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  39. <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Sustainable energy</h1>
  40. <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
  41. <div id="siteSub">
  42. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  43. </div>
  44. <div id="contentSub"></div>
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  50. <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
  51. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  52. "Green power" redirects here. For the engineering-related charity and its racing activities, see
  53. <a href="/wiki/Greenpower" title="Greenpower">Greenpower</a>.
  54. </div>
  55. <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;width:18.0em;">
  56. <tbody>
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  58. <td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of a series about</td>
  59. </tr>
  60. <tr>
  61. <th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><strong class="selflink">Sustainable energy</strong></th>
  62. </tr>
  63. <tr>
  64. <td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="/wiki/File:El-v-01_ubt.jpeg" class="image" title="Wind turbines near Vendsyssel, Denmark (2004)"><img alt="Wind turbines near Vendsyssel, Denmark (2004)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/El-v-01_ubt.jpeg/180px-El-v-01_ubt.jpeg" width="180" height="75" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/El-v-01_ubt.jpeg/270px-El-v-01_ubt.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/El-v-01_ubt.jpeg/360px-El-v-01_ubt.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="245"></a></td>
  65. </tr>
  66. <tr>
  67. <th style="padding:0.1em;background:#c8ffb8;"><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></th>
  68. </tr>
  69. <tr>
  70. <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
  71. <ul>
  72. <li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li>
  73. <li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a></li>
  74. <li><a href="/wiki/Green_building" title="Green building">Green building</a></li>
  75. <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_heat_pump" title="Geothermal heat pump">Heat pump</a></li>
  76. <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_power" title="Low-carbon power">Low-carbon power</a></li>
  77. <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li>
  78. <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_solar_building_design" title="Passive solar building design">Passive solar building design</a></li>
  79. </ul> </td>
  80. </tr>
  81. <tr>
  82. <th style="padding:0.1em;background:#c8ffb8;"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></th>
  83. </tr>
  84. <tr>
  85. <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
  86. <ul>
  87. <li><a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_digestion" title="Anaerobic digestion">Anaerobic digestion</a></li>
  88. <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal</a></li>
  89. <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a></li>
  90. <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a></li>
  91. <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal</a></li>
  92. <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li>
  93. </ul> </td>
  94. </tr>
  95. <tr>
  96. <th style="padding:0.1em;background:#c8ffb8;"><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a></th>
  97. </tr>
  98. <tr>
  99. <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
  100. <ul>
  101. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-neutral_fuel" title="Carbon-neutral fuel">Carbon-neutral fuel</a></li>
  102. <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">Electric vehicle</a></li>
  103. <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li>
  104. <li><a href="/wiki/Green_vehicle" title="Green vehicle">Green vehicle</a></li>
  105. <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid" title="Plug-in hybrid">Plug-in hybrid</a></li>
  106. </ul> </td>
  107. </tr>
  108. <tr>
  109. <td class="plainlist" style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;padding-top:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap;">
  110. <div style="height:1.5em;padding-left:0.4em;">
  111. <span class="metadata"><a href="/wiki/File:Sustainable_development.svg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/16px-Sustainable_development.svg.png" width="16" height="10" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/24px-Sustainable_development.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/32px-Sustainable_development.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="510"></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Sustainable_development" title="Portal:Sustainable development">Sustainable development portal</a></span>
  112. </div>
  113. <div style="padding-left:0.4em;">
  114. <ul>
  115. <li><span class="metadata"><a href="/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/16px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/24px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/32px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy" title="Portal:Renewable energy">Renewable energy portal</a></span></li>
  116. <li><span class="metadata"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/16px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/24px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700"></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></span></li>
  117. </ul>
  118. </div> </td>
  119. </tr>
  120. <tr>
  121. <td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%">
  122. <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
  123. <ul>
  124. <li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sustainable_energy" title="Template:Sustainable energy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li>
  125. <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sustainable_energy" title="Template talk:Sustainable energy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li>
  126. <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li>
  127. </ul>
  128. </div> </td>
  129. </tr>
  130. </tbody>
  131. </table>
  132. <p><b>Sustainable energy</b> is energy that is consumed at insignificant rates compared to its supply and with manageable collateral effects, especially environmental effects. Another common definition of sustainable energy is an energy system that serves the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.<sup id="cite_ref-REEEP_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-REEEP-1">[1]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Organizing_principle" title="Organizing principle">organizing principle</a> for sustainability is <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>, which includes the four interconnected domains: ecology, economics, politics and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sustainability_science" title="Sustainability science">Sustainability science</a> is the study of sustainable development and environmental science.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup></p>
  133. <p>Technologies that promote <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainable</a> energy include <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> sources, such as <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydroelectricity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wind_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind energy">wind energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">wave power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">bioenergy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">tidal power</a> and also technologies designed to improve <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">energy efficiency</a>. Costs have fallen dramatically in recent years, and continue to fall. Most of these technologies are either economically competitive or close to being so. Increasingly, effective government policies support investor confidence and these markets are expanding. Considerable progress is being made in the <a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">energy transition</a> from fossil fuels to ecologically sustainable systems, to the point where many studies support <a href="/wiki/100%25_renewable_energy" title="100% renewable energy">100% renewable energy</a>.</p>
  134. <p></p>
  135. <div id="toc" class="toc">
  136. <div id="toctitle">
  137. <h2>Contents</h2>
  138. </div>
  139. <ul>
  140. <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definitions"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Definitions</span></a></li>
  141. <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Renewable_energy_technologies"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Renewable energy technologies</span></a>
  142. <ul>
  143. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#First-generation_technologies"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">First-generation technologies</span></a></li>
  144. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Second-generation_technologies"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Second-generation technologies</span></a></li>
  145. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Third-generation_technologies"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Third-generation technologies</span></a></li>
  146. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Enabling_technologies_for_renewable_energy"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Enabling technologies for renewable energy</span></a></li>
  147. </ul> </li>
  148. <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Energy_efficiency"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Energy efficiency</span></a>
  149. <ul>
  150. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Smart-grid_technology"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Smart-grid technology</span></a></li>
  151. </ul> </li>
  152. <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Green_energy_and_green_power"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Green energy and green power</span></a>
  153. <ul>
  154. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Local_green_energy_systems"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Local green energy systems</span></a></li>
  155. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Using_green_energy"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Using green energy</span></a>
  156. <ul>
  157. <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Carbon-neutral_and_negative_fuels"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Carbon-neutral and negative fuels</span></a></li>
  158. </ul> </li>
  159. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Green_energy_and_labeling_by_region"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Green energy and labeling by region</span></a>
  160. <ul>
  161. <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#European_Union"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">European Union</span></a></li>
  162. <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#United_States"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">United States</span></a></li>
  163. </ul> </li>
  164. </ul> </li>
  165. <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Sustainable_energy_research"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Sustainable energy research</span></a>
  166. <ul>
  167. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Solar"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Solar</span></a>
  168. <ul>
  169. <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#Space-Based_Solar_Power"><span class="tocnumber">5.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Space-Based Solar Power</span></a></li>
  170. </ul> </li>
  171. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Wind"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Wind</span></a></li>
  172. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Carbon-neutral_and_negative_fuels_2"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Carbon-neutral and negative fuels</span></a></li>
  173. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Biomass"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Biomass</span></a></li>
  174. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Ethanol_biofuels"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Ethanol biofuels</span></a></li>
  175. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Other_Biofuels"><span class="tocnumber">5.6</span> <span class="toctext">Other Biofuels</span></a></li>
  176. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Geothermal"><span class="tocnumber">5.7</span> <span class="toctext">Geothermal</span></a></li>
  177. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Hydrogen"><span class="tocnumber">5.8</span> <span class="toctext">Hydrogen</span></a></li>
  178. <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Thorium"><span class="tocnumber">5.9</span> <span class="toctext">Thorium</span></a></li>
  179. </ul> </li>
  180. <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Clean_energy_investments"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Clean energy investments</span></a></li>
  181. <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Related_journals"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Related journals</span></a></li>
  182. <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
  183. <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
  184. </ul>
  185. </div>
  186. <p></p>
  187. <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Definitions">Definitions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
  188. <p>Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the <i>twin pillars</i> of sustainable energy.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Some ways in which <i>sustainable energy</i> has been defined are:</p>
  189. <ul>
  190. <li>"Effectively, the provision of energy such that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. ...Sustainable Energy has two key components: renewable energy and energy efficiency."&nbsp;– <i>Renewable Energy and Efficiency Partnership</i> (British)<sup id="cite_ref-REEEP_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-REEEP-1">[1]</a></sup></li>
  191. <li>"Dynamic harmony between equitable availability of energy-intensive goods and services to all people and the preservation of the earth for future generations." And, "The solution will lie in finding sustainable energy sources and more efficient means of converting and utilizing energy."&nbsp;– <i>Sustainable Energy</i> by J. W. Tester, <i>et al.</i>, from MIT Press.</li>
  192. <li>"Any energy generation, efficiency and conservation source where: Resources are available to enable massive scaling to become a significant portion of energy generation, long term, preferably 100 years.."&nbsp;– <i>Invest,</i> a green technology non-profit organization.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup></li>
  193. <li>"Energy which is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damage to the environment."&nbsp;– <i>Jamaica Sustainable Development Network</i><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup></li>
  194. </ul>
  195. <p>This sets <i>sustainable energy</i> apart from other <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> terminology such as <i><a href="/wiki/Alternative_energy" title="Alternative energy">alternative energy</a></i> by focusing on the ability of an energy source to continue providing energy. Sustainable energy can produce some pollution of the environment, as long as it is not sufficient to prohibit heavy use of the source for an indefinite amount of time. Sustainable energy is also distinct from <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">low-carbon energy</a>, which is sustainable only in the sense that it does not add to the CO<sub>2</sub> in the atmosphere.</p>
  196. <p>Green Energy is energy that can be extracted, generated, and/or consumed without any significant negative impact to the environment. The planet has a natural capability to recover which means pollution that does not go beyond that capability can still be termed green.</p>
  197. <p>Green power is a subset of renewable energy and represents those renewable energy resources and technologies that provide the highest environmental benefit. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> defines green power as electricity produced from solar, wind, geothermal, biogas, biomass and low-impact small hydroelectric sources. Customers often buy green power for avoided environmental impacts and its <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> reduction benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup></p>
  198. <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Renewable_energy_technologies">Renewable energy technologies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Renewable energy technologies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
  199. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  200. Main articles:
  201. <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a> and
  202. <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy commercialization</a>
  203. </div>
  204. <p>Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to sustainable energy as they generally contribute to world <a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a>, reducing dependence on <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> resources,<sup id="cite_ref-IEA_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEA-9">[9]</a></sup> and providing opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases.<sup id="cite_ref-IEA_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEA-9">[9]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> states that:</p>
  205. <blockquote class="templatequote">
  206. <p>Conceptually, one can define three generations of renewables technologies, reaching back more than 100 years .</p>
  207. <p>First-generation technologies emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial revolution">industrial revolution</a> at the end of the 19th century and include <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> combustion and <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">geothermal power</a> and heat. Some of these technologies are still in widespread use.</p>
  208. <p>Second-generation technologies include <a href="/wiki/Solar_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar heating">solar heating</a> and cooling, <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a>, modern forms of <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">bioenergy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_photovoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar photovoltaics">solar photovoltaics</a>. These are now entering markets as a result of research, development and demonstration (RD&amp;D) investments since the 1980s. The initial investment was prompted by <a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a> concerns linked to the oil crises (<a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973</a> and <a href="/wiki/1979_energy_crisis" title="1979 energy crisis">1979</a>) of the 1970s but the continuing appeal of these renewables is due, at least in part, to environmental benefits. Many of the technologies reflect significant advancements in materials.</p> Third-generation technologies are still under development and include advanced
  209. <a href="/wiki/Biomass_gasification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomass gasification">biomass gasification</a>,
  210. <a href="/wiki/Biorefinery" title="Biorefinery">biorefinery</a> technologies, concentrating
  211. <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar thermal">solar thermal</a> power,
  212. <a href="/wiki/Hot_dry_rock_geothermal_energy" title="Hot dry rock geothermal energy">hot dry rock geothermal energy</a> and
  213. <a href="/wiki/Ocean_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean energy">ocean energy</a>. Advances in
  214. <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a> may also play a major role.
  215. <div class="templatequotecite">
  216. <cite>— International Energy Agency, <i>RENEWABLES IN GLOBAL ENERGY SUPPLY, An IEA Fact Sheet</i><sup id="cite_ref-IEA_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEA-9">[9]</a></sup></cite>
  217. </div>
  218. </blockquote>
  219. <p>First- and second-generation technologies have entered the markets, and third-generation technologies heavily depend on long term research and development commitments, where the public sector has a role to play.<sup id="cite_ref-IEA_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEA-9">[9]</a></sup></p>
  220. <p>Regarding energy used by vehicles, a comprehensive 2008 <a href="/wiki/Cost-benefit_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Cost-benefit analysis">cost-benefit analysis</a> review was conducted of sustainable energy sources and usage combinations in the context of global warming and other dominating issues; it ranked <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a> generation combined with <a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle" title="Battery electric vehicle">battery electric vehicles</a> (BEV) and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel_cell_vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles">hydrogen fuel cell vehicles</a> (HFCVs) as the most efficient. Wind was followed by <a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">concentrated solar power</a> (CSP), <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">geothermal power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">tidal power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">wave power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a> <a href="/wiki/Clean_coal_technology" title="Clean coal technology">coal capture and storage</a> (CCS), <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> energy sources. It states: "In sum, use of wind, CSP, geothermal, tidal, PV, wave, and hydro to provide electricity for BEVs and HFCVs and, by extension, electricity for the residential, industrial, and commercial sectors, will result in the most benefit among the options considered. The combination of these technologies should be advanced as a solution to global warming, air pollution, and energy security. Coal-CCS and nuclear offer less benefit thus represent an opportunity cost loss, and the biofuel options provide no certain benefit and the greatest negative impacts."<sup id="cite_ref-jacobson2009_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacobson2009-10">[10]</a></sup></p>
  221. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="First-generation_technologies">First-generation technologies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: First-generation technologies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  222. <div class="thumb tright">
  223. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;">
  224. <a href="/wiki/File:West_Ford_Flat_Geothermal_Cooling_Tower.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/West_Ford_Flat_Geothermal_Cooling_Tower.JPG/170px-West_Ford_Flat_Geothermal_Cooling_Tower.JPG" width="170" height="227" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/West_Ford_Flat_Geothermal_Cooling_Tower.JPG/255px-West_Ford_Flat_Geothermal_Cooling_Tower.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/West_Ford_Flat_Geothermal_Cooling_Tower.JPG/340px-West_Ford_Flat_Geothermal_Cooling_Tower.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2136" data-file-height="2848"></a>
  225. <div class="thumbcaption">
  226. <div class="magnify">
  227. <a href="/wiki/File:West_Ford_Flat_Geothermal_Cooling_Tower.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  228. </div> One of many power plants at
  229. <a href="/wiki/The_Geysers" title="The Geysers">The Geysers</a>, a geothermal power field in northern California, with a total output of over 750 MW.
  230. </div>
  231. </div>
  232. </div>
  233. <blockquote class="templatequote">
  234. <p>First-generation technologies are most competitive in locations with abundant resources. Their future use depends on the exploration of the available resource potential, particularly in developing countries, and on overcoming challenges related to the environment and social acceptance.</p>
  235. <div class="templatequotecite">
  236. <cite>— International Energy Agency, <i>RENEWABLES IN GLOBAL ENERGY SUPPLY, An IEA Fact Sheet</i><sup id="cite_ref-IEA_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEA-9">[9]</a></sup></cite>
  237. </div>
  238. </blockquote>
  239. <p>Among sources of renewable energy, hydroelectric plants have the advantages of being long-lived—many existing plants have operated for more than 100 years. Also, hydroelectric plants are clean and have few emissions. Criticisms directed at large-scale hydroelectric plants include: dislocation of people living where the reservoirs are planned, and release of significant amounts of carbon dioxide during construction and flooding of the reservoir.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></p>
  240. <div class="thumb tleft">
  241. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
  242. <a href="/wiki/File:Nishidaira_Dam.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nishidaira_Dam.jpg/220px-Nishidaira_Dam.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nishidaira_Dam.jpg/330px-Nishidaira_Dam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nishidaira_Dam.jpg/440px-Nishidaira_Dam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2462" data-file-height="1846"></a>
  243. <div class="thumbcaption">
  244. <div class="magnify">
  245. <a href="/wiki/File:Nishidaira_Dam.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  246. </div>
  247. <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectric dams</a> are one of the most widely deployed sources of sustainable energy.
