, and international level with a special focus on resistance movements and human rights.
  720. Find this resource:
  721.  
  722. Poole, Amanda. “Ransoms, Remittances, and Refugees: The Gatekeeper State in Eritrea.” Africa Today 60.2 (Winter 2013): 66–82.
  723. DOI: 10.2979/africatoday.60.2.67Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  724. Examines Eritrea’s gatekeeping strategies in and through porous borders and transnational kinship networks and challenges narrow readings of flight in terms only of resistance and individualism; looks at the ways individual coping strategies are harnessed for collective purposes.
  725. Find this resource:
  726.  
  727. Wolde-Yesus Ammar. Eritrea: Root Causes of War and Refugees. Baghdad, Iraq: Sinbad Print, 1992.
  728. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  729. A leading figure in the Eritrean Liberation Front traces the war in Eritrea from its origins in the 1890s through the early 1990s, with attention to colonial history, the emergence of the liberation fronts, and the collective momentum toward independence. The author asks why there were so many refugees and why the war lasted more than thirty years. Includes maps and original documents.
  730. Find this resource:
  731.  
  732. Religion
  733. Miran 2005 sketches the history of Islam in Eritrea. Lundstrom and Ezra 2011 documents the role and impact of the early Protestant missionaries. (See also Yoh 1998, cited under Bibliographies.)
  734. Lundstrom, Karl Johan, and Ezra Gebremedhin. Kenisha: The Roots and Development of the Evangelical Church of Eritrea, 1866–1935. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2011.
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  736. Documents the evangelical work of the Swedish Evangelical Mission in Eritrea and Ethiopia between 1866 and 1935. Its extensive coverage of the origins and early evolution of the Evangelical Church in Eritrea under Italian colonial rule offers a window into Eritrean social history and the history of religions in Eritrea.
  737. Find this resource:
  738.  
  739. Miran, Jonathan. “A Historical Overview of Islam in Eritrea.” Die Welt des Islams 45.2 (2005): 177–215.
  740. DOI: 10.1163/1570060054307534Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  741. A concise history of Islam in Eritrea from its colonization by Italy in the 1880s and 1890s to the early 21st century. Includes a sketch of Islam’s origins in the territory, stretching back to the late 7th century, and the ways in which Islamic beliefs and practices have been adapted to and changed by local conditions and successive migrations. The article provides critical context for understanding the “reawakening” of historically charged mutual suspicions among Christians and Muslims in the modern era.
  742. Find this resource:
  743.  
  744. Culture and the Arts
  745. This section focuses on the three strongest areas of contemporary Eritrean culture: Art and Architecture, Language and Literature, and Memoir and Autobiography.
  746. Art and Architecture
  747. Le Chequer, et al. 2011 is an excellent introduction to Eritrea’s varied literary, musical, and artistic heritage. Oriolo 1998 and Denison, et al. 2007 survey Asmara’s architectural heritage with a wealth of archival materials. Sallinen 2003 provides a contemporary look at the city and includes color photographs.
  748. Denison, E., R. Guang Yu, and Naizgy Gebremedhin. Asmara: Africa’s Secret Modernist City. London: Merrell, 2007.
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  750. A building-by-building survey of modernist architecture in one of the world’s finest modernist cities. Explores the architectural history of the city through rare archival material and specially commissioned photographs.
  751. Find this resource:
  752.  
  753. Le Chequer, R., Elias Ekube, Elias Amare, Afwerki Arefaine, and Saba Sebhatu, eds. Eritrea Art Time: Crossroads of Arts in the Horn of Africa. Asmara, Eritrea: Alliance Française of Asmara, 2011.
  754. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  755. A collection of short essays in Tigrinya and English that introduces Eritrea’s cultural heritage in the visual arts, music, painting, and photography. Includes essays on the evolution of modern Eritrean music and reviews of influential works of art, and poetry of different genres. Perhaps most significantly, it reproduces dozens of paintings by Eritrea’s leading painters with fresh analysis of their artistry.
