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Examination System (Chinese Studies)

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  1.  
  2. Introduction
  3. The examination system, also known as “civil service examinations” or “imperial examinations”—and, in Chinese, as keju 科舉, keju zhidu 科舉制度, gongju 貢舉, xuanju 選舉 or zhiju 制舉—was the imperial Chinese bureaucracy’s central institution for recruiting its officials. Following both real and idealized models from previous times, the system was established at the beginning of the 7th century CE evolving over several dynasties into a complex institution that prevailed for 1,300 years before its abolition in 1905. One of the system’s most salient features, especially in the late imperial period (1400–1900), was its meritocratic structure (at least in principle, if not necessarily in practice): almost anyone from among the empire’s male population could sit for the examinations. Moreover, candidates were selected based on their performance rather than their pedigree. In order to be accessible to candidates anywhere in the empire, the system’s infrastructure spanned the entire territory. In a long sequence of triennial qualifying examinations at the local, provincial, metropolitan, and palace levels candidates were mainly required to write rhetorically complicated essays elucidating passages from the Confucian canon. Most candidates failed at each level, and only a couple of hundred out of a million or often more examinees attained final examination success at the metropolitan and palace levels. Due to its accessibility and ubiquity, the examination system had a decisive impact on the intellectual and social landscapes of imperial China. This impact was reinforced by the rule that candidates were allowed to retake examinations as often as they needed to in order to reach the next level. It was therefore not uncommon for individuals in imperial China to spend the great part of their lives, occasionally even until their last breath, sitting for the competitions. Indeed the extant sources reveal, by their sheer quantity alone, that large parts of the population, not only aspiring candidates, were in fact obsessed with the civil service examinations in the same way that modern societies are fascinated by sports leagues. To a great extent, it was this obsession, along with the system’s centripetal force constantly pulling the population in the different regions toward the political center in the capital, which may have held the large territory of imperial China together, providing it with both coherence and cohesion. Modern Historiography has tended to have a negative view of the examination system, singling it out, and specifically its predominantly literary curriculum, as the major cause for traditional Chinese society’s failure to develop into a modern nation with a strong scientific and technological tradition of its own. In the late 20th and early 21st century, this paradigm has become gradually more nuanced as historians have begun to develop new ways of approaching the extant sources, in particular the large number of examination essays and aids.
  4.  
  5. Introductory Works
  6. This section addresses readers who have little or no knowledge of the examination system and need both readable and reliable introductions to the subject. These works tend to highlight and describe extensively the Qing civil examinations during the 19th century, thus often creating among readers the impression that the system worked more or less the same in previous periods. While this was clearly not so, it is undeniable that no period in the long history of the civil examinations happens to be as well documented as the 19th century. Readers who desire to obtain a historically more nuanced sense of the system are referred to the sections General Overviews and Overviews by Period. Another problem with introductory works concerns the ideal balance between information and narration. Miyazaki 1981 and especially Jackson and Hugus 1999 are focused on telling a good story rather than providing copious evidence in dense footnotes. By contrast, Wilkinson 2012 and Zi 1894 are overtly technical, requiring a slow reading pace. The best way to strike a balance is to combine both approaches by, ideally, pairing Jackson and Hugus 1999 and Wilkinson 2012. A problem that concerns Wang 1988, Qi 2006, and Li 2010, all introductory works written by Chinese scholars in Chinese, is that they often quote passages from original Primary Sources in classical Chinese without providing a modern Chinese translation. One way to access these passages linguistically is to work directly with the literature cited under Terminological Issues. Finally, even though often neglected, the examination system also included a military branch, of which Zi 1896 provides the most readable account. Compared to their civil counterparts, the military competitions were of minimal significance, but they often served as a platform to obliquely move up the civil examination ladder.
  7.  
  8. Jackson, Beverley, and David Hugus. Ladder to the Clouds: Intrigue and Tradition in Chinese Rank. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed, 1999.