  248. </div>
  249. </div>
  250. </div>
  251. <p>However, it has been found that high emissions are associated only with shallow reservoirs in warm (tropical) locales, and recent innovations in hydropower turbine technology are enabling efficient development of low-impact <a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">run-of-the-river hydroelectricity</a> projects.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> Generally speaking, hydroelectric plants produce much lower life-cycle emissions than other types of generation. Hydroelectric power, which underwent extensive development during growth of electrification in the 19th and 20th centuries, is experiencing resurgence of development in the 21st century. The areas of greatest hydroelectric growth are the booming economies of Asia. China is the development leader; however, other Asian nations are installing hydropower at a rapid pace. This growth is driven by much increased energy costs—especially for imported energy—and widespread desires for more domestically produced, clean, renewable, and economical generation.</p>
  252. <div class="thumb tright">
  253. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
  254. <a href="/wiki/File:Hydroelectric_dam.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Hydroelectric_dam.png/220px-Hydroelectric_dam.png" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Hydroelectric_dam.png/330px-Hydroelectric_dam.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Hydroelectric_dam.png/440px-Hydroelectric_dam.png 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="430"></a>
  255. <div class="thumbcaption">
  256. <div class="magnify">
  257. <a href="/wiki/File:Hydroelectric_dam.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  258. </div> Hydroelectric dam in cross section
  259. </div>
  260. </div>
  261. </div>
  262. <p><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a> plants can operate 24 hours per day, providing base-load capacity, and the world potential capacity for geothermal power generation is estimated at 85 GW over the next 30 years. However, geothermal power is accessible only in limited areas of the world, including the <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Geothermal energy in the United States">United States</a>, Central America, East Africa, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Iceland" title="Geothermal power in Iceland">Iceland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Indonesia" title="Geothermal power in Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_Philippines" title="Geothermal power in the Philippines">Philippines</a>. The costs of geothermal energy have dropped substantially from the systems built in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-IEA_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEA-9">[9]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal heat">Geothermal heat</a> generation can be competitive in many countries producing geothermal power, or in other regions where the resource is of a lower temperature. <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_geothermal_system" title="Enhanced geothermal system">Enhanced geothermal system</a> (EGS) technology does not require natural convective hydrothermal resources, so it can be used in areas that were previously unsuitable for geothermal power, if the resource is very large. EGS is currently under research at the U.S. Department of Energy.</p>
  263. <p><a href="/wiki/Biomass_briquettes" title="Biomass briquettes">Biomass briquettes</a> are increasingly being used in the developing world as an alternative to charcoal. The technique involves the conversion of almost any plant matter into compressed briquettes that typically have about 70% the calorific value of charcoal. There are relatively few examples of large-scale briquette production. One exception is in <a href="/wiki/North_Kivu" title="North Kivu">North Kivu</a>, in eastern <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a>, where forest clearance for charcoal production is considered to be the biggest threat to mountain gorilla habitat. The staff of <a href="/wiki/Virunga_National_Park" title="Virunga National Park">Virunga National Park</a> have successfully trained and equipped over 3500 people to produce biomass briquettes, thereby replacing charcoal produced illegally inside the national park, and creating significant employment for people living in extreme poverty in conflict-affected areas.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup></p>
  264. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Second-generation_technologies">Second-generation technologies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Second-generation technologies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  265. <div class="thumb tright">
  266. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
  267. <a href="/wiki/File:Global_Wind_Power_Cumulative_Capacity.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Global_Wind_Power_Cumulative_Capacity.svg/220px-Global_Wind_Power_Cumulative_Capacity.svg.png" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Global_Wind_Power_Cumulative_Capacity.svg/330px-Global_Wind_Power_Cumulative_Capacity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Global_Wind_Power_Cumulative_Capacity.svg/440px-Global_Wind_Power_Cumulative_Capacity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600"></a>
  268. <div class="thumbcaption">
  269. <div class="magnify">
  270. <a href="/wiki/File:Global_Wind_Power_Cumulative_Capacity.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  271. </div> Wind power: worldwide installed capacity
  272. <sup id="cite_ref-GWEC_Market_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GWEC_Market-14">[14]</a></sup>
  273. </div>
  274. </div>
  275. </div>
  276. <blockquote class="templatequote">
  277. <p>Markets for second-generation technologies are strong and growing, but only in a few countries. The challenge is to broaden the market base for continued growth worldwide. Strategic deployment in one country not only reduces technology costs for users there, but also for those in other countries, contributing to overall cost reductions and performance improvement.</p>
  278. <div class="templatequotecite">
  279. <cite>— <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a>, <i>RENEWABLES IN GLOBAL ENERGY SUPPLY, An IEA Fact Sheet</i><sup id="cite_ref-IEA_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEA-9">[9]</a></sup></cite>
  280. </div>
  281. </blockquote>
  282. <p><a href="/wiki/Solar_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar heating">Solar heating</a> systems are a well known second-generation technology and generally consist of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage, and a reservoir or tank for heat storage and subsequent use. The systems may be used to heat domestic hot water, swimming pool water, or for space heating.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> The heat can also be used for industrial applications or as an energy input for other uses such as cooling equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> In many climates, a solar heating system can provide a very high percentage (50 to 75%) of domestic hot water energy. Energy received from the sun by the earth is that of electromagnetic radiation. Light ranges of visible, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, and radio waves received by the earth through solar energy. The highest power of radiation comes from visible light. Solar power is complicated due to changes in seasons and from day to night. Cloud cover can also add to complications of solar energy, and not all radiation from the sun reaches earth because it is absorbed and dispersed due to clouds and gases within the earth's atmospheres.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup></p>
  283. <div class="thumb tleft">
  284. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
  285. <a href="/wiki/File:SolarPowerPlantSerpa.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/SolarPowerPlantSerpa.jpg/220px-SolarPowerPlantSerpa.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/SolarPowerPlantSerpa.jpg/330px-SolarPowerPlantSerpa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/SolarPowerPlantSerpa.jpg/440px-SolarPowerPlantSerpa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200"></a>
  286. <div class="thumbcaption">
  287. <div class="magnify">
  288. <a href="/wiki/File:SolarPowerPlantSerpa.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  289. </div> 11 MW solar power plant near Serpa, Portugal
  290. <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Sustainable_energy&amp;params=38_1_51_N_7_37_22_W_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">38°1′51″N</span> <span class="longitude">7°37′22″W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">38.03083°N 7.62278°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">38.03083; -7.62278</span></span></span></a></span>
  291. </div>
  292. </div>
  293. </div>
  294. <p>In the 1980s and early 1990s, most photovoltaic modules provided <a href="/wiki/Remote-area_power_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote-area power supply">remote-area power supply</a>, but from around 1995, industry efforts have focused increasingly on developing <a href="/wiki/Building_integrated_photovoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Building integrated photovoltaics">building integrated photovoltaics</a> and power plants for grid connected applications (see <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_stations" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic power stations">photovoltaic power stations</a> article for details). Currently the largest photovoltaic power plant in North America is the <a href="/wiki/Nellis_Solar_Power_Plant" title="Nellis Solar Power Plant">Nellis Solar Power Plant</a> (15 MW).<sup id="cite_ref-prn1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prn1-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> There is a proposal to build a <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_station_in_Victoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power station in Victoria">Solar power station in Victoria</a>, Australia, which would be the world's largest PV power station, at 154 MW.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> Other large photovoltaic power stations include the <a href="/wiki/Girassol_solar_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Girassol solar power plant">Girassol solar power plant</a> (62 MW),<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Waldpolenz_Solar_Park" title="Waldpolenz Solar Park">Waldpolenz Solar Park</a> (40 MW).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup></p>
  295. <div class="thumb tright">
  296. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;">
  297. <a href="/wiki/File:Solarpipe-scheme.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Solarpipe-scheme.svg/250px-Solarpipe-scheme.svg.png" width="250" height="218" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Solarpipe-scheme.svg/375px-Solarpipe-scheme.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Solarpipe-scheme.svg/500px-Solarpipe-scheme.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="180"></a>
  298. <div class="thumbcaption">
  299. <div class="magnify">
  300. <a href="/wiki/File:Solarpipe-scheme.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  301. </div> Sketch of a Parabolic Trough Collector
  302. </div>
  303. </div>
  304. </div>
  305. <p>Some of the second-generation renewables, such as wind power, have high potential and have already realised relatively low production costs. At the end of 2008, worldwide <a href="/wiki/Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">wind farm</a> capacity was 120,791 <a href="/wiki/Megawatts" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatts">megawatts</a> (MW), representing an increase of 28.8 percent during the year,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a> produced some 1.3% of global electricity consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> Wind power accounts for approximately 20% of electricity use in <a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_Denmark" title="Wind power in Denmark">Denmark</a>, 9% in <a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_Spain" title="Wind power in Spain">Spain</a>, and 7% in <a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_Germany" title="Wind power in Germany">Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> However, it may be difficult to site wind turbines in some areas for aesthetic or environmental reasons, and it may be difficult to integrate wind power into electricity grids in some cases.<sup id="cite_ref-IEA_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEA-9">[9]</a></sup></p>
  306. <p>Solar thermal power stations have been successfully operating in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> commercially since the late 1980s, including the largest solar power plant of any kind, the 350 MW <a href="/wiki/Solar_Energy_Generating_Systems" title="Solar Energy Generating Systems">Solar Energy Generating Systems</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nevada_Solar_One" title="Nevada Solar One">Nevada Solar One</a> is another 64MW plant which has recently opened.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> Other parabolic trough power plants being proposed are two 50MW plants in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, and a 100MW plant in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup></p>
  307. <div class="thumb tleft">
  308. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
  309. <a href="/wiki/File:EthanolPetrol.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/EthanolPetrol.jpg/220px-EthanolPetrol.jpg" width="220" height="158" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/EthanolPetrol.jpg/330px-EthanolPetrol.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/EthanolPetrol.jpg/440px-EthanolPetrol.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="574"></a>
  310. <div class="thumbcaption">
  311. <div class="magnify">
  312. <a href="/wiki/File:EthanolPetrol.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  313. </div> Information on pump, California
  314. </div>
  315. </div>
  316. </div>
  317. <p><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">ethanol fuel</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">sugar cane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> now provides 18 percent of the country's automotive fuel. As a result of this, together with the exploitation of domestic deep water oil sources, Brazil, which years ago had to import a large share of the petroleum needed for domestic consumption, recently reached complete self-sufficiency in oil.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup></p>
  318. <p>Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford</a>, <a href="/wiki/DaimlerChrysler" class="mw-redirect" title="DaimlerChrysler">DaimlerChrysler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="General Motors Corporation">GM</a> are among the automobile companies that sell "flexible-fuel" cars, trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.<sup id="cite_ref-world_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-world-33">[33]</a></sup></p>
  319. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Third-generation_technologies">Third-generation technologies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Third-generation technologies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  320. <div class="thumb tright">
  321. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
  322. <a href="/wiki/File:Flipped_MIT_Solar_One_house.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Flipped_MIT_Solar_One_house.png/220px-Flipped_MIT_Solar_One_house.png" width="220" height="172" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Flipped_MIT_Solar_One_house.png/330px-Flipped_MIT_Solar_One_house.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Flipped_MIT_Solar_One_house.png 2x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="259"></a>
  323. <div class="thumbcaption">
  324. <div class="magnify">
  325. <a href="/wiki/File:Flipped_MIT_Solar_One_house.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  326. </div> MIT's Solar House#1 built in 1939 used
  327. <a href="/wiki/Seasonal_thermal_energy_storage" title="Seasonal thermal energy storage">seasonal thermal energy storage</a> (STES) for year-round heating.
  328. </div>
  329. </div>
  330. </div>
  331. <blockquote class="templatequote">
  332. <p>Third-generation technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or commercialised. They are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and RD&amp;D funding. These newest technologies include advanced <a href="/wiki/Biomass_gasification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomass gasification">biomass gasification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biorefinery" title="Biorefinery">biorefinery</a> technologies, <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar thermal">solar thermal</a> power stations, <a href="/wiki/Hot_dry_rock_geothermal_energy" title="Hot dry rock geothermal energy">hot dry rock geothermal energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean energy">ocean energy</a>.</p>
  333. <div class="templatequotecite">
  334. <cite>— International Energy Agency, <i>RENEWABLES IN GLOBAL ENERGY SUPPLY, An IEA Fact Sheet</i><sup id="cite_ref-IEA_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEA-9">[9]</a></sup></cite>
  335. </div>
  336. </blockquote>
  337. <p>Bio-fuels may be defined as "renewable," yet may not be "sustainable," due to soil degradation. As of 2012, 40% of American corn production goes toward ethanol. Ethanol takes up a large percentage of "Clean Energy Use" when in fact, it is still debatable whether ethanol should be considered as a "Clean Energy."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup></p>
  338. <p>According to the International Energy Agency, new bioenergy (biofuel) technologies being developed today, notably cellulosic ethanol biorefineries, could allow biofuels to play a much bigger role in the future than previously thought.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant matter composed primarily of inedible cellulose fibers that form the stems and branches of most plants. Crop residues (such as corn stalks, wheat straw and rice straw), wood waste and <a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">municipal solid waste</a> are potential sources of cellulosic biomass. Dedicated <a href="/wiki/Energy_crop" title="Energy crop">energy crops</a>, such as switchgrass, are also promising cellulose sources that can be <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainably produced</a> in many regions of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup></p>
  339. <div class="thumb tleft">
  340. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
  341. <a href="/wiki/File:SeaGen_installed.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/SeaGen_installed.jpg/220px-SeaGen_installed.jpg" width="220" height="184" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/SeaGen_installed.jpg/330px-SeaGen_installed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/SeaGen_installed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="358" data-file-height="300"></a>
  342. <div class="thumbcaption">
  343. <div class="magnify">
  344. <a href="/wiki/File:SeaGen_installed.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  345. </div> The world's first commercial
  346. <sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
  347. <a href="/wiki/Tidal_stream_generator" title="Tidal stream generator">tidal stream generator</a> –
  348. <a href="/wiki/SeaGen" title="SeaGen">SeaGen</a> – in
  349. <a href="/wiki/Strangford_Lough" title="Strangford Lough">Strangford Lough</a>. The strong
  350. <a href="/wiki/Wake" title="Wake">wake</a> shows the power in the tidal current.