  756. Find this resource:
  757.  
  758. Oriolo, Leonardo, ed. Stile Asmara/Asmara Style. Asmara, Eritrea: Italian School, 1998.
  759. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  760. A bilingual assessment of Asmara’s unique architecture and the city’s history written to accompany a stunning visual array of historical maps, drawings, blueprints, and photographs. Includes a chronology of Asmara’s architectural development from the 12th century to the present.
  761. Find this resource:
  762.  
  763. Sallinen, Sami. Asmara Beloved. Harare, Zimbabwe: Kimaathi, 2003.
  764. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  765. Provides a window into the culturally rich and historically noteworthy architecture of the Eritrean capital through photographs, poetry, and explanatory narratives. The author uses the city as a touchstone to explore Italian colonialism; the intersections of African, Arab, and European influences on the African Horn; and the traditions of the Eritrean people.
  766. Find this resource:
  767.  
  768. Language and Literature
  769. Ghirmai 2010 is a seminal work on Eritrea’s rich Tigrinya-language literary tradition. Gebreyesus 2013 is the earliest Eritrean novel published in English. Alemseged 2002 offers a mélange of memoir, short fiction, and drama by a former fighter. Ghirmai and Cantalupo 2006 is a collection of poetry in Eritrea’s three most widely spoken languages with English translations. Ghirmai 2006 provides literary criticism and commentary.
  770. Alemseged Tesfai. Two Weeks in the Trenches: Reminiscences of Childhood and War in Eritrea. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea, 2002.
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  772. Based primarily on the author’s personal experiences and memories, this book is a collection of stories, war diaries, essays, and reflections on life in Eritrea during the liberation struggle. Offers an up-close and intimate look at one young man’s coming of age within the EPLF amidst a backdrop of ongoing war and conflict.
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  774.  
  775. Gebreyesus Haile. The Conscript: A Novel of Libya’s Anticolonial War. Translated by Ghirmai Negash. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2013.
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  777. Relates the story of Eritrean conscripts into the Italian colonial army to fight Italy’s colonial wars in Libya. It particularly captures the contradictions within the colonized people who resisted colonialism at home but served the colonial master’s similar projects elsewhere. Although published (in Tigrinya) in 1950, its writing in 1927 makes this novel the first in Eritrean literary history and among the first African novels.
  778. Find this resource:
  779.  
  780. Ghirmai Negash. Nay Deresti Natsinet mes Kaleot Zetemertsu Sene-Tsehufaten Bahlawen Anqetsat. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2006.
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  782. A collection of personal speeches, lectures, and articles since 1992 that address the rights of authors, warns against self-censorship, and reflects on the role of research institutions in the development of Eritrean literature, among other issues.
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  784.  
  785. Ghirmai Negash. A History of Tigrinya Literature in Eritrea: The Oral and the Written, 1890–1991. Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 2010.
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  787. A pathbreaking work on Eritrea’s oral and written literary tradition in Tigrinya, originally published in 1999, that historicizes its development through the nation’s successive colonial periods and affirms the richness of African literature written in African languages.
  788. Find this resource:
  789.  
  790. Ghirmai Negash, and C. Cantalupo, eds. Who Needs a Story? Contemporary Eritrea Poetry in Tigrinya, Tigre and Arabic. Asmara, Eritrea: Hidri, 2006.
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  792. An anthology of poems covering three decades of work by twenty-two prominent Eritrean writers. Includes transcriptions of the verses in their original languages with English translations.
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  794.  
  795. Memoir and Autobiography
  796. Tekie 2009 and Bereket 2007 are insider accounts of Eritrea’s annexation and armed resistance. Abeba 1992 describes the experience of an educated urban woman under Ethiopian occupation. Solomon 1995 is the only firsthand account available on the EPLF’s operations within Ethiopia at the close of the independence war. Andebrhan 2014 provides an inside look at how power was exercised in the EPLF and the postwar state. Bereket 2011 reflects on the liberation movement’s postcolonial trajectory. Tekeste 2007 and Tekeste 2011 provide an inside look at the EPLF’s vaunted medical services.