  9.  
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  11.  
  12. Follows the trajectory of a late Qing examination candidate from his birth to his official position. Even though often leaning toward the fictitious, it is definitely a good read and one of the best illustrated books about the late imperial examination system and officialdom.
  13.  
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  15.  
  16. Li Bing李兵. Qiannian keju (千年科举). Changsha, China: Yuelu shushe, 2010.
  17.  
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  19.  
  20. Written in a rather colloquial and therefore accessible style, this well-illustrated book by a renowned expert of the examination system gives answers to questions most frequently asked about this topic, such as whether women were allowed to sit for the examinations. Has a good and sizable list of further readings.
  21.  
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  23.  
  24. Miyazaki, Ichisada. China’s Examination Hell: The Civil Service Examinations of Imperial China. Translated by Conrad Shirokauer. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981.
  25.  
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  27.  
  28. Originally published in 1963 in a longer and more academic version, this is a popular work by one of the most prominent Japanese scholars of the examination system. Packed with vivid anecdotes, this brief and captivating text describes all examination tiers. It is focused on the circumstances of the late Qing period, albeit not always explicitly.
  29.  
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  31.  
  32. Qi Rushan 齐如山. Zhongguo de keming (中国的科名). Shenyang, China: Liaoning Jiaoyu chubanshe, 2006.
  33.  
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  35.  
  36. Originally published in Taipei in 1956, this is a very accessible introduction arranged according to key terms used at the examinations.
  37.  
  38. Find this resource:
  39.  
  40. Wang Daocheng 王道成. Keju shihua (科举史话). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1988.
  41.  
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  43.  
  44. This is a short, easy to read, yet very informative introduction to the topic by a leading expert. While mainly focused on describing the Qing period, it also devotes a chapter to the system’s history. Has a very valuable appendix containing samples of all Qing examination genres. There are several books with an identical title, so make sure to use the one authored by Wang Daocheng.
  45.  
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  47.  
  48. Wilkinson, Endymion. Chinese History: A New Manual. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2012.
  49.  
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  51.  
  52. Chapter 22 “Education and Examinations” (pp. 292–304) of this monumental work contains a systematic introduction to the structure and curriculum of the late imperial examination system. Has also a section on primary and secondary sources. There are several editions of this manual; the 2012 version is the one you should use.
  53.  
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  55.  
  56. Zi, Étienne. Pratique des examens littéraires en Chine. Shanghai: Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique, 1894.
  57.  
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  59.  
  60. This is the most thorough and reliable description of the late Qing examination system. Has a copious amount of high-quality illustrations, which have been recycled in many other publications. Even though this book is now available online, try to use the original edition if you want to consult or reproduce the illustrative material, in particular the large-scale map of the Jiangnan examination compound. Also available in a 1971 reprint (Taipei: Chengwen, 1971).
  61.  
  62. Find this resource:
  63.  
  64. Zi, Étienne. Pratique des examens militaires en Chine. Shanghai: Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique, 1896.
  65.  
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  67.  
  68. This is the best account of the late Qing military examination system available in any language. Describes all tiers and provides samples of examination topics. Richly illustrated, it also includes images of the weaponry used for testing the military candidates. Like the previous text, available in a 1971 reprint (Taipei: Chengwen, 1971).
  69.  
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  71.  