  351. </div>
  352. </div>
  353. </div>
  354. <p>In terms of <a href="/wiki/Ocean_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean energy">ocean energy</a>, another third-generation technology, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> has the world's first commercial <a href="/wiki/Wave_farm" title="Wave farm">wave farm</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Agu%C3%A7adora_Wave_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Aguçadora Wave Park">Aguçadora Wave Park</a>, under construction in 2007. The farm will initially use three <a href="/wiki/Pelamis_Wave_Energy_Converter" title="Pelamis Wave Energy Converter">Pelamis P-750</a> machines generating 2.25 MW.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> and costs are put at 8.5 million <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">euro</a>. Subject to successful operation, a further 70 million euro is likely to be invested before 2009 on a further 28 machines to generate 525 MW.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> Funding for a wave farm in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> was announced in February, 2007 by the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Executive" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Executive">Scottish Executive</a>, at a cost of over 4 million <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">pounds</a>, as part of a £13 million funding packages for <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Scotland#Wave_power" title="Renewable energy in Scotland">ocean power in Scotland</a>. The farm will be the world's largest with a capacity of 3 MW generated by four Pelamis machines.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> (see also <a href="/wiki/Wave_farm" title="Wave farm">Wave farm</a>).</p>
  355. <p>In 2007, the world's first turbine to create commercial amounts of energy using <a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">tidal power</a> was installed in the narrows of <a href="/wiki/Strangford_Lough" title="Strangford Lough">Strangford Lough</a> in Ireland. The 1.2 MW underwater tidal electricity generator takes advantage of the fast tidal flow in the lough which can be up to 4<a href="/wiki/M/s" class="mw-redirect" title="M/s">m/s</a>. Although the generator is powerful enough to power up to a thousand homes, the <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a> has a minimal <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental impact</a>, as it is almost entirely submerged, and the rotors turn slowly enough that they pose no danger to <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup></p>
  356. <p>Solar power panels that use <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>, which can create circuits out of individual silicon molecules, may cost half as much as traditional photovoltaic cells, according to executives and investors involved in developing the products. <a href="/wiki/Nanosolar" title="Nanosolar">Nanosolar</a> has secured more than $100 million from investors to build a factory for nanotechnology thin-film solar panels. The company's plant has a planned production capacity of 430 megawatts peak power of solar cells per year. Commercial production started and first panels have been shipped<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> to customers in late 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup></p>
  357. <p>Large national and regional research projects on <a href="/wiki/Artificial_photosynthesis" title="Artificial photosynthesis">artificial photosynthesis</a> are designing <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>-based systems that use solar energy to split water into hydrogen fuel.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> and a proposal has been made for a Global Artificial Photosynthesis project<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> In 2011, researchers at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) developed what they are calling an "Artificial Leaf", which is capable of splitting water into <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> directly from solar power when dropped into a glass of water. One side of the "Artificial Leaf" produces bubbles of hydrogen, while the other side produces bubbles of oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-mit_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mit-48">[48]</a></sup></p>
  358. <p>Most current solar power plants are made from an array of similar units where each unit is continuously adjusted, e.g., with some step motors, so that the light converter stays in focus of the sun light. The cost of focusing light on converters such as high-power solar panels, <a href="/wiki/Stirling_engine" title="Stirling engine">Stirling engine</a>, etc. can be dramatically decreased with a simple and efficient rope mechanics.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> In this technique many units are connected with a network of ropes so that pulling two or three ropes is sufficient to keep all light converters simultaneously in focus as the direction of the sun changes.</p>
  359. <p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nss.org:8080/settlement/ssp/index.htm#japan">Japan</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nss.org:8080/settlement/ssp/index.htm#china">China</a> have national programs aimed at commercial scale <a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP)</a>. The China Academy of Space Technology (CAST) won the 2015 International <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sunsat.gridlab.ohio.edu/">SunSat Design Competition</a> with this <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XhgJwnpYRGc">video</a> of their <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spacejournal.ohio.edu/issue18/cast.html">Multi-Rotary Joint design</a>. Proponents of SBSP <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zrcoD_vHzxU">claim</a> that Space-Based Solar Power would be <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M9dQsRv1XDg">clean, constant, and global</a>, and could scale to meet all planetary energy demand.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50">[50]</a></sup> A recent multi-agency industry <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d3ssp.org/the-proposal/">proposal</a> (echoing the 2008 Pentagon recommendation) won the SECDEF/SECSTATE/USAID Director D3 (Diplomacy, Development, Defense) Innovation Challenge.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.nss.org/news/releases/NSS_Release_20160307_SSPD3.html">[6]</a></p>
  360. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Enabling_technologies_for_renewable_energy">Enabling technologies for renewable energy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Enabling technologies for renewable energy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  361. <p><a href="/wiki/Heat_pumps" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat pumps">Heat pumps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage" title="Thermal energy storage">Thermal energy storage</a> are classes of technologies that can enable the utilization of renewable energy sources that would otherwise be inaccessible due to a temperature that is too low for utilization or a time lag between when the energy is available and when it is needed. While enhancing the temperature of available renewable thermal energy, heat pumps have the additional property of leveraging electrical power (or in some cases mechanical or thermal power) by using it to extract additional energy from a low quality source (such as seawater, lake water, the ground, the air, or waste heat from a process).</p>
  362. <p>Thermal storage technologies allow heat or cold to be stored for periods of time ranging from hours or overnight to <a href="/wiki/Seasonal_thermal_energy_storage" title="Seasonal thermal energy storage">interseasonal</a>, and can involve storage of <a href="/wiki/Sensible_heat" title="Sensible heat">sensible energy</a> (i.e. by changing the temperature of a medium) or <a href="/wiki/Latent_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent energy">latent energy</a> (i.e. through phase changes of a medium, such between water and slush or ice). Short-term thermal storages can be used for peak-shaving in district heating or electrical distribution systems. Kinds of renewable or alternative energy sources that can be enabled include natural energy (e.g. collected via solar-thermal collectors, or dry cooling towers used to collect winter's cold), waste energy (e.g. from HVAC equipment, industrial processes or power plants), or surplus energy (e.g. as seasonally from hydropower projects or intermittently from wind farms). The <a href="/wiki/Drake_Landing_Solar_Community" title="Drake Landing Solar Community">Drake Landing Solar Community</a> (Alberta, Canada) is illustrative. <a href="/wiki/Seasonal_thermal_energy_storage" title="Seasonal thermal energy storage">borehole thermal energy storage</a> allows the community to get 97% of its year-round heat from solar collectors on the garage roofs, which most of the heat collected in summer.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> Types of storages for sensible energy include insulated tanks, borehole clusters in substrates ranging from gravel to bedrock, deep aquifers, or shallow lined pits that are insulated on top. Some types of storage are capable of storing heat or cold between opposing seasons (particularly if very large), and some storage applications require inclusion of a <a href="/wiki/Heat_pumps" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat pumps">heat pump</a>. Latent heat is typically stored in ice tanks or what are called <a href="/wiki/Phase-change_material" title="Phase-change material">phase-change materials</a> (PCMs).</p>
  363. <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Energy_efficiency">Energy efficiency</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Energy efficiency">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
  364. <p>Moving towards energy sustainability will require changes not only in the way energy is supplied, but in the way it is used, and reducing the amount of energy required to deliver various goods or services is essential. Opportunities for improvement on the demand side of the energy equation are as rich and diverse as those on the supply side, and often offer significant economic benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup></p>
  365. <p>Renewable energy and <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">energy efficiency</a> are sometimes said to be the "twin pillars" of sustainable energy policy. Both resources must be developed in order to stabilize and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Efficiency slows down energy demand growth so that rising clean energy supplies can make deep cuts in fossil fuel use. If energy use grows too fast, renewable energy development will chase a receding target. A recent historical analysis has demonstrated that the rate of <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">energy efficiency</a> improvements has generally been outpaced by the rate of growth in energy demand, which is due to continuing economic and <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a>. As a result, despite energy efficiency gains, total energy use and related carbon emissions have continued to increase. Thus, given the thermodynamic and practical limits of energy efficiency improvements, slowing the growth in energy demand is essential.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> However, unless clean energy supplies come online rapidly, slowing demand growth will only begin to reduce total emissions; reducing the carbon content of energy sources is also needed. Any serious vision of a sustainable energy economy thus requires commitments to both renewables and efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup></p>
  366. <p>Renewable energy (and energy efficiency) are no longer niche sectors that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increased levels of investment and the fact that much of the capital is coming from more conventional financial actors suggest that sustainable energy options are now becoming mainstream.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> An example of this would be The <a href="/wiki/Alliance_to_Save_Energy" title="Alliance to Save Energy">Alliance to Save Energy</a>'s Project with Stahl Consolidated Manufacturing, (Huntsville, Alabama, USA) (StahlCon 7), a patented generator shaft designed to reduce emissions within existing power generating systems, granted publishing rights to the Alliance in 2007.</p>
  367. <p><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> concerns coupled with <a href="/wiki/Oil_price_increases_since_2003" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil price increases since 2003">high oil prices</a> and increasing government support are driving increasing rates of investment in the sustainable energy industries, according to a trend analysis from the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/UNEP" class="mw-redirect" title="UNEP">UNEP</a>, global investment in sustainable energy in 2007 was higher than previous levels, with $148 billion of new money raised in 2007, an increase of 60% over 2006. Total financial transactions in sustainable energy, including acquisition activity, was $204 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-invest_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-invest-57">[57]</a></sup></p>
  368. <p>Investment flows in 2007 broadened and diversified, making the overall picture one of greater breadth and depth of sustainable energy use. The mainstream capital markets are "now fully receptive to sustainable energy companies, supported by a surge in funds destined for clean energy investment".<sup id="cite_ref-invest_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-invest-57">[57]</a></sup></p>
  369. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Smart-grid_technology">Smart-grid technology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Smart-grid technology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  370. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  371. Main article:
  372. <a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a>
  373. </div>
  374. <p>Smart grid refers to a class of technology people are using to bring utility electricity delivery systems into the 21st century, using computer-based remote control and automation.<sup id="cite_ref-Smart_grid_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smart_grid-58">[58]</a></sup> These systems are made possible by two-way communication technology and computer processing that has been used for decades in other industries. They are beginning to be used on electricity networks, from the power plants and wind farms all the way to the consumers of electricity in homes and businesses. They offer many benefits to utilities and consumers—mostly seen in big improvements in energy efficiency on the electricity grid and in the energy users’ homes and offices.<sup id="cite_ref-Smart_grid_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smart_grid-58">[58]</a></sup></p>
  375. <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Green_energy_and_green_power"><span id="Green_energy"></span>Green energy and green power</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Green energy and green power">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
  376. <div class="thumb tright">
  377. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
  378. <a href="/wiki/File:Solar_Array.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Solar_Array.jpg/220px-Solar_Array.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Solar_Array.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="244" data-file-height="183"></a>
  379. <div class="thumbcaption">
  380. <div class="magnify">
  381. <a href="/wiki/File:Solar_Array.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  382. </div> A
  383. <a href="/wiki/Solar_trough" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar trough">solar trough</a> array is an example of green energy
  384. </div>
  385. </div>
  386. </div>
  387. <div class="thumb tright">
  388. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
  389. <a href="/wiki/File:Solar_panel_for_charging_phone.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Solar_panel_for_charging_phone.jpg/220px-Solar_panel_for_charging_phone.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Solar_panel_for_charging_phone.jpg/330px-Solar_panel_for_charging_phone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Solar_panel_for_charging_phone.jpg/440px-Solar_panel_for_charging_phone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3920" data-file-height="2940"></a>
  390. <div class="thumbcaption">
  391. <div class="magnify">
  392. <a href="/wiki/File:Solar_panel_for_charging_phone.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  393. </div> Public seat with integrated solar panel in
  394. <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>. Anyone can sit and plug in their mobile phone for free charging
  395. </div>
  396. </div>
  397. </div>
  398. <p>Green energy includes natural energetic processes that can be harnessed with little pollution. Green power is electricity generated from <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> sources.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
  399. <p><a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_digestion" title="Anaerobic digestion">Anaerobic digestion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">geothermal power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a>, small-scale <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomass_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomass power">biomass power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">tidal power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">wave power</a>, and some forms of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> (ones which are able to "burn" nuclear waste through a process known as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutation</a>, such as an <a href="/wiki/Integral_Fast_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Integral Fast Reactor">Integral Fast Reactor</a>, and therefore belong in the "Green Energy" category). Some definitions may also include power derived from the <a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">incineration</a> of waste.</p>
  400. <p>Some people, including <a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a> founder and first member <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Moore_(environmentalist)" title="Patrick Moore (environmentalist)">Patrick Moore</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Monbiot" title="George Monbiot">George Monbiot</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/James_Lovelock" title="James Lovelock">James Lovelock</a><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> have specifically classified <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> as green energy. Others, including <a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Phil_Radford" title="Phil Radford">Phil Radford</a><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> disagree, claiming that the problems associated with <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a> and the risk of nuclear accidents (such as the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>) pose an unacceptable risk to the environment and to humanity. However, newer nuclear reactor designs are capable of utilizing what is now deemed "nuclear waste" until it is no longer (or dramatically less) dangerous, and have design features that greatly minimize the possibility of a nuclear accident. These designs have yet to be proven. (See: <a href="/wiki/Integral_Fast_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Integral Fast Reactor">Integral Fast Reactor</a>)</p>
  401. <p>Some have argued that although green energy is a commendable effort in solving the world's increasing energy consumption, it must be accompanied by a cultural change that encourages the decrease of the world's appetite for energy.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup></p>
  402. <p>In several <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">countries</a> with <a href="/wiki/Common_carrier" title="Common carrier">common carrier</a> arrangements, <a href="/wiki/Electricity_retailing" title="Electricity retailing">electricity retailing</a> arrangements make it possible for consumers to purchase green electricity (<a href="/wiki/Renewable_electricity" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable electricity">renewable electricity</a>) from either their utility or a green power provider.</p>
  403. <p>When energy is purchased from the electricity network, the power reaching the consumer will not necessarily be generated from green energy sources. The local <a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">utility company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_power_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical power industry">electric company</a>, or state power pool buys their electricity from <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">electricity producers</a> who may be generating from <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear</a> or renewable energy sources. In many countries green energy currently provides a very small amount of electricity, generally contributing less than 2 to 5% to the overall pool. In some U.S. states, local governments have formed regional power purchasing pools using <a href="/wiki/Community_Choice_Aggregation" title="Community Choice Aggregation">Community Choice Aggregation</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_Bonds&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Solar Bonds (page does not exist)">Solar Bonds</a> to achieve a 51% renewable mix or higher, such as in the City of San Francisco.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup></p>
  404. <p>By participating in a green energy program a consumer may be having an effect on the energy sources used and ultimately might be helping to promote and expand the use of green energy. They are also making a statement to policy makers that they are willing to pay a price premium to support renewable energy. Green energy consumers either obligate the utility companies to increase the amount of green energy that they purchase from the pool (so decreasing the amount of non-green energy they purchase), or directly fund the green energy through a green power provider. If insufficient green energy sources are available, the utility must develop new ones or <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a> with a third party energy supplier to provide green energy, causing more to be built. However, there is no way the consumer can check whether or not the electricity bought is "green" or otherwise.</p>
  405. <p>In some countries such as the Netherlands, electricity companies guarantee to buy an equal amount of 'green power' as is being used by their green power customers. The <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> government exempts green power from pollution taxes, which means green power is hardly any more expensive than other power.</p>
  406. <p>In the United States, one of the main problems with purchasing green energy through the electrical grid is the current centralized infrastructure that supplies the consumer’s electricity. This infrastructure has led to increasingly frequent brown outs and black outs, high CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, higher energy costs, and power quality issues.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup> An additional $450 billion will be invested to expand this fledgling system over the next 20 years to meet increasing demand.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> In addition, this centralized system is now being further overtaxed with the incorporation of renewable energies such as wind, solar, and geothermal energies. Renewable resources, due to the amount of space they require, are often located in remote areas where there is a lower energy demand. The current infrastructure would make transporting this energy to high demand areas, such as urban centers, highly inefficient and in some cases impossible. In addition, despite the amount of renewable energy produced or the economic viability of such technologies only about 20 percent will be able to be incorporated into the grid. To have a more sustainable energy profile, the United States must move towards implementing changes to the electrical grid that will accommodate a mixed-fuel economy.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup></p>
  407. <p>However, several initiatives are being proposed to mitigate these distribution problems. First and foremost, the most effective way to reduce USA’s CO<sub>2</sub> emissions and slow global warming is through conservation efforts. Opponents of the current US electrical grid have also advocated for decentralizing the grid. This system would increase efficiency by reducing the amount of energy lost in transmission. It would also be economically viable as it would reduce the amount of power lines that will need to be constructed in the future to keep up with demand. Merging heat and power in this system would create added benefits and help to increase its efficiency by up to 80-90%. This is a significant increase from the current fossil fuel plants which only have an efficiency of 34%.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup></p>
  408. <p>A more recent concept for improving our electrical grid is to beam microwaves from Earth-orbiting satellites or the moon to directly when and where there is demand. The power would be generated from solar energy captured on the lunar surface In this system, the receivers would be "broad, translucent tent-like structures that would receive microwaves and convert them to electricity". NASA said in 2000 that the technology was worth pursuing but it is still too soon to say if the technology will be cost-effective.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup></p>
  409. <p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature" title="World Wide Fund for Nature">World Wide Fund for Nature</a> and several green electricity labelling organizations created the (now defunct) <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Green_Energy_Standard" title="Eugene Green Energy Standard">Eugene Green Energy Standard</a> under which the national green electricity certification schemes could be accredited to ensure that the purchase of green energy leads to the provision of additional new green energy resources.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup></p>
  410. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Local_green_energy_systems">Local green energy systems</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Local green energy systems">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  411. <div class="thumb tright">
  412. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;">
  413. <a href="/wiki/File:Quietrevolution_Bristol_3513051949.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Quietrevolution_Bristol_3513051949.jpg/170px-Quietrevolution_Bristol_3513051949.jpg" width="170" height="219" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Quietrevolution_Bristol_3513051949.jpg/255px-Quietrevolution_Bristol_3513051949.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Quietrevolution_Bristol_3513051949.jpg/340px-Quietrevolution_Bristol_3513051949.jpg 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="581"></a>
  414. <div class="thumbcaption">
  415. <div class="magnify">
  416. <a href="/wiki/File:Quietrevolution_Bristol_3513051949.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  417. </div> A small
  418. <a href="/wiki/Quietrevolution_wind_turbine" title="Quietrevolution wind turbine">Quietrevolution QR5</a>
  419. <a href="/wiki/Gorlov_helical_turbine" title="Gorlov helical turbine">Gorlov type</a> vertical axis wind turbine in Bristol, England. Measuring 3&nbsp;m in diameter and 5&nbsp;m high, it has a nameplate rating of 6.5 kW to the grid.