  797. Abeba Tesfagiorgis. A Painful Season and a Stubborn Hope: The Odyssey of an Eritrean Mother. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1992.
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  799. The moving story of Abeba’s survival in Asmara under Ethiopian occupation and during the violence of the popular uprising. Her story sheds light on the persistence, hope, and courage that marked the Eritrean fight for freedom.
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  801.  
  802. Andebrhan Welde Giorgis. Eritrea at a Crossroads: A Narrative of Triumph, Betrayal and Hope. Houston, TX: Strategic Books, 2014.
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  804. The author recounts his experience as a member of the liberation front’s central committee and then as a government official, providing insight into the ways in which wartime policies such as self-reliance, universal mobilization, and the frequent resort to force to solve problems came to define the postwar state.
  805. Find this resource:
  806.  
  807. Bereket, Habte Selassie. The Crown and the Pen: The Memoirs of a Lawyer Turned Rebel. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2007.
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  809. The author recounts his life from early childhood in a village outside of Asmara through his time abroad in law school, his work as Ethiopia’s attorney general, and his initial involvement with the Eritrean liberation struggle.
  810. Find this resource:
  811.  
  812. Bereket Habte Selassie. The Wounded Nation: How a Once Promising Eritrea Was Betrayed and Its Future Compromised. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 2011.
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  814. Volume 2 of the author’s life story, including his work in the freedom fight, his representation of the EPLF and the Eritrean case for self-determination at the UN in the 1980s, and his role in contributing to the writing of the Eritrean constitution in the 1990s.
  815. Find this resource:
  816.  
  817. Solomon, Berhe. Wefri Segre-Dob. n.p., 1995.
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  819. An autobiographical account—the first in book form—about the EPLF’s military activities inside Ethiopia assisting Ethiopian insurgents. The author was a member of Mechanized Brigade 23, which was secretly dispatched to Ethiopia to assist the final southward push by the TPLF-dominated coalition, the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front, that seized power in 1991. Translated as “Campaign beyond the border.” No publisher listed but widely available in Asmara.
  820. Find this resource:
  821.  
  822. Tekeste Fekadu. Ghu’ezo kab Nakfa nab Nakfa, 1976–1979. Asmara, Eritrea: Hidri, 2007.
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  824. The first volume of recollections by the EPLF’s top military surgeon, from the Eritrean encirclement and capture of Nakfa in 1976 and its advance into the central highlands to its withdrawal back to Nakfa in less than two years. Offers a window into the genesis and evolution of the EPLF’s medical services and its activities on the battlefields while consolidating into a fixed strategic asset of the struggle.
  825. Find this resource:
  826.  
  827. Tekeste Fekadu. Kab Oromay nab Oromay, 1979–1983. Asmara, Eritrea: Hidri, 2011.
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  829. The second volume of recollections by EPLF’s top military surgeon. Captures the experience of average fighters (male and female) during crucial turning points: the 1978–1979 withdrawals, the EPLF referendum proposal, Ethiopia’s Sixth Offensive (“Red Star”), and others. Describes EPLF’s medical services from barefoot doctors to an advanced central hospital and argues that the process of criticism and mutual guidance nurtured an ideological conviction that enabled the front to succeed despite its decrease in numbers.
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  831.  
  832. Tekie Beyene. Kab Riq Hefenti. Asmara, Eritrea: Hidri, 2009.
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  834. The author describes his student activism and relations with labor unions in the federation period, the ELM’s mobilization and recruitment inside and outside the country, and clandestine work under the ELF and EPLF in Ethiopia, accessing and passing on classified Ethiopian military information. Captures Eritrean ferment over the dissolution of the federation and his participation in the nationalist movement while serving the Ethiopian government.
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