  420. </div>
  421. </div>
  422. </div>
  423. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  424. Main article:
  425. <a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a>
  426. </div>
  427. <p>Those not satisfied with the third-party grid approach to green energy via the power grid can install their own locally based renewable energy system. Renewable energy electrical systems from solar to wind to even local hydro-power in some cases, are some of the many types of renewable energy systems available locally. Additionally, for those interested in heating and cooling their dwelling via renewable energy, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_exchange_heat_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal exchange heat pump">geothermal heat pump</a> systems that tap the constant <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> of the earth, which is around 7 to 15 degrees <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a> a few feet underground and increases dramatically at greater depths, are an option over conventional <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>-fueled heat approaches. Also, in geographic locations where the <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">Earth's Crust</a> is especially thin, or near <a href="/wiki/Volcanoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanoes">volcanoes</a> (as is the case in <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>) there exists the potential to generate even more electricity than would be possible at other sites, thanks to a more significant <a href="/wiki/Temperature_gradient" title="Temperature gradient">temperature gradient</a> at these locales.</p>
  428. <p>The advantage of this approach in the United States is that many states offer incentives to offset the cost of installation of a renewable energy system. In California, Massachusetts and several other U.S. states, a new approach to community energy supply called <a href="/wiki/Community_Choice_Aggregation" title="Community Choice Aggregation">Community Choice Aggregation</a> has provided communities with the means to solicit a competitive electricity supplier and use municipal revenue bonds to finance development of local green energy resources. Individuals are usually assured that the electricity they are using is actually produced from a green energy source that they control. Once the system is paid for, the owner of a renewable energy system will be producing their own renewable electricity for essentially no cost and can sell the excess to the local utility at a profit.</p>
  429. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Using_green_energy">Using green energy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Using green energy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  430. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  431. Main articles:
  432. <a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a>,
  433. <a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a>, and
  434. <a href="/wiki/Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage">Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage</a>
  435. </div>
  436. <div class="thumb tright">
  437. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
  438. <a href="/wiki/File:Micro_WindMill.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Micro_WindMill.jpg/220px-Micro_WindMill.jpg" width="220" height="220" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Micro_WindMill.jpg/330px-Micro_WindMill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Micro_WindMill.jpg/440px-Micro_WindMill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024"></a>
  439. <div class="thumbcaption">
  440. <div class="magnify">
  441. <a href="/wiki/File:Micro_WindMill.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  442. </div> A 01 KiloWatt Micro Windmill for Domestic Usage
  443. </div>
  444. </div>
  445. </div>
  446. <p>Renewable energy, after its generation, needs to be stored in a medium for use with autonomous devices as well as vehicles. Also, to provide household electricity in remote areas (that is areas which are not connected to the <a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity" title="Mains electricity">mains electricity grid</a>), energy storage is required for use with renewable energy. Energy generation and consumption systems used in the latter case are usually <a href="/wiki/Stand-alone_power_system" title="Stand-alone power system">stand-alone power systems</a>.</p>
  447. <p>Some examples are:</p>
  448. <ul>
  449. <li>energy carriers as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compressed_air" title="Compressed air">compressed air</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxyhydrogen" title="Oxyhydrogen">oxyhydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" title="Battery (electricity)">batteries</a>, to power vehicles.</li>
  450. <li><a href="/wiki/Flywheel_energy_storage" title="Flywheel energy storage">flywheel energy storage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">pumped-storage hydroelectricity</a> is more usable in stationary applications (e.g. to power homes and offices). In household power systems, conversion of energy can also be done to reduce smell. For example, organic matter such as cow dung and spoilable organic matter can be converted to <a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a>. To eliminate emissions, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> is then used.</li>
  451. </ul>
  452. <p>Usually however, renewable energy is derived from the mains electricity grid. This means that energy storage is mostly not used, as the mains electricity grid is organised to produce the exact amount of energy being consumed at that particular moment. Energy production on the mains electricity grid is always set up as a combination of (large-scale) renewable energy plants, as well as other power plants as <a href="/wiki/Fossil-fuel_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil-fuel power plant">fossil-fuel power plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a>. This combination however, which is essential for this type of energy supply (as e.g. wind turbines, solar power plants etc.) can only produce when the wind blows and the sun shines. This is also one of the main drawbacks of the system as fossil fuel powerplants are polluting and are a main cause of <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" title="Global warming">global warming</a> (nuclear power being an exception). Although fossil fuel power plants too can be made emissionless (through carbon capture and storage), as well as renewable (if the plants are converted to e.g. biomass) the best solution is still to phase out the latter power plants over time. Nuclear power plants too can be more or less eliminated from their problem of nuclear waste through the use of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">nuclear reprocessing</a> and newer plants as <a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">fast breeder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> plants.</p>
  453. <p>Renewable energy power plants do provide a steady flow of energy. For example, hydropower plants, ocean thermal plants, osmotic power plants all provide power at a regulated pace, and are thus available power sources at any given moment (even at night, windstill moments etc.). At present however, the number of steady-flow renewable energy plants alone is still too small to meet energy demands at the times of the day when the irregular producing renewable energy plants cannot produce power.</p>
  454. <p>Besides the greening of fossil fuel and nuclear power plants, another option is the distribution and immediate use of power from solely renewable sources. In this set-up energy storage is again not necessary. For example, <a href="/wiki/Trans-Mediterranean_Renewable_Energy_Cooperation" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-Mediterranean Renewable Energy Cooperation">TREC</a> has proposed to distribute solar power from the Sahara to Europe. Europe can distribute wind and ocean power to the Sahara and other countries. In this way, power is produced at any given time as at any point of the planet as the sun or the wind is up or ocean waves and currents are stirring. This option however is probably not possible in the short-term, as fossil fuel and nuclear power are still the main sources of energy on the mains electricity net and replacing them will not be possible overnight.</p>
  455. <p>Several <a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">large-scale energy storage suggestions for the grid</a> have been done. Worldwide there is over 100&nbsp;GW of <a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">Pumped-storage hydroelectricity</a>. This improves efficiency and decreases energy losses but a conversion to an energy storing mains electricity grid is a very costly solution. Some costs could potentially be reduced by making use of energy storage equipment the consumer buys and not the state. An example is <a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">batteries</a> in electric cars that would double as an energy buffer for the electricity grid. However besides the cost, setting-up such a system would still be a very complicated and difficult procedure. Also, energy storage apparatus' as car batteries are also built with materials that pose a threat to the environment (e.g. Lithium). The combined production of batteries for such a large part of the population would still have environmental concerns. Besides car batteries however, other <a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a> projects make use of less polluting energy carriers (e.g. compressed air tanks and flywheel energy storage).</p>
  456. <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Carbon-neutral_and_negative_fuels">Carbon-neutral and negative fuels</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Carbon-neutral and negative fuels">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
  457. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  458. Main article:
  459. <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutral_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon neutral fuel">Carbon neutral fuel</a>
  460. </div>
  461. <p>A carbon-neutral fuel is a <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fuel" title="Synthetic fuel">synthetic fuel</a> – such as <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel fuel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a> – produced from renewable or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear energy</a> used to <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenation" title="Hydrogenation">hydrogenate</a> waste <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> recycled from <a href="/wiki/Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion" title="Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion">power plant flue-gas emissions</a>, recovered from automotive <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust gas</a>, or derived from <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> in <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeman2008_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeman2008-76">[76]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wang2012_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang2012-77">[77]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MacDowell2010_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDowell2010-78">[78]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Musadi2011_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Musadi2011-79">[79]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eisaman2012_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eisaman2012-80">[80]</a></sup> Such fuels are carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves2011rev_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves2011rev-81">[81]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Socolow2011_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Socolow2011-82">[82]</a></sup> To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon capture">carbon capture</a> at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in <a href="/wiki/Negative_carbon_dioxide_emission" title="Negative carbon dioxide emission">negative carbon dioxide emission</a> and net <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_remediation" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gas remediation">greenhouse gas remediation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goeppert2012_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goeppert2012-83">[83]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-House2011_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-House2011-84">[84]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lackner2012_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lackner2012-85">[85]</a></sup> Such fuels are produced by the <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis_of_water" title="Electrolysis of water">electrolysis of water</a> to make <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> used in turn in the <a href="/wiki/Sabatier_reaction" title="Sabatier reaction">Sabatier reaction</a> to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural gas power plant">power plants</a> as synthetic <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>, transported by <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" title="Pipeline transport">pipeline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanker_truck" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanker truck">truck</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tanker_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanker ship">tanker ship</a>, or be used in <a href="/wiki/Gas_to_liquids" title="Gas to liquids">gas to liquids</a> processes such as the <a href="/wiki/Fischer%E2%80%93Tropsch_process" title="Fischer–Tropsch process">Fischer–Tropsch process</a> to make traditional transportation or heating <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson2012_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson2012-86">[86]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pennline2010_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pennline2010-87">[87]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Graves2011cells_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves2011cells-88">[88]</a></sup></p>
  462. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Green_energy_and_labeling_by_region">Green energy and labeling by region</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Green energy and labeling by region">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  463. <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="European_Union">European Union</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: European Union">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
  464. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  465. See also:
  466. <a href="/wiki/Green_electricity_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Green electricity in the United Kingdom">Green electricity in the United Kingdom</a>
  467. </div>
  468. <p>Directive 2004/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 February 2004 on the promotion of <a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">cogeneration</a> based on a useful heat demand in the <a href="/wiki/Internal_energy_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal energy market">internal energy market</a><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> includes the article 5 (<i>Guarantee of origin of electricity</i> from high-efficiency cogeneration).</p>
  469. <p>European environmental NGOs have launched an ecolabel for green power. The ecolabel is called <a href="/wiki/EKOenergy" title="EKOenergy">EKOenergy</a>. It sets criteria for sustainability, additionality, consumer information and tracking. Only part of electricity produced by renewables fulfills the EKOenergy criteria.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup></p>
  470. <p>A <a href="/wiki/Green_electricity_in_the_United_Kingdom#The_Green_Energy_Supply_Certification_Scheme" title="Green electricity in the United Kingdom">Green Energy Supply Certification Scheme</a> was launched in the United Kingdom in February 2010. This implements guidelines from the Energy Regulator, <a href="/wiki/Ofgem" class="mw-redirect" title="Ofgem">Ofgem</a>, and sets requirements on transparency, the matching of sales by renewable energy supplies, and additionality.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup></p>
  471. <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="United_States">United States</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
  472. <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> (DOE), the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA), and the Center for Resource Solutions (CRS)<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup> recognizes the voluntary purchase of electricity from renewable energy sources (also called renewable electricity or green electricity) as green power.<sup id="cite_ref-renewableenergyworld.com_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renewableenergyworld.com-93">[93]</a></sup></p>
  473. <p>The most popular way to purchase renewable energy as revealed by <a href="/wiki/NREL" class="mw-redirect" title="NREL">NREL</a> data is through purchasing <a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Certificate" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable Energy Certificate">Renewable Energy Certificates</a> (RECs). According to a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_Marketing_Institute&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Natural Marketing Institute (page does not exist)">Natural Marketing Institute</a> (NMI)<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup> survey 55 percent of American consumers want companies to increase their use of renewable energy.<sup id="cite_ref-renewableenergyworld.com_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renewableenergyworld.com-93">[93]</a></sup></p>
  474. <p>DOE selected six companies for its 2007 Green Power Supplier Awards, including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Constellation_NewEnergy&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Constellation NewEnergy (page does not exist)">Constellation NewEnergy</a>; <a href="/wiki/3Degrees" title="3Degrees">3Degrees</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sterling_Planet&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Sterling Planet (page does not exist)">Sterling Planet</a>; <a href="/wiki/SunEdison" title="SunEdison">SunEdison</a>; <a href="/wiki/PacifiCorp" title="PacifiCorp">Pacific Power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocky Mountain Power">Rocky Mountain Power</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Silicon_Valley_Power" title="Silicon Valley Power">Silicon Valley Power</a>. The combined green power provided by those six winners equals more than 5 billion <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt-hour" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilowatt-hour">kilowatt-hours</a> per year, which is enough to power nearly 465,000 average U.S. households. In 2014, Arcadia Power made RECS available to homes and businesses in all 50 states, allowing consumers to use "100% green power" as defined by the EPA's Green Power Partnership.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup></p>
  475. <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> (USEPA) Green Power Partnership is a voluntary program that supports the organizational procurement of <a href="/wiki/Renewable_electricity" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable electricity">renewable electricity</a> by offering expert advice, technical support, tools and resources. This can help organizations lower the transaction costs of buying renewable power, reduce <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a>, and communicate its leadership to key stakeholders.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup></p>
  476. <p>Throughout the country, more than half of all U.S. electricity customers now have an option to purchase some type of green power product from a retail <a href="/wiki/Electricity_market" title="Electricity market">electricity provider</a>. Roughly one-quarter of the nation's utilities offer green power programs to customers, and voluntary retail sales of renewable energy in the United States totaled more than 12 billion kilowatt-hours in 2006, a 40% increase over the previous year.</p>
  477. <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sustainable_energy_research">Sustainable energy research</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Sustainable energy research">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
  478. <p>There are numerous organizations within the academic, federal, and commercial sectors conducting large scale advanced research in the field of sustainable energy. This research spans several areas of focus across the sustainable energy spectrum. Most of the research is targeted at improving efficiency and increasing overall energy yields.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> Multiple federally supported research organizations have focused on sustainable energy in recent years. Two of the most prominent of these labs are <a href="/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories" title="Sandia National Laboratories">Sandia National Laboratories</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> (NREL), both of which are funded by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> and supported by various corporate partners.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup> Sandia has a total budget of $2.4 billion <sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup> while NREL has a budget of $375 million.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup></p>
  479. <p>Scientific production towards sustainable energy systems is rising exponentially, growing from about 500 English journal papers only about renewable energy in 1992 to almost 9,000 papers in 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup></p>
  480. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Solar">Solar</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Solar">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  481. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  482. Main articles:
  483. <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a> and
  484. <a href="/wiki/Artificial_photosynthesis" title="Artificial photosynthesis">Artificial photosynthesis</a>
  485. </div>
  486. <p>The primary obstacle that is preventing the large scale implementation of solar powered energy generation is the inefficiency of current solar technology. Currently, photovoltaic (PV) panels only have the ability to convert around 16% of the sunlight that hits them into electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup> At this rate, many experts believe that solar energy is not efficient enough to be economically sustainable given the cost to produce the panels themselves. Both <a href="/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories" title="Sandia National Laboratories">Sandia National Laboratories</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> (NREL), have heavily funded solar research programs. The NREL solar program has a budget of around $75 million <sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup> and develops research projects in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> (PV) technology, solar thermal energy, and solar radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup> The budget for Sandia’s solar division is unknown, however it accounts for a significant percentage of the laboratory’s $2.4 billion budget.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> Several academic programs have focused on solar research in recent years. The Solar Energy Research Center (SERC) at <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina" title="University of North Carolina">University of North Carolina</a> (UNC) has the sole purpose of developing cost effective solar technology. In 2008, researchers at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) developed a method to store solar energy by using it to produce hydrogen fuel from water.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup> Such research is targeted at addressing the obstacle that solar development faces of storing energy for use during nighttime hours when the sun is not shining. In February 2012, North Carolina-based Semprius Inc., a solar development company backed by German corporation <a href="/wiki/Siemens" title="Siemens">Siemens</a>, announced that they had developed the world’s most efficient solar panel. The company claims that the prototype converts 33.9% of the sunlight that hits it to electricity, more than double the previous high-end conversion rate.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup> Major projects on <a href="/wiki/Artificial_photosynthesis" title="Artificial photosynthesis">artificial photosynthesis</a> or solar fuels are also under way in many developed nations.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup></p>
  487. <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Space-Based_Solar_Power">Space-Based Solar Power</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Space-Based Solar Power">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
  488. <p><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-Based Solar Power</a> Satellites seek to overcome the problems of storage and provide civilization-scale power that is clean, constant, and global. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nss.org:8080/settlement/ssp/index.htm#japan">Japan</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nss.org:8080/settlement/ssp/index.htm#china">China</a> have active national programs aimed at commercial scale <a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP)</a>, and both nation's hope to orbit demonstrations in the 2030s. The China Academy of Space Technology (CAST) won the 2015 International <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sunsat.gridlab.ohio.edu/">SunSat Design Competition</a> with this <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XhgJwnpYRGc">video</a> of their <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spacejournal.ohio.edu/issue18/cast.html">Multi-Rotary Joint design</a>. Proponents of SBSP <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zrcoD_vHzxU">claim</a> that Space-Based Solar Power would be <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M9dQsRv1XDg">clean, constant, and global</a>, and could scale to meet all planetary energy demand.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50">[50]</a></sup> A recent multi-agency industry <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d3ssp.org/the-proposal/">proposal</a> (echoing the 2008 Pentagon recommendation) won the SECDEF/SECSTATE/USAID Director D3 (Diplomacy, Development, Defense) Innovation Challenge <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.nss.org/news/releases/NSS_Release_20160307_SSPD3.html">[7]</a> with the following <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M9dQsRv1XDg">pitch</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zrcoD_vHzxU">vision video</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup> Northrop Grumman is funding CALTECH with $17.5 million<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> for an ultra lightweight design.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://climate.nasa.gov/news/2426/">[8]</a> Keith Henson recently posted a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VEkZkINrJaA">video of a "bootstrapping"</a> approach.</p>
  489. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Wind">Wind</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Wind">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  490. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  491. Main articles:
  492. <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a> and
  493. <a href="/wiki/Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">Wind farm</a>
  494. </div>
  495. <div class="thumb tright">
  496. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;">
  497. <a href="/wiki/File:US_projected_cost_of_wind_power.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/US_projected_cost_of_wind_power.png/300px-US_projected_cost_of_wind_power.png" width="300" height="131" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/US_projected_cost_of_wind_power.png/450px-US_projected_cost_of_wind_power.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/US_projected_cost_of_wind_power.png/600px-US_projected_cost_of_wind_power.png 2x" data-file-width="858" data-file-height="375"></a>
  498. <div class="thumbcaption">
  499. <div class="magnify">
  500. <a href="/wiki/File:US_projected_cost_of_wind_power.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  501. </div> The
  502. <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> projects that the levelized cost of wind power in the U.S. will decline about 25% from 2012 to 2030.
  503. <sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup>
  504. </div>
  505. </div>
  506. </div>
  507. <div class="thumb tright">
  508. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
  509. <a href="/wiki/File:Bangui_Windfarm_Ilocos_Norte_2007.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Bangui_Windfarm_Ilocos_Norte_2007.jpg/220px-Bangui_Windfarm_Ilocos_Norte_2007.jpg" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Bangui_Windfarm_Ilocos_Norte_2007.jpg/330px-Bangui_Windfarm_Ilocos_Norte_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Bangui_Windfarm_Ilocos_Norte_2007.jpg/440px-Bangui_Windfarm_Ilocos_Norte_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683"></a>
  510. <div class="thumbcaption">
  511. <div class="magnify">
  512. <a href="/wiki/File:Bangui_Windfarm_Ilocos_Norte_2007.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
  513. </div>
  514. <a href="/wiki/Bangui_Wind_Farm" title="Bangui Wind Farm">Bangui Wind Farm</a> in the
  515. <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.
  516. </div>
  517. </div>
  518. </div>
  519. <p>Wind energy research dates back several decades to the 1970s when <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> developed an analytical model to predict wind turbine power generation during high winds.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup> Today, both <a href="/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories" title="Sandia National Laboratories">Sandia National Laboratories</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> have programs dedicated to wind research. Sandia’s laboratory focuses on the advancement of materials, aerodynamics, and sensors.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup> The NREL wind projects are centered on improving wind plant power production, reducing their capital costs, and making wind energy more cost effective overall.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup> The Field Laboratory for Optimized Wind Energy (FLOWE) at <a href="/wiki/Caltech" class="mw-redirect" title="Caltech">Caltech</a> was established to research renewable approaches to wind energy farming technology practices that have the potential to reduce the cost, size, and environmental impact of wind energy production.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup> The president of Sky WindPower Corporation thinks that wind turbines will be able to produce electricity at a cent/kWh at an average which in comparison to coal-generated electricity is a fractional of the cost.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup></p>
  520. <p>A <b>wind farm</b> is a group of <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind turbines</a> in the same location used to produce electric power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore.</p>
  521. <p>Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the USA and China. The <a href="/wiki/Gansu_Wind_Farm" title="Gansu Wind Farm">Gansu Wind Farm</a> in China has over 5,000 MW installed with a goal of 20,000 MW by 2020. China has several other "wind power bases" of similar size. The <a href="/wiki/Alta_Wind_Energy_Center" title="Alta Wind Energy Center">Alta Wind Energy Center</a> in California is the largest onshore wind farm outside of China, with a capacity of 1020 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">MW</a> of power.<sup id="cite_ref-terragen_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-terragen-118">[118]</a></sup> Europe leads in the use of wind power with almost 66 GW, about 66 percent of the total globally, with Denmark in the lead according to the countries installed per-capita capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup> As of February 2012, the <a href="/wiki/Walney_Wind_Farm" title="Walney Wind Farm">Walney Wind Farm</a> in United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 367 MW, followed by <a href="/wiki/Thanet_Wind_Farm" title="Thanet Wind Farm">Thanet Wind Farm</a> (300 MW), also in the UK.</p>
  522. <p>There are many large wind farms under construction and these include <a href="/wiki/BARD_Offshore_1" title="BARD Offshore 1">BARD Offshore 1</a> (400 MW), <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Wind_Farm" title="Clyde Wind Farm">Clyde Wind Farm</a> (350 MW), <a href="/wiki/Greater_Gabbard_wind_farm" title="Greater Gabbard wind farm">Greater Gabbard wind farm</a> (500 MW), <a href="/wiki/Lincs_Wind_Farm" title="Lincs Wind Farm">Lincs Wind Farm</a> (270 MW), <a href="/wiki/London_Array" title="London Array">London Array</a> (1000 MW), <a href="/wiki/Lower_Snake_River_Wind_Project" title="Lower Snake River Wind Project">Lower Snake River Wind Project</a> (343 MW), <a href="/wiki/Macarthur_Wind_Farm" title="Macarthur Wind Farm">Macarthur Wind Farm</a> (420 MW), <a href="/wiki/Shepherds_Flat_Wind_Farm" title="Shepherds Flat Wind Farm">Shepherds Flat Wind Farm</a> (845 MW), and <a href="/wiki/Sheringham_Shoal_Offshore_Wind_Farm" title="Sheringham Shoal Offshore Wind Farm">Sheringham Shoal</a> (317 MW).</p>
  523. <p>Wind power has expanded quickly, its share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></sup></p>
  524. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Carbon-neutral_and_negative_fuels_2">Carbon-neutral and negative fuels</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Carbon-neutral and negative fuels">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  525. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  526. Main articles:
  527. <a href="/wiki/Carbon-neutral_fuel" title="Carbon-neutral fuel">Carbon-neutral fuel</a> and
  528. <a href="/wiki/Methanol_economy" title="Methanol economy">Methanol economy</a>
  529. </div>
  530. <p>Carbon-neutral fuels are <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fuel" title="Synthetic fuel">synthetic fuels</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel fuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ammonia#As_a_fuel" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup>) produced by <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenation" title="Hydrogenation">hydrogenating</a> waste <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> recycled from <a href="/wiki/Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion" title="Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion">power plant flue-gas emissions</a>, recovered from automotive <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust gas</a>, or derived from <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> in <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves2011rev_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves2011rev-81">[81]</a></sup> Commercial fuel synthesis companies suggest they can produce synthetic fuels for less than <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> fuels when oil costs more than $55 per barrel.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup> Renewable methanol (RM) is a fuel produced from <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and carbon dioxide by catalytic <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenation" title="Hydrogenation">hydrogenation</a> where the hydrogen has been obtained from <a href="/wiki/Water_electrolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Water electrolysis">water electrolysis</a>. It can be blended into transportation fuel or processed as a chemical feedstock.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup></p>
  531. <p>The <a href="/wiki/George_Olah" class="mw-redirect" title="George Olah">George Olah</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_recycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide recycling">carbon dioxide recycling</a> plant operated by <a href="/wiki/Carbon_Recycling_International" title="Carbon Recycling International">Carbon Recycling International</a> in <a href="/wiki/Grindav%C3%ADk" title="Grindavík">Grindavík</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> has been producing 2 million liters of <a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a> transportation fuel per year from flue exhaust of the <a href="/wiki/Svartsengi_Power_Station" title="Svartsengi Power Station">Svartsengi Power Station</a> since 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup> It has the capacity to produce 5 million liters per year.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup> A 250 kilowatt methane synthesis plant was constructed by the Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research (ZSW) at <a href="/wiki/Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Baden-Württemberg">Baden-Württemberg</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fraunhofer_Society" title="Fraunhofer Society">Fraunhofer Society</a> in Germany and began operating in 2010. It is being upgraded to 10 megawatts, scheduled for completion in autumn, 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-zsw-bw1_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zsw-bw1-126">[126]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zsw-bw2_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zsw-bw2-127">[127]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Audi" title="Audi">Audi</a> has constructed a carbon-neutral <a href="/wiki/Liquefied_natural_gas" title="Liquefied natural gas">liquefied natural gas</a> (LNG) plant in <a href="/wiki/Werlte" title="Werlte">Werlte</a>, Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup> The plant is intended to produce transportation fuel to offset LNG used in their <a href="/wiki/Audi_A3#A3_Sportback_g-tron_.282013-.29" title="Audi A3">A3 Sportback g-tron</a> automobiles, and can keep 2,800 metric tons of CO<sub>2</sub> out of the environment per year at its initial capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup> Other commercial developments are taking place in <a href="/wiki/Columbia,_South_Carolina" title="Columbia, South Carolina">Columbia, South Carolina</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Camarillo,_California" title="Camarillo, California">Camarillo, California</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Darlington" title="Darlington">Darlington</a>, England.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup></p>
  532. <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks hlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
  533. <tbody>
  534. <tr>
  535. <td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_economics" title="Category:Environmental economics">a series</a> about</td>
  536. </tr>
  537. <tr>
  538. <th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a></th>
  539. </tr>
  540. <tr>
  541. <th style="padding:0.1em">Concepts</th>
  542. </tr>
  543. <tr>
  544. <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
  545. <ul>
  546. <li><a href="/wiki/Green_accounting" title="Green accounting">Green accounting</a></li>
  547. <li><a href="/wiki/Green_economy" title="Green economy">Green economy</a></li>
  548. <li><a href="/wiki/Green_trading" title="Green trading">Green trading</a></li>
  549. <li><a href="/wiki/Eco_commerce" title="Eco commerce">Eco commerce</a></li>
  550. <li><a href="/wiki/Green_job" title="Green job">Green job</a></li>
  551. <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_enterprise" title="Environmental enterprise">Environmental enterprise</a></li>
  552. <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_environmentalism" title="Fiscal environmentalism">Fiscal environmentalism</a></li>
  553. <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_finance" title="Environmental finance">Environmental finance</a></li>
  554. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li>
  555. </ul> </td>
  556. </tr>
  557. <tr>
  558. <th style="padding:0.1em">Policies</th>
  559. </tr>
  560. <tr>
  561. <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
  562. <ul>
  563. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_tourism" title="Sustainable tourism">Sustainable tourism</a></li>
  564. <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotax" title="Ecotax">Ecotax</a></li>
  565. <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_tariff" title="Environmental tariff">Environmental tariff</a></li>
  566. <li><a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a></li>
  567. <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_pricing_reform" title="Environmental pricing reform">Environmental pricing reform</a></li>
  568. <li><a href="/wiki/Pigovian_tax" title="Pigovian tax">Pigovian tax</a></li>
  569. </ul> </td>
  570. </tr>
  571. <tr>
  572. <th style="padding:0.1em">Dynamics</th>
  573. </tr>
  574. <tr>
  575. <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
  576. <ul>
  577. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy commercialization</a></li>
  578. <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_abatement_cost" title="Marginal abatement cost">Marginal abatement cost</a></li>
  579. <li><a href="/wiki/Green_paradox" title="Green paradox">Green paradox</a></li>
  580. <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green politics</a></li>
  581. <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">Pollution haven hypothesis</a></li>
  582. </ul> </td>
  583. </tr>
  584. <tr>
  585. <th style="padding:0.1em">Carbon related</th>
  586. </tr>
  587. <tr>
  588. <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
  589. <ul>
  590. <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li>
  591. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutral_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon neutral fuel">Carbon neutral fuel</a></li>
  592. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" title="Carbon neutrality">Carbon neutrality</a></li>
  593. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_pricing" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon pricing">Carbon pricing</a></li>
  594. <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Emissions trading</a></li>
  595. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_credit" title="Carbon credit">Carbon credit</a></li>
  596. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offset" title="Carbon offset">Carbon offset</a></li>
  597. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li>
  598. <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_carbon_trading" title="Personal carbon trading">Personal carbon trading</a></li>
  599. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li>
  600. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_finance" title="Carbon finance">Carbon finance</a></li>
  601. <li><a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">Feed-in tariff</a></li>
  602. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_diet" title="Carbon diet">Carbon diet</a></li>
  603. <li><a href="/wiki/Food_miles" title="Food miles">Food miles</a></li>
  604. <li><a href="/wiki/2000-watt_society" title="2000-watt society">2000-watt society</a></li>
  605. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li>
  606. </ul> </td>
  607. </tr>
  608. <tr>
  609. <td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%">
  610. <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
  611. <ul>
  612. <li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Green_economics_sidebar" title="Template:Green economics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li>
  613. <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Green_economics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Green economics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li>
  614. <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Green_economics_sidebar&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li>
  615. </ul>
  616. </div> </td>
  617. </tr>
  618. </tbody>
  619. </table>
  620. <p>Such fuels are considered <a href="/wiki/Carbon-neutral" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon-neutral">carbon-neutral</a> because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lackner2012_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lackner2012-85">[85]</a></sup> To the extent that synthetic fuels displace <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid,<sup id="cite_ref-Eisaman2012_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eisaman2012-80">[80]</a></sup> and their combustion is subject to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon capture">carbon capture</a> at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in <a href="/wiki/Negative_carbon_dioxide_emission" title="Negative carbon dioxide emission">negative carbon dioxide emission</a> and net <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_remediation" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gas remediation">greenhouse gas remediation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goeppert2012_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goeppert2012-83">[83]</a></sup></p>
  621. <p>Such renewable fuels alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the <a href="/wiki/Vehicle_fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vehicle fleet">vehicle fleet</a> or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels, enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson2012_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson2012-86">[86]</a></sup> Carbon-neutral fuels offer relatively low cost energy <a href="/wiki/Power_storage#Synthetic_hydrocarbon_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Power storage">storage</a>, alleviating the problems of wind and solar <a href="/wiki/Intermittency" title="Intermittency">intermittency</a>, and they enable distribution of wind, water, and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson2012_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson2012-86">[86]</a></sup></p>
  622. <p>Nighttime <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a> is considered the most economical form of electrical power with which to synthesize fuel, because the <a href="/wiki/Load_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Load curve">load curve</a> for electricity peaks sharply during the warmest hours of the day, but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during the day, so, the price of nighttime wind power is often much less expensive than any alternative.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson2012_86-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson2012-86">[86]</a></sup> Germany has built a 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant which they are scaling up to 10 megawatts.<sup id="cite_ref-zsw-bw1_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zsw-bw1-126">[126]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zsw-bw2_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zsw-bw2-127">[127]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup></p>
  623. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Biomass">Biomass</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Biomass">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  624. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  625. Main articles:
  626. <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a> and
  627. <a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a>
  628. </div>
  629. <div class="thumb tmulti tright">
  630. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:229px;max-width:229px">
  631. <div class="tsingle" style="margin:1px;width:227px;max-width:227px">
  632. <div class="thumbimage">
  633. <a href="/wiki/File:Faz_S_Sofia_canavial_090607_REFON.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Faz_S_Sofia_canavial_090607_REFON.JPG/225px-Faz_S_Sofia_canavial_090607_REFON.JPG" width="225" height="150" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Faz_S_Sofia_canavial_090607_REFON.JPG/338px-Faz_S_Sofia_canavial_090607_REFON.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Faz_S_Sofia_canavial_090607_REFON.JPG/450px-Faz_S_Sofia_canavial_090607_REFON.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2176"></a>
  634. </div>
  635. <div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">
  636. <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel#Sugarcane_in_Brazil" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sugarcane plantation</a> to produce
  637. <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">ethanol</a> in Brazil
  638. </div>
  639. </div>
  640. <div class="tsingle" style="margin:1px;width:227px;max-width:227px">
  641. <div class="thumbimage">
  642. <a href="/wiki/File:Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg/225px-Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg" width="225" height="220" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg/338px-Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg/450px-Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="519"></a>
  643. </div>
  644. <div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">
  645. A
  646. <a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">CHP power station</a> using wood to provide electricity to over 30.000 households in France
  647. </div>
  648. </div>
  649. </div>
  650. </div>
  651. <p>Biomass is <a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">biological material</a> derived from living, or recently living organisms. It most often refers to plants or plant-derived materials which are specifically called <a href="/wiki/Lignocellulosic_biomass" title="Lignocellulosic biomass">lignocellulosic biomass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Biomass_Energy_Center_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biomass_Energy_Center-134">[134]</a></sup> As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a>. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: <i>thermal</i>, <i>chemical</i>, and <i>biochemical</i> methods. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today;<sup id="cite_ref-online.wsj.com_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-online.wsj.com-135">[135]</a></sup> examples include forest residues – such as dead trees, branches and <a href="/wiki/Tree_stump" title="Tree stump">tree stumps</a> –, yard clippings, wood chips and even <a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">municipal solid waste</a>. In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">chemicals</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuels</a>. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, including <a href="/wiki/Miscanthus" title="Miscanthus">miscanthus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switchgrass" class="mw-redirect" title="Switchgrass">switchgrass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">poplar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willow" title="Willow">willow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup> and a variety of tree species, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Eucalyptus" title="Eucalyptus">eucalyptus</a> to <a href="/wiki/Oil_palm" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil palm">oil palm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>).</p>
  652. <p>Biomass, biogas and biofuels are burned to produce heat/power and in doing so harm the environment. Pollutants such as sulphurous oxides (SO<sub>x</sub>), nitrous oxides (NO<sub>x</sub>), and particulate matter (PM) are produced from this combustion; the World Health Organisation estimates that 7 million premature deaths are caused each year by air pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-who.int_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-who.int-137">[137]</a></sup> Biomass combustion is a major contributor.<sup id="cite_ref-who.int_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-who.int-137">[137]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></sup></p>
  653. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethanol_biofuels">Ethanol biofuels</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Ethanol biofuels">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  654. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  655. Main article:
  656. <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">Ethanol fuel</a>
  657. </div>
  658. <p>As the primary source of biofuel in North America, many organizations are conducting research in the area of <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> production. On the Federal level, the <a href="/wiki/USDA" class="mw-redirect" title="USDA">USDA</a> conducts a large amount of research regarding ethanol production in the United States. Much of this research is targeted towards the effect of ethanol production on domestic food markets.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> has conducted various ethanol research projects, mainly in the area of <a href="/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanol" title="Cellulosic ethanol">cellulosic ethanol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanol" title="Cellulosic ethanol">Cellulosic ethanol</a> has many benefits over traditional corn based-ethanol. It does not take away or directly conflict with the food supply because it is produced from wood, grasses, or non-edible parts of plants.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup> Moreover, some studies have shown cellulosic ethanol to be more cost effective and economically sustainable than corn-based ethanol.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></sup> Even if we used all the corn crop that we have in the United States and converted it into ethanol it would only produce enough fuel to serve 13 percent of the United States total gasoline consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup><a href="/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories" title="Sandia National Laboratories">Sandia National Laboratories</a> conducts in-house cellulosic ethanol research<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></sup> and is also a member of the <a href="/wiki/Joint_BioEnergy_Institute" title="Joint BioEnergy Institute">Joint BioEnergy Institute</a> (JBEI), a research institute founded by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> with the goal of developing cellulosic biofuels.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></sup></p>
  659. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_Biofuels">Other Biofuels</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Other Biofuels">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  660. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  661. Main article:
  662. <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a>
  663. </div>
  664. <p>From 1978 to 1996, the <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> experimented with producing <a href="/wiki/Algae_fuel" title="Algae fuel">algae fuel</a> in the "<a href="/wiki/Aquatic_Species_Program" title="Aquatic Species Program">Aquatic Species Program</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-NREL_biofuels_algae_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NREL_biofuels_algae-147">[147]</a></sup> A self-published article by Michael Briggs, at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_New_Hampshire" title="University of New Hampshire">University of New Hampshire</a> Biofuels Group, offers estimates for the realistic replacement of all motor vehicle fuel with biofuels by utilizing algae that have a natural oil content greater than 50%, which Briggs suggests can be grown on algae ponds at wastewater treatment plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Briggs2004_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Briggs2004-148">[148]</a></sup> This oil-rich algae can then be extracted from the system and processed into biofuels, with the dried remainder further reprocessed to create ethanol. The production of algae to harvest oil for biofuels has not yet been undertaken on a commercial scale, but feasibility studies have been conducted to arrive at the above yield estimate. During the biofuel production process algae actually consumes the carbon dioxide in the air and turns it into oxygen through photosynthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></sup> In addition to its projected high yield, algaculture— unlike food crop-based biofuels — does not entail a decrease in food production, since it requires neither farmland nor fresh water. Many companies are pursuing algae bio-reactors for various purposes, including scaling up biofuels production to commercial levels.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></sup></p>
  665. <p>Several groups in various sectors are conducting research on <a href="/wiki/Jatropha_curcas" title="Jatropha curcas">Jatropha curcas</a>, a poisonous shrub-like tree that produces seeds considered by many to be a viable source of biofuels feedstock oil.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></sup> Much of this research focuses on improving the overall per acre oil yield of Jatropha through advancements in genetics, soil science, and horticultural practices. <a href="/wiki/SG_Biofuels" title="SG Biofuels">SG Biofuels</a>, a San Diego-based Jatropha developer, has used molecular breeding and biotechnology to produce elite hybrid seeds of Jatropha that show significant yield improvements over first generation varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Sustainable_Energy_Farming" title="Center for Sustainable Energy Farming">Center for Sustainable Energy Farming</a> (CfSEF) is a Los Angeles-based non-profit research organization dedicated to Jatropha research in the areas of plant science, agronomy, and horticulture. Successful exploration of these disciplines is projected to increase Jatropha farm production yields by 200-300% in the next ten years.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></sup></p>
  666. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Geothermal">Geothermal</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Geothermal">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  667. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  668. Main article:
  669. <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_electricity" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal electricity">Geothermal electricity</a>
  670. </div>
  671. <p><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal energy</a> is produced by tapping into the thermal energy created and stored within the earth. It arises from the radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium and other elements found in the Earth's crust.<sup id="cite_ref-L.C3.A1szl.C3.B3_1981_248.E2.80.93249_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L.C3.A1szl.C3.B3_1981_248.E2.80.93249-155">[155]</a></sup> Geothermal energy can be obtained by drilling into the ground, very similar to oil exploration, and then it is carried by a heat-transfer fluid (e.g. water, brine or steam).<sup id="cite_ref-L.C3.A1szl.C3.B3_1981_248.E2.80.93249_155-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L.C3.A1szl.C3.B3_1981_248.E2.80.93249-155">[155]</a></sup> Geothermal systems that are mainly dominated by water have the potential to provide greater benefits to the system and will generate more power.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorfman_1976_370.E2.80.93375_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorfman_1976_370.E2.80.93375-156">[156]</a></sup> Within these liquid-dominated systems, there are possible concerns of subsidence and contamination of ground-water resources. Therefore, protection of ground-water resources is necessary in these systems. This means that careful reservoir production and engineering is necessary in liquid-dominated geothermal reservoir systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorfman_1976_370.E2.80.93375_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorfman_1976_370.E2.80.93375-156">[156]</a></sup> Geothermal energy is considered sustainable because that thermal energy is constantly replenished.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></sup> However, the science of geothermal energy generation is still young and developing economic viability. Several entities, such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a><sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories" title="Sandia National Laboratories">Sandia National Laboratories</a><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></sup> are conducting research toward the goal of establishing a proven science around geothermal energy. The International Centre for Geothermal Research (IGC), a German geosciences research organization, is largely focused on geothermal energy development research.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a></sup></p>
  672. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Hydrogen">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  673. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  674. Main article:
  675. <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel" title="Hydrogen fuel">Hydrogen fuel</a>
  676. </div>
  677. <p>Over $1 billion of federal money has been spent on the research and development of hydrogen and a medium for energy storage in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></sup> Both the <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a><sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories" title="Sandia National Laboratories">Sandia National Laboratories</a><sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></sup> have departments dedicated to hydrogen research. Hydrogen is useful for energy storage and for use in airplanes, but is not practical for automobile use, as it is not very efficient, compared to using a battery — for the same cost a person can travel three times as far using a battery.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></sup></p>
  678. <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Thorium">Thorium</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: Thorium">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
  679. <div role="note" class="hatnote">
  680. Main article:
  681. <a href="/wiki/Thorium_fuel_cycle" title="Thorium fuel cycle">Thorium fuel cycle</a>
  682. </div>
  683. <p>There are potentially two sources of nuclear power. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Fission</a> is used in all current nuclear power plants. <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion</a> is the reaction that exists in stars, including the sun, and remains impractical for use on Earth, as fusion reactors are not yet available. However nuclear power is controversial politically and scientifically due to concerns about <a href="/wiki/High-level_radioactive_waste_management" title="High-level radioactive waste management">radioactive waste disposal</a>, safety, the risks of a severe accident, and technical and economical problems in dismantling of old power plants.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></sup></p>
  684. <p><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a> is a fissionable material used in <a href="/wiki/Thorium-based_nuclear_power" title="Thorium-based nuclear power">thorium-based nuclear power</a>. The thorium fuel cycle claims several potential advantages over a <a href="/wiki/Uranium_fuel_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium fuel cycle">uranium fuel cycle</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Thorium#Occurrence" title="Thorium">greater abundance</a>, superior physical and nuclear properties, better resistance to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear weapons proliferation</a><sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hargraves-Moir_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargraves-Moir-168">[168]</a></sup> and reduced <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinide</a> production.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargraves-Moir_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargraves-Moir-168">[168]</a></sup> Therefore, it is sometimes referred as sustainable.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a></sup></p>
  685. <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Clean_energy_investments">Clean energy investments</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: Clean energy investments">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
  686. <p>2010 was a record year for green energy investments. According to a report from <a href="/wiki/Bloomberg_L.P." title="Bloomberg L.P.">Bloomberg New Energy Finance</a>, nearly US $243 billion was invested in wind farms, solar power, electric cars, and other alternative technologies worldwide, representing a 30 percent increase from 2009 and nearly five times the money invested in 2004. China had $51.1 billion investment in clean energy projects in 2010, by far the largest figure for any country.<sup id="cite_ref-Chalons-Browne_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chalons-Browne-170">[170]</a></sup></p>
  687. <p>Within emerging economies, Brazil comes second to China in terms of clean energy investments. Supported by strong energy policies, Brazil has one of the world’s highest biomass and small-hydro power capacities and is poised for significant growth in wind energy investment. The cumulative investment potential in Brazil from 2010 to 2020 is projected as $67 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-Chalons-Browne_170-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chalons-Browne-170">[170]</a></sup></p>
  688. <p>India is another rising clean energy leader. While India ranked the 10th in private clean energy investments among G-20 members in 2009, over the next 10 years it is expected to rise to the third position, with annual clean energy investment under current policies forecast to grow by 369 percent between 2010 and 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-Chalons-Browne_170-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chalons-Browne-170">[170]</a></sup></p>
  689. <p>It is clear that the center of growth has started to shift to the developing economies and they may lead the world in the new wave of clean energy investments.<sup id="cite_ref-Chalons-Browne_170-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chalons-Browne-170">[170]</a></sup></p>
  690. <p>Around the world many sub-national governments - regions, states and provinces - have aggressively pursued sustainable energy investments. In the United States, California's leadership in renewable energy was recognised by The Climate Group when it awarded former Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger its inaugural award for international climate leadership in Copenhagen in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-theclimategroup.org_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theclimategroup.org-171">[171]</a></sup> In Australia, the state of South Australia - under the leadership of former Premier Mike Rann - has led the way with wind power comprising 26% of its electricity generation by the end of 2011, edging out coal fired generation for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-theclimategroup.org_171-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theclimategroup.org-171">[171]</a></sup> South Australia also has had the highest take-up per capita of household solar panels in Australia following the Rann Government's introduction of solar feed-in laws and educative campaign involving the installation of solar photovoltaic installations on the roofs of prominent public buildings, including the parliament, museum, airport and Adelaide Showgrounds pavilion and schools.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></sup> Rann, Australia's first climate change minister, passed legislation in 2006 setting targets for renewable energy and emissions cuts, the first legislation in Australia to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></sup></p>
  691. <p>Also, in the European Union there is a clear trend of promoting policies encouraging investments and financing for sustainable energy in terms of energy efficiency, innovation in energy exploitation and development of renewable resources, with increased consideration of environmental aspects and sustainability.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a></sup></p>
  692. <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Related_journals">Related journals</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: Related journals">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
  693. <p>Among scientific journals related to the interdisciplinary study of sustainable energy are:</p>
  694. <ul>
  695. <li><i><a href="/wiki/Energy_and_Environmental_Science" title="Energy and Environmental Science">Energy and Environmental Science</a></i></li>
  696. <li><i><a href="/wiki/Energy_for_Sustainable_Development" title="Energy for Sustainable Development">Energy for Sustainable Development</a></i></li>
  697. <li><i><a href="/wiki/Energy_Policy_(journal)" title="Energy Policy (journal)">Energy Policy</a></i></li>
  698. <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Renewable_and_Sustainable_Energy" title="Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy">Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy</a></i></li>
  699. <li><i><a href="/wiki/Renewable_and_Sustainable_Energy_Reviews" title="Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews">Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews</a></i></li>
  700. </ul>
  701. <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
  702. <div role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portal plainlist tright" style="margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px">
  703. <ul style="display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold">
  704. <li style="display:table-row"><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/28px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/42px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/56px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"></a></span><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy" title="Portal:Renewable energy">Renewable energy portal</a></span></li>
  705. <li style="display:table-row"><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" width="29" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124"></a></span><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></span></li>
  706. <li style="display:table-row"><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Sustainable_development.svg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/32px-Sustainable_development.svg.png" width="32" height="20" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/48px-Sustainable_development.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/64px-Sustainable_development.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="510"></a></span><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Sustainable_development" title="Portal:Sustainable development">Sustainable development portal</a></span></li>
  707. <li style="display:table-row"><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" width="32" height="21" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000"></span><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></span></li>
  708. </ul>
  709. </div>
  710. <div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 25em; -webkit-column-width: 25em; column-width: 25em;">
  711. <ul>
  712. <li><a href="/wiki/Ashden_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashden Award">Ashden Awards</a> for sustainable energy</li>
  713. <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">Electric vehicle</a></li>
  714. <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Environmental impact of the energy industry</a></li>
  715. <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Globe_Award" title="Energy Globe Award">Energy Globe Award</a></li>
  716. <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_hierarchy" title="Energy hierarchy">Energy hierarchy</a></li>
  717. <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_park" title="Energy park">Energy park</a></li>
  718. <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_economy" title="Hydrogen economy">Hydrogen economy</a></li>
  719. <li><a href="/wiki/International_Network_for_Sustainable_Energy" title="International Network for Sustainable Energy">International Network for Sustainable Energy</a> - INFORSE</li>
  720. <li><a href="/wiki/International_Renewable_Energy_Agency" title="International Renewable Energy Agency">International Renewable Energy Agency</a></li>
  721. <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design" title="Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design">Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design</a> (LEED)</li>
  722. <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_energy_storage_projects" title="List of energy storage projects">List of energy storage projects</a></li>
  723. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_and_Energy_Efficiency_Partnership" title="Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership">Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership</a> - REEEP</li>
  724. <li>U.S. Department of Energy <a href="/wiki/Solar_Decathlon" title="Solar Decathlon">Solar Decathlon</a></li>
  725. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Energy_for_All" title="Sustainable Energy for All">Sustainable Energy for All</a> initiative</li>
  726. <li><a href="/wiki/The_Venus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="The Venus Project">The Venus Project</a></li>
  727. </ul>
  728. </div>
  729. <ul>
  730. <li>GA Mansoori, N Enayati, LB Agyarko (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/9699">Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as Model State</a>, World Sci. Pub. Co., <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789814704007" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-981-4704-00-7</a></li>
  731. </ul>
  732. <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
  733. <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
  734. <ol class="references">
  735. <li id="cite_note-REEEP-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-REEEP_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-REEEP_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Renewable Energy &amp; Efficiency Partnership (August 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reeep.org/sites/default/files/Glossary%20of%20Terms%20in%20Sustainable%20Energy%20Regulation.pdf">"Glossary of terms in sustainable energy regulation"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-12-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.au=Efficiency+Partnership&amp;rft.au=Renewable+Energy&amp;rft.btitle=Glossary+of+terms+in+sustainable+energy+regulation&amp;rft.date=2004-08&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reeep.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FGlossary%2520of%2520Terms%2520in%2520Sustainable%2520Energy%2520Regulation.pdf&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  736. <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Paul_James_(academic)" title="Paul James (academic)">James, Paul</a>; Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/9294719/Urban_Sustainability_in_Theory_and_Practice_Circles_of_Sustainability_2015_"><i>Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice:</i></a>. London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul&amp;rft.aulast=James&amp;rft.au=Magee%2C+Liam&amp;rft.au=Scerri%2C+Andy&amp;rft.au=Steger%2C+Manfred+B.&amp;rft.btitle=Urban+Sustainability+in+Theory+and+Practice%3A&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F9294719%2FUrban_Sustainability_in_Theory_and_Practice_Circles_of_Sustainability_2015_&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span>; <cite class="citation journal">Liam Magee; Andy Scerri; Paul James; Jaes A. Thom; Lin Padgham; Sarah Hickmott; Hepu Deng; Felicity Cahill (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/4362669/Reframing_Social_Sustainability_Reporting_Towards_an_Engaged_Approach">"Reframing social sustainability reporting: Towards an engaged approach"</a>. <i>Environment, Development and Sustainability</i>. Springer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.atitle=Reframing+social+sustainability+reporting%3A+Towards+an+engaged+approach&amp;rft.au=Andy+Scerri&amp;rft.au=Felicity+Cahill&amp;rft.au=Hepu+Deng&amp;rft.au=Jaes+A.+Thom&amp;rft.au=Liam+Magee&amp;rft.au=Lin+Padgham&amp;rft.au=Paul+James&amp;rft.au=Sarah+Hickmott&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4362669%2FReframing_Social_Sustainability_Reporting_Towards_an_Engaged_Approach&amp;rft.jtitle=Environment%2C+Development+and+Sustainability&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  737. <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lynn R. Kahle, Eda Gurel-Atay, Eds (2014). <i>Communicating Sustainability for the Green Economy</i>. New York: M.E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-3680-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-3680-5">978-0-7656-3680-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.au=Lynn+R.+Kahle%2C+Eda+Gurel-Atay%2C+Eds&amp;rft.btitle=Communicating+Sustainability+for+the+Green+Economy&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7656-3680-5&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span> <span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span></li>
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  739. <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paenergyfuture.psu.edu/pubs/aceee_reports/aceee2007sustainable.pdf">"The Twin Pillars of Sustainable Energy: Synergies between Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technology and Policy"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. Aceee.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.btitle=The+Twin+Pillars+of+Sustainable+Energy%3A+Synergies+between+Energy+Efficiency+and+Renewable+Energy+Technology+and+Policy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paenergyfuture.psu.edu%2Fpubs%2Faceee_reports%2Faceee2007sustainable.pdf&amp;rft.pub=Aceee.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  740. <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.invvest.org/blog/invVEST-Definition-of-Sustainable-Energy/">"The Sustainable Energy Community&nbsp;:: invVest | invVEST Definition of Sustainable Energy"</a>. invVest<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-07-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.btitle=The+Sustainable+Energy+Community+%3A%3A+invVest+%26%23124%3B+invVEST+Definition+of+Sustainable+Energy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.invvest.org%2Fblog%2FinvVEST-Definition-of-Sustainable-Energy%2F&amp;rft.pub=invVest&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  741. <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jamaica Sustainable Development Network. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071130092351/http://www.jsdnp.org.jm/glossary.html">"Glossary of terms"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jsdnp.org.jm/glossary.html">the original</a> on 2007-11-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-04-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.au=Jamaica+Sustainable+Development+Network&amp;rft.btitle=Glossary+of+terms&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jsdnp.org.jm%2Fglossary.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  742. <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/greenpower/gpmarket/index.htm">"Green Power Defined | Green Power Partnership | US EPA"</a>. Epa.gov. 2006-06-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-07-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.btitle=Green+Power+Defined+%26%23124%3B+Green+Power+Partnership+%26%23124%3B+US+EPA&amp;rft.date=2006-06-28&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fgreenpower%2Fgpmarket%2Findex.htm&amp;rft.pub=Epa.gov&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
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  745. <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7046">Hydroelectric power's dirty secret revealed</a> <i>New Scientist</i>, 24 February 2005.</span></li>
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  815. <li id="cite_note-Graves2011rev-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Graves2011rev_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Graves2011rev_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Graves, Christopher; Ebbesen, Sune D.; Mogensen, Mogens; Lackner, Klaus S. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032110001942">"Sustainable hydrocarbon fuels by recycling CO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>O with renewable or nuclear energy"</a>. <i>Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 1–23. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rser.2010.07.014">10.1016/j.rser.2010.07.014</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.atitle=Sustainable+hydrocarbon+fuels+by+recycling+CO%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+and+H%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3EO+with+renewable+or+nuclear+energy&amp;rft.au=Ebbesen%2C+Sune+D.&amp;rft.aufirst=Christopher&amp;rft.au=Lackner%2C+Klaus+S.&amp;rft.aulast=Graves&amp;rft.au=Mogensen%2C+Mogens&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS1364032110001942&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.rser.2010.07.014&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Renewable+and+Sustainable+Energy+Reviews&amp;rft.pages=1-23&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=15" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span> (Review.)</span></li>
  816. <li id="cite_note-Socolow2011-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Socolow2011_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation report">Socolow, Robert; et al. (1 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/policy/reports/assessments/upload/dac2011.pdf"><i>Direct Air Capture of CO<sub>2</sub> with Chemicals: A Technology Assessment for the APS Panel on Public Affairs</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> (peer reviewed literature review). American Physical Society<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft.aulast=Socolow&amp;rft.btitle=Direct+Air+Capture+of+CO%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+with+Chemicals%3A+A+Technology+Assessment+for+the+APS+Panel+on+Public+Affairs&amp;rft.date=2011-06-01&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Fpolicy%2Freports%2Fassessments%2Fupload%2Fdac2011.pdf&amp;rft.pub=American+Physical+Society&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  817. <li id="cite_note-Goeppert2012-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goeppert2012_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goeppert2012_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Goeppert, Alain; Czaun, Miklos; Prakash, G.K. Surya; Olah, George A. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2012/ee/c2ee21586a">"Air as the renewable carbon source of the future: an overview of CO<sub>2</sub> capture from the atmosphere"</a>. <i>Energy and Environmental Science</i>. <b>5</b> (7): 7833–53. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1039%2FC2EE21586A">10.1039/C2EE21586A</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.atitle=Air+as+the+renewable+carbon+source+of+the+future%3A+an+overview+of+CO%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+capture+from+the+atmosphere&amp;rft.au=Czaun%2C+Miklos&amp;rft.aufirst=Alain&amp;rft.aulast=Goeppert&amp;rft.au=Olah%2C+George+A.&amp;rft.au=Prakash%2C+G.K.+Surya&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.rsc.org%2Fen%2Fcontent%2Farticlelanding%2F2012%2Fee%2Fc2ee21586a&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2FC2EE21586A&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.jtitle=Energy+and+Environmental+Science&amp;rft.pages=7833-53&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=5" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span> (Review.)</span></li>
  818. <li id="cite_note-House2011-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-House2011_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">House, K.Z.; Baclig, A.C.; Ranjan, M.; van Nierop, E.A.; Wilcox, J.; Herzog, H.J. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sequestration.mit.edu/pdf/1012253108full.pdf">"Economic and energetic analysis of capturing CO<sub>2</sub> from ambient air"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>108</b> (51): 20428–33. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1012253108">10.1073/pnas.1012253108</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.atitle=Economic+and+energetic+analysis+of+capturing+CO%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+from+ambient+air&amp;rft.au=Baclig%2C+A.C.&amp;rft.aufirst=K.Z.&amp;rft.au=Herzog%2C+H.J.&amp;rft.aulast=House&amp;rft.au=Ranjan%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=van+Nierop%2C+E.A.&amp;rft.au=Wilcox%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsequestration.mit.edu%2Fpdf%2F1012253108full.pdf&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1012253108&amp;rft.issue=51&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&amp;rft.pages=20428-33&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=108" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span> (Review.)</span></li>
  819. <li id="cite_note-Lackner2012-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lackner2012_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lackner2012_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Lackner, Klaus S.; et al. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/109/33/13156.abstract">"The urgency of the development of CO<sub>2</sub> capture from ambient air"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>109</b> (33): 13156–62. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1108765109">10.1073/pnas.1108765109</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&nbsp;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22843674">22843674</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.atitle=The+urgency+of+the+development+of+CO%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+capture+from+ambient+air&amp;rft.aufirst=Klaus+S.&amp;rft.aulast=Lackner&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnas.org%2Fcontent%2F109%2F33%2F13156.abstract&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1108765109&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22843674&amp;rft.issue=33&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&amp;rft.pages=13156-62&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=109" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr" xml:lang="en">Cite error: Invalid <code>&lt;ref&gt;</code> tag; name "Lackner2012" defined multiple times with different content (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_duplicate_key" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references duplicate key">help page</a>).</span></span></li>
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  894. <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Helmholtz Center Potsdam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/portal/gfz/Struktur/GeoEngineering-Zentren/Internationales+Geothermiezentrum;jsessionid=8F6BF49D51E1BAA8273B58EAEEA40F41">"International Centre for Geothermal Research"</a>. GFZ Helmholtz Center Potsdam<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.au=Deutsches+GeoForschungsZentrum+%28GFZ%29+Helmholtz+Center+Potsdam&amp;rft.btitle=International+Centre+for+Geothermal+Research&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gfz-potsdam.de%2Fportal%2Fgfz%2FStruktur%2FGeoEngineering-Zentren%2FInternationales%2BGeothermiezentrum%3Bjsessionid%3D8F6BF49D51E1BAA8273B58EAEEA40F41&amp;rft.pub=GFZ+Helmholtz+Center+Potsdam&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  895. <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jeff Wise. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/energy/next-generation/4199381">"The Truth about hydrogen"</a>. Popular Mechanics<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.au=Jeff+Wise&amp;rft.btitle=The+Truth+about+hydrogen&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.popularmechanics.com%2Fscience%2Fenergy%2Fnext-generation%2F4199381&amp;rft.pub=Popular+Mechanics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  896. <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">NREL. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/">"Hydrogen"</a>. NREL<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.au=NREL&amp;rft.btitle=Hydrogen&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrel.gov%2Fhydrogen%2F&amp;rft.pub=NREL&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  897. <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Sandia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sandia.gov/hydrogen">"Hydrogen"</a>. Sandia<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.au=Sandia&amp;rft.btitle=Hydrogen&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sandia.gov%2Fhydrogen&amp;rft.pub=Sandia&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  898. <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Puma, Steve (2010-02-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.triplepundit.com/2010/02/hydrogen-is-not-the-fuel-of-the-future/">"Hydrogen is Not The Miracle Fuel of the Future"</a>. Triplepundit.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-08-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.aufirst=Steve&amp;rft.aulast=Puma&amp;rft.btitle=Hydrogen+is+Not+The+Miracle+Fuel+of+the+Future&amp;rft.date=2010-02-08&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.triplepundit.com%2F2010%2F02%2Fhydrogen-is-not-the-fuel-of-the-future%2F&amp;rft.pub=Triplepundit.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  899. <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Nicola_Armaroli" title="Nicola Armaroli">Armaroli, Nicola</a>; <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Balzani" title="Vincenzo Balzani">Balzani, Vincenzo</a> (2011). "<i>Towards an electricity-powered world</i>. In". <i><a href="/wiki/Energy_and_Environmental_Science" title="Energy and Environmental Science">Energy and Environmental Science</a></i>. <b>4</b>: 3193–3222. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1039%2Fc1ee01249e">10.1039/c1ee01249e</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.atitle=Towards+an+electricity-powered+world.+In&amp;rft.au=Balzani%2C+Vincenzo&amp;rft.aufirst=Nicola&amp;rft.aulast=Armaroli&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2Fc1ee01249e&amp;rft.jtitle=Energy+and+Environmental+Science&amp;rft.pages=3193-3222&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=4" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  900. <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Kang, J.; Von Hippel, F. N. (2001). "U‐232 and the proliferation‐resistance of U‐233 in spent fuel". <i>Science &amp; Global Security</i>. <b>9</b>: 1. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F08929880108426485">10.1080/08929880108426485</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.atitle=U%90232+and+the+proliferation%90resistance+of+U%90233+in+spent+fuel&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rft.aulast=Kang&amp;rft.au=Von+Hippel%2C+F.+N.&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08929880108426485&amp;rft.jtitle=Science+%26+Global+Security&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=9" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.torium.se/res/Documents/9_1kang.pdf">[5]</a></span></li>
  901. <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq6.html">Nuclear Materials</a> FAQ</span></li>
  902. <li id="cite_note-Hargraves-Moir-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hargraves-Moir_168-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargraves-Moir_168-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Robert Hargraves; Ralph Moir (January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/units/fps/newsletters/201101/hargraves.cfm">"Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a> Forum on Physics &amp; Society</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.atitle=Liquid+Fuel+Nuclear+Reactors&amp;rft.au=Ralph+Moir&amp;rft.au=Robert+Hargraves&amp;rft.date=2011-01&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Funits%2Ffps%2Fnewsletters%2F201101%2Fhargraves.cfm&amp;rft.jtitle=American+Physical+Society+Forum+on+Physics+%26+Society&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  903. <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lanl.gov/science/NSS/issue2_2011/story6full.shtml">"Th-ING: A Sustainable Energy Source | National Security Science Magazine | Los Alamos National Laboratory"</a>. <i>lanl.gov</i>. 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.atitle=Th-ING%3A+A+Sustainable+Energy+Source+%26%23124%3B+National+Security+Science+Magazine+%26%23124%3B+Los+Alamos+National+Laboratory&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lanl.gov%2Fscience%2FNSS%2Fissue2_2011%2Fstory6full.shtml&amp;rft.jtitle=lanl.gov&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  904. <li id="cite_note-Chalons-Browne-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chalons-Browne_170-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chalons-Browne_170-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chalons-Browne_170-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chalons-Browne_170-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Roland W. Chalons-Browne (30 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.environmentalleader.com/2011/03/30/epicenter-of-renewable-energy-investments-shifts-to-developing-economies/">"Epicenter of Renewable Energy Investments Shifts to Developing Economies"</a>. <i>Environmental Leader</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.atitle=Epicenter+of+Renewable+Energy+Investments+Shifts+to+Developing+Economies&amp;rft.au=Roland+W.+Chalons-Browne&amp;rft.date=2011-03-30&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.environmentalleader.com%2F2011%2F03%2F30%2Fepicenter-of-renewable-energy-investments-shifts-to-developing-economies%2F&amp;rft.jtitle=Environmental+Leader&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  905. <li id="cite_note-theclimategroup.org-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-theclimategroup.org_171-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-theclimategroup.org_171-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.theclimategroup.org">http://www.theclimategroup.org</a></span></li>
  906. <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Centre for National Policy, Washington DC, 2 April 2012</span></li>
  907. <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conservation Council of SA, 2 March 2006. "Rann's climate laws a first for Australia"</span></li>
  908. <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Farah, Paolo Davide (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2695579">"Sustainable Energy Investments and National Security: Arbitration and Negotiation Issues"</a>. <i>Journal of World Energy Law and Business</i>. <b>8</b> (6)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASustainable+energy&amp;rft.atitle=Sustainable+Energy+Investments+and+National+Security%3A+Arbitration+and+Negotiation+Issues&amp;rft.aufirst=Paolo+Davide&amp;rft.aulast=Farah&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2695579&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+Energy+Law+and+Business&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=8" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></span></li>
  909. </ol>
  910. </div>
  911. <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Renewable_energy_by_country" style="padding:3px">
  912. <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
  913. <tbody>
  914. <tr>
  915. <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
  916. <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
  917. <ul>
  918. <li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Renewable_energy_by_country" title="Template:Renewable energy by country"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
  919. <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Renewable_energy_by_country" title="Template talk:Renewable energy by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
  920. <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Renewable_energy_by_country&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
  921. </ul>
  922. </div>
  923. <div id="Renewable_energy_by_country" style="font-size:114%">
  924. <a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country" title="List of renewable energy topics by country">Renewable energy by country</a>
  925. </div> </th>
  926. </tr>
  927. <tr style="height:2px">
  928. <td colspan="2"></td>
  929. </tr>
  930. <tr>
  931. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Africa" title="Renewable energy in Africa">Africa</a></th>
  932. <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  933. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  934. <ul>
  935. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Ethiopia" title="Renewable energy in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li>
  936. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Kenya" title="Renewable energy in Kenya">Kenya</a></li>
  937. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Morocco" title="Renewable energy in Morocco">Morocco</a></li>
  938. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Seychelles" title="Renewable energy in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li>
  939. </ul>
  940. </div> </td>
  941. </tr>
  942. <tr style="height:2px">
  943. <td colspan="2"></td>
  944. </tr>
  945. <tr>
  946. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Asia" title="Renewable energy in Asia">Asia</a></th>
  947. <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  948. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  949. <ul>
  950. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Afghanistan" title="Renewable energy in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li>
  951. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Bangladesh" title="Renewable energy in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li>
  952. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">China</a></li>
  953. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_India" title="Renewable energy in India">India</a></li>
  954. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Kazakhstan" title="Renewable energy in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li>
  955. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Nepal" title="Renewable energy in Nepal">Nepal</a></li>
  956. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Pakistan" title="Renewable energy in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li>
  957. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Philippines" title="Renewable energy in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li>
  958. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Taiwan" title="Renewable energy in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li>
  959. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Thailand" title="Renewable energy in Thailand">Thailand</a></li>
  960. </ul>
  961. </div> </td>
  962. </tr>
  963. <tr style="height:2px">
  964. <td colspan="2"></td>
  965. </tr>
  966. <tr>
  967. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_European_Union" title="Renewable energy in the European Union">Europe</a></th>
  968. <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  969. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  970. <ul>
  971. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_European_Union" title="Renewable energy in the European Union">European Union</a> (<a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Renewable energy in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Denmark" title="Renewable energy in Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Finland" title="Renewable energy in Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Germany" title="Renewable energy in Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Greece" title="Renewable energy in Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Italy" title="Renewable energy in Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Lithuania" title="Renewable energy in Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Luxembourg" title="Renewable energy in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Netherlands" title="Renewable energy in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Portugal" title="Renewable energy in Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Spain" title="Renewable energy in Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>)</li>
  972. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Albania" title="Renewable energy in Albania">Albania</a></li>
  973. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Iceland" title="Renewable energy in Iceland">Iceland</a></li>
  974. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Norway" title="Renewable energy in Norway">Norway</a></li>
  975. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Russia" title="Renewable energy in Russia">Russia</a></li>
  976. </ul>
  977. </div> </td>
  978. </tr>
  979. <tr style="height:2px">
  980. <td colspan="2"></td>
  981. </tr>
  982. <tr>
  983. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">North America</th>
  984. <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  985. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  986. <ul>
  987. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Canada" title="Renewable energy in Canada">Canada</a></li>
  988. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Costa_Rica" title="Renewable energy in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li>
  989. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Honduras" title="Renewable energy in Honduras">Honduras</a></li>
  990. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Mexico" title="Renewable energy in Mexico">Mexico</a></li>
  991. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Renewable energy in the United States">United States</a></li>
  992. </ul>
  993. </div> </td>
  994. </tr>
  995. <tr style="height:2px">
  996. <td colspan="2"></td>
  997. </tr>
  998. <tr>
  999. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Oceania</th>
  1000. <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1001. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1002. <ul>
  1003. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Australia" title="Renewable energy in Australia">Australia</a></li>
  1004. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_New_Zealand" title="Renewable energy in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>
  1005. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Tuvalu" title="Renewable energy in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li>
  1006. </ul>
  1007. </div> </td>
  1008. </tr>
  1009. <tr style="height:2px">
  1010. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1011. </tr>
  1012. <tr>
  1013. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">South America</th>
  1014. <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1015. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1016. <ul>
  1017. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Argentina" title="Renewable energy in Argentina">Argentina</a></li>
  1018. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Brazil" title="Renewable energy in Brazil">Brazil</a></li>
  1019. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Chile" title="Renewable energy in Chile">Chile</a></li>
  1020. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Colombia" title="Renewable energy in Colombia">Colombia</a></li>
  1021. </ul>
  1022. </div> </td>
  1023. </tr>
  1024. <tr style="height:2px">
  1025. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1026. </tr>
  1027. <tr>
  1028. <td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2">
  1029. <div>
  1030. <dl>
  1031. <dt>
  1032. Portals
  1033. </dt>
  1034. <dd>
  1035. <img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28">
  1036. <a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy</a>
  1037. </dd>
  1038. <dd>
  1039. <img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28">
  1040. <a href="/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy" title="Portal:Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a>
  1041. </dd>
  1042. <dd>
  1043. <img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28">
  1044. <a href="/wiki/Portal:Sustainable_development" title="Portal:Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a>
  1045. </dd>
  1046. </dl>
  1047. </div> </td>
  1048. </tr>
  1049. </tbody>
  1050. </table>
  1051. </div>
  1052. <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Environmental_technology" style="padding:3px">
  1053. <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
  1054. <tbody>
  1055. <tr>
  1056. <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3">
  1057. <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
  1058. <ul>
  1059. <li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Environmental_technology" title="Template:Environmental technology"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
  1060. <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Environmental_technology" title="Template talk:Environmental technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
  1061. <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Environmental_technology&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
  1062. </ul>
  1063. </div>
  1064. <div id="Environmental_technology" style="font-size:114%">
  1065. <a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental technology</a>
  1066. </div> </th>
  1067. </tr>
  1068. <tr style="height:2px">
  1069. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1070. </tr>
  1071. <tr>
  1072. <td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
  1073. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1074. <ul>
  1075. <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate technology</a></li>
  1076. <li><a href="/wiki/Clean_technology" title="Clean technology">Clean technology</a></li>
  1077. <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li>
  1078. <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li>
  1079. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li>
  1080. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable technology</a></li>
  1081. </ul>
  1082. </div> </td>
  1083. <td class="navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:0%;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
  1084. <div>
  1085. <a href="/wiki/File:Windmills_D1-D4_-_Thornton_Bank.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Windmills D1-D4 - Thornton Bank.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Windmills_D1-D4_-_Thornton_Bank.jpg/100px-Windmills_D1-D4_-_Thornton_Bank.jpg" width="100" height="158" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Windmills_D1-D4_-_Thornton_Bank.jpg/150px-Windmills_D1-D4_-_Thornton_Bank.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Windmills_D1-D4_-_Thornton_Bank.jpg/200px-Windmills_D1-D4_-_Thornton_Bank.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2421" data-file-height="3831"></a>
  1086. </div> </td>
  1087. </tr>
  1088. <tr style="height:2px">
  1089. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1090. </tr>
  1091. <tr>
  1092. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></th>
  1093. <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1094. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1095. <ul>
  1096. <li>Air pollution (<a href="/wiki/Emission_standard" title="Emission standard">control</a></li>
  1097. <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">dispersion modeling</a>)</li>
  1098. <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li>
  1099. <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solid_waste_treatment_technologies" title="List of solid waste treatment technologies">Solid waste treatment</a></li>
  1100. <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li>
  1101. <li>Water (<a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">agricultural wastewater treatment</a></li>
  1102. <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">industrial wastewater treatment</a></li>
  1103. <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">sewage treatment</a></li>
  1104. <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waste-water_treatment_technologies" title="List of waste-water treatment technologies">waste-water treatment technologies</a></li>
  1105. <li><a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">water purification</a>)</li>
  1106. </ul>
  1107. </div> </td>
  1108. </tr>
  1109. <tr style="height:2px">
  1110. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1111. </tr>
  1112. <tr>
  1113. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></th>
  1114. <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1115. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1116. <ul>
  1117. <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_energy" title="Alternative energy">Alternative energy</a></li>
  1118. <li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a></li>
  1119. <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">Energy development</a></li>
  1120. <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery" title="Energy recovery">Energy recovery</a></li>
  1121. <li>Fuel (<a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel" title="Alternative fuel">alternative fuel</a></li>
  1122. <li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a></li>
  1123. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_negative_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon negative fuel">carbon negative fuel</a></li>
  1124. <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_technologies" title="Hydrogen technologies">hydrogen technologies</a>)</li>
  1125. <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_energy_storage_projects" title="List of energy storage projects">List of energy storage projects</a></li>
  1126. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">commercialization</a>)</li>
  1127. <li><strong class="selflink">Sustainable energy</strong></li>
  1128. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Transportation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicle</a></li>
  1129. <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle" title="Hybrid vehicle">hybrid vehicle</a>)</li>
  1130. </ul>
  1131. </div> </td>
  1132. </tr>
  1133. <tr style="height:2px">
  1134. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1135. </tr>
  1136. <tr>
  1137. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Conservation</th>
  1138. <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1139. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1140. <ul>
  1141. <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li>
  1142. <li>Building (<a href="/wiki/Green_building" title="Green building">green</a></li>
  1143. <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_building" title="Natural building">natural</a></li>
  1144. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">sustainable architecture</a></li>
  1145. <li><a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a></li>
  1146. <li><a href="/wiki/New_Classical_Architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="New Classical Architecture">New Classical</a>)</li>
  1147. <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li>
  1148. <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_(ethic)" title="Conservation (ethic)">Conservation ethic</a></li>
  1149. <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoforestry" title="Ecoforestry">Ecoforestry</a></li>
  1150. <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_preservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental preservation">Environmental preservation</a></li>
  1151. <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">Environmental remediation</a></li>
  1152. <li><a href="/wiki/Green_computing" title="Green computing">Green computing</a></li>
  1153. <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li>
  1154. <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li>
  1155. </ul>
  1156. </div> </td>
  1157. </tr>
  1158. </tbody>
  1159. </table>
  1160. </div>
  1161. <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sustainability" style="padding:3px">
  1162. <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
  1163. <tbody>
  1164. <tr>
  1165. <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
  1166. <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
  1167. <ul>
  1168. <li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sustainability" title="Template:Sustainability"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
  1169. <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sustainability" title="Template talk:Sustainability"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
  1170. <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Sustainability&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
  1171. </ul>
  1172. </div>
  1173. <div id="Sustainability" style="font-size:114%">
  1174. <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a>
  1175. </div> </th>
  1176. </tr>
  1177. <tr style="height:2px">
  1178. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1179. </tr>
  1180. <tr>
  1181. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Sustainability#Principles_and_concepts" title="Sustainability">Principles</a></th>
  1182. <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1183. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1184. <ul>
  1185. <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_modernization" title="Ecological modernization">Ecological modernization</a></li>
  1186. <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li>
  1187. <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li>
  1188. <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li>
  1189. <li><a href="/wiki/Social_sustainability" title="Social sustainability">Social sustainability</a></li>
  1190. <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li>
  1191. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li>
  1192. </ul>
  1193. </div> </td>
  1194. </tr>
  1195. <tr style="height:2px">
  1196. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1197. </tr>
  1198. <tr>
  1199. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Consumption_(economics)" title="Consumption (economics)">Consumption</a></th>
  1200. <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1201. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1202. <ul>
  1203. <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropization" title="Anthropization">Anthropization</a></li>
  1204. <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li>
  1205. <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li>
  1206. <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical</a></li>
  1207. <li><a href="/wiki/Over-consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Over-consumption">Over-consumption</a></li>
  1208. <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</a></li>
  1209. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_advertising" title="Sustainability advertising">Sustainability advertising</a></li>
  1210. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_brand" title="Sustainability brand">Sustainability brand</a></li>
  1211. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_marketing_myopia" title="Sustainability marketing myopia">Sustainability marketing myopia</a></li>
  1212. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable</a></li>
  1213. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_and_systemic_change_resistance" title="Sustainability and systemic change resistance">Systemic change resistance</a></li>
  1214. <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a></li>
  1215. </ul>
  1216. </div> </td>
  1217. </tr>
  1218. <tr style="height:2px">
  1219. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1220. </tr>
  1221. <tr>
  1222. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></th>
  1223. <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1224. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1225. <ul>
  1226. <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li>
  1227. <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li>
  1228. <li><a href="/wiki/Human_population_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Human population control">Control</a></li>
  1229. <li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li>
  1230. <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_population_growth" title="Zero population growth">Zero growth</a></li>
  1231. </ul>
  1232. </div> </td>
  1233. </tr>
  1234. <tr style="height:2px">
  1235. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1236. </tr>
  1237. <tr>
  1238. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Technology</th>
  1239. <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1240. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1241. <ul>
  1242. <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate</a></li>
  1243. <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental</a></li>
  1244. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable</a></li>
  1245. </ul>
  1246. </div> </td>
  1247. </tr>
  1248. <tr style="height:2px">
  1249. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1250. </tr>
  1251. <tr>
  1252. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></th>
  1253. <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1254. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1255. <ul>
  1256. <li><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a></li>
  1257. <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li>
  1258. <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li>
  1259. <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li>
  1260. <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">Endangered species</a></li>
  1261. <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li>
  1262. <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li>
  1263. </ul>
  1264. </div> </td>
  1265. </tr>
  1266. <tr style="height:2px">
  1267. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1268. </tr>
  1269. <tr>
  1270. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Energy</th>
  1271. <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1272. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1273. <ul>
  1274. <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li>
  1275. <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li>
  1276. <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Conservation</a></li>
  1277. <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_descent" title="Energy descent">Descent</a></li>
  1278. <li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficiency</a></li>
  1279. <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Emissions trading</a></li>
  1280. <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil-fuel_phase-out" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil-fuel phase-out">Fossil-fuel phase-out</a></li>
  1281. <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">Peak oil</a></li>
  1282. <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable</a></li>
  1283. <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_poverty" title="Energy poverty">Energy poverty</a></li>
  1284. </ul>
  1285. </div> </td>
  1286. </tr>
  1287. <tr style="height:2px">
  1288. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1289. </tr>
  1290. <tr>
  1291. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Food</th>
  1292. <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1293. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1294. <ul>
  1295. <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a></li>
  1296. <li><a href="/wiki/Local_food" title="Local food">Local</a></li>
  1297. <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li>
  1298. <li><a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">Security</a></li>
  1299. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Sustainable agriculture</a></li>
  1300. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_fishery" title="Sustainable fishery">Sustainable fishery</a></li>
  1301. <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_horticulture" title="Urban horticulture">Urban horticulture</a></li>
  1302. </ul>
  1303. </div> </td>
  1304. </tr>
  1305. <tr style="height:2px">
  1306. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1307. </tr>
  1308. <tr>
  1309. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Water</th>
  1310. <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1311. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1312. <ul>
  1313. <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li>
  1314. <li><a href="/wiki/Water_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Water crisis">Crisis</a></li>
  1315. <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li>
  1316. <li><a href="/wiki/Water_footprint" class="mw-redirect" title="Water footprint">Footprint</a></li>
  1317. </ul>
  1318. </div> </td>
  1319. </tr>
  1320. <tr style="height:2px">
  1321. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1322. </tr>
  1323. <tr>
  1324. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Accountability</th>
  1325. <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1326. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1327. <ul>
  1328. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_accounting" title="Sustainability accounting">Sustainability accounting</a></li>
  1329. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_measurement" title="Sustainability measurement">Sustainability measurement</a></li>
  1330. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_metrics_and_indices" title="Sustainability metrics and indices">Sustainability metrics and indices</a></li>
  1331. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_reporting" title="Sustainability reporting">Sustainability reporting</a></li>
  1332. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_standards_and_certification" title="Sustainability standards and certification">Standards and certification</a></li>
  1333. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_yield" title="Sustainable yield">Sustainable yield</a></li>
  1334. </ul>
  1335. </div> </td>
  1336. </tr>
  1337. <tr style="height:2px">
  1338. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1339. </tr>
  1340. <tr>
  1341. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Applications</th>
  1342. <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1343. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1344. <ul>
  1345. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_advertising" title="Sustainable advertising">Advertising</a></li>
  1346. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">Architecture</a></li>
  1347. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_art" title="Sustainable art">Art</a></li>
  1348. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_business" title="Sustainable business">Business</a></li>
  1349. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_city" title="Sustainable city">City</a></li>
  1350. <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_collegiate_sustainability_programs" title="North American collegiate sustainability programs">College programs</a></li>
  1351. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_community" title="Sustainable community">Community</a></li>
  1352. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Design</a></li>
  1353. <li><a href="/wiki/Ecovillage" title="Ecovillage">Ecovillage</a></li>
  1354. <li><a href="/wiki/Education_for_Sustainable_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Education for Sustainable Development">Education for Sustainable Development</a></li>
  1355. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_fashion" title="Sustainable fashion">Fashion</a></li>
  1356. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_gardening" title="Sustainable gardening">Gardening</a></li>
  1357. <li><a href="/wiki/Geopark" title="Geopark">Geopark</a></li>
  1358. <li><a href="/wiki/Green_marketing" title="Green marketing">Green marketing</a></li>
  1359. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_industries" title="Sustainable industries">Industries</a></li>
  1360. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_landscape_architecture" title="Sustainable landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li>
  1361. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_living" title="Sustainable living">Living</a></li>
  1362. <li><a href="/wiki/Low-impact_development_(UK)" title="Low-impact development (UK)">Low-impact development</a></li>
  1363. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable market">Sustainable market</a></li>
  1364. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_organizations" title="Sustainability organizations">Organizations</a></li>
  1365. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_packaging" title="Sustainable packaging">Packaging</a></li>
  1366. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_practices_in_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainability practices in organizations">Practices</a></li>
  1367. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_procurement" title="Sustainable procurement">Procurement</a></li>
  1368. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_tourism" title="Sustainable tourism">Tourism</a></li>
  1369. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Transport</a></li>
  1370. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_urban_drainage_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable urban drainage systems">Urban drainage systems</a></li>
  1371. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_urban_infrastructure" title="Sustainable urban infrastructure">Urban infrastructure</a></li>
  1372. <li><a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">Urbanism</a></li>
  1373. </ul>
  1374. </div> </td>
  1375. </tr>
  1376. <tr style="height:2px">
  1377. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1378. </tr>
  1379. <tr>
  1380. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Management</th>
  1381. <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1382. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1383. <ul>
  1384. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_and_environmental_management" title="Sustainability and environmental management">Environmental</a></li>
  1385. <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">Fisheries</a></li>
  1386. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" title="Sustainable forest management">Forest</a></li>
  1387. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_materials_management" title="Sustainable materials management">Materials</a></li>
  1388. <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Natural resource</a></li>
  1389. <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_management" title="Planetary management">Planetary</a></li>
  1390. <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste</a></li>
  1391. </ul>
  1392. </div> </td>
  1393. </tr>
  1394. <tr style="height:2px">
  1395. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1396. </tr>
  1397. <tr>
  1398. <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Agreements</th>
  1399. <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
  1400. <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
  1401. <ul>
  1402. <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_the_Human_Environment" title="United Nations Conference on the Human Environment"><span class="wrap">UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)</span></a></li>
  1403. <li><a href="/wiki/Brundtland_Commission" title="Brundtland Commission">Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983)</a></li>
  1404. <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Common_Future" title="Our Common Future"><i>Our Common Future</i> (1987)</a></li>
  1405. <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Summit" title="Earth Summit">Earth Summit (1992)</a></li>
  1406. <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Declaration_on_Environment_and_Development" title="Rio Declaration on Environment and Development">Rio Declaration on Environment and Development</a></li>
  1407. <li><a href="/wiki/Agenda_21" title="Agenda 21">Agenda 21 (1992)</a></li>
  1408. <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)</a></li>
  1409. <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Population_and_Development" title="International Conference on Population and Development">ICPD Programme of Action (1994)</a></li>
  1410. <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Charter" title="Earth Charter">Earth Charter</a></li>
  1411. <li><a href="/wiki/Lisbon_Principles" title="Lisbon Principles">Lisbon Principles</a></li>
  1412. <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Millennium_Declaration" title="United Nations Millennium Declaration">UN Millennium Declaration (2000)</a></li>
  1413. <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Summit_2002" title="Earth Summit 2002">Earth Summit 2002</a> (Rio+10, Johannesburg)</li>
  1414. <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_Sustainable_Development" title="United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development">United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development</a> (Rio+20, 2012)</li>
  1415. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a></li>
  1416. </ul>
  1417. </div> </td>
  1418. </tr>
  1419. <tr style="height:2px">
  1420. <td colspan="2"></td>
  1421. </tr>
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  1429. <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Sustainable_development" title="Portal:Sustainable development">Portal</a></li>
  1430. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_science" title="Sustainability science">Science</a></li>
  1431. <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_studies" title="Sustainability studies">Studies</a></li>
  1432. <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_degrees" title="List of environmental degrees">Degrees</a></li>
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  1596. <h3 id="p-lang-label">Languages</h3>
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  1599. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nachhaltige_Energie" title="Nachhaltige Energie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li>
  1600. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B1%DA%98%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="انرژی پایدار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">فارسی</a></li>
  1601. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89nergie_durable" title="Énergie durable – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li>
  1602. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%8A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE" title="हरित ऊर्जा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन्दी</a></li>
  1603. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odr%C5%BEiva_energija" title="Održiva energija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li>
  1604. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susteninda_energio" title="Susteninda energio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li>
  1605. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energi_berkelanjutan" title="Energi berkelanjutan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li>
  1606. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%A1lfb%C3%A6r_orka" title="Sjálfbær orka – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">Íslenska</a></li>
  1607. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_sostenibile" title="Energia sostenibile – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li>
  1608. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zr%C3%B3wnowa%C5%BCona_energia" title="Zrównoważona energia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li>
  1609. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energjia_e_q%C3%ABndrueshme" title="Energjia e qëndrueshme – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li>
  1610. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li>
  1611. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajnostna_energija" title="Trajnostna energija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenščina</a></li>
  1612. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCrd%C3%BCr%C3%BClebilir_enerji" title="Sürdürülebilir enerji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li>
  1613. <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E6%8C%81%E7%BA%8C%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90" title="可持續能源 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li>
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