  72. General Overviews
  73. This section addresses readers who are looking for an academic treatment of the examination system’s historical evolution from its beginnings to its final years. In addition, this section is also of interest for those who want to get a sense of the academic work that has been done on the examination system, in particular research trends and themes through the early 21st century. As far as the first group of readers is concerned, it needs to be pointed out that there is a scant availability of general histories of the examination system written in English, or in other Western languages for that matter. Elman 2000 is such an attempt, and quite successful as such, but since its main focus is on the system’s evolution in the late imperial period, it treats the historical development prior to that period only very briefly. Even though very short, the introduction in Wang 2013 is considerably stronger on the early imperial period, serving as the best point of entry for those who want to get a good and narratively well-structured survey of the system’s historial evolution, including modern Chinese assessments of the imperial examinations. In Chinese, there are several histories of the examination system, of which Liu and Li 2004 is very reliable and also the most affordable. Yang 2004 is the most comprehensive of all available histories. It is extremely detailed so that you can also use it if you need systematic information related to the examination system of a specific dynasty. If you are only interested in the historical evolution of the military examinations, Xu 1997 is a concise and well-written survey. As for the second group of readers, they should be made aware of the fact that in the early 21st century, especially since the centenary of the abolition of the examination system in 2005, there has been a general trend to establish the study of imperial examinations as an autonomous academic discipline. Liu 2005 is the most articulate example of this trend. It is also an excellent introduction to the imperial examinations as an academic subject. Liu 2006, and Liu and Zheng 2009 are both proceedings of large-scale international conferences on the imperial examinations, thus reflecting the state of the field in the first decade of the 21st century.
  74.  
  75. Elman, Benjamin A. A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
  76.  
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  78.  
  79. This is the largest academic book ever published on the imperial examinations in the English language. Even though focused on the late imperial period—i.e., Ming and Qing dynasties—it also treats the historical evolution prior to that period, both in the main text and in the many appendices.
  80.  
  81. Find this resource:
  82.  
  83. Liu Haifeng 刘海峰. Kejuxue daolun (科举导论). Wuhan, China: Huadong shifan daxue chubanshe, 2005.
  84.  
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  86.  
  87. A bulky volume with a specific agenda: to argue, especially in the introductory sections, for the establishment of an academic discipline entirely devoted to the study of the imperial examinations. It is the best introduction for those who want to get a sense of what you can do with the examination system as an academic subject.
  88.  
  89. Find this resource:
  90.  
  91. Liu Haifeng 刘海峰, ed. Kejuzhi de zhongjie yu kejuxue de xingqi (科举制的终结与科举学的兴起). Proceedings of the International Conference on the Imperial Examination System and the study of the Imperial Examination organized by Xiamen University in September 2005. Wuhan, China: Huadong daxue chubanshe, 2006.
  92.  
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  94.  
  95. Contains nearly seventy contributions by leading scholars from China, Taiwan, Japan, and the United States.
  96.  
  97. Find this resource:
  98.  
  99. Liu Haifeng 刘海峰, and Li Bing 李兵. Zhongguo keju shi (中国科举史). Shanghai: Dongfang chuban Zhongxin, 2004.
  100.  
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  102.  
  103. A rather detailed and narratively well-structured history of the system. Has among its appendices a list of all palace competitions that took place in imperial China as well as a chronology of the major events in the history of the examinations.
  104.  
  105. Find this resource:
  106.  
  107. Liu Haifeng 刘海峰, and Zheng Ruoling 郑若玲, eds. Kejuxue de xingcheng yu fazhan (科举学的形成与发展). Proceedings of the International Conference on the Imperial Examination System and Traditional Chinese Culture organized by the Examination and Assessment Research Institute of Tianjin Municipality, Beijing University, Xiamen University and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in October 2008. Wuhan, China: Huadong shifan daxue chubanshe, 2009.
  108.  
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  110.  
  111. Proceedings of a large-scale conference that took place in Tianjin in October 2008. Contains fifty-five contributions by scholars from China and Japan.
  112.  
  113. Find this resource:
  114.  
  115. Wang, Rui. The Civil Service Examinations in China: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Plymouth, UK: Scarecrow, 2013.
  116.  
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  118.  
  119. This is a rather slim work that is focused on introducing to Western readers the main primary sources for studying the imperial examinations. Its “Introduction” (pp. 1–37) provides a good account of the system’s historical evolution, including sections on the military examinations and trends in Chinese historiography.
  120.  
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  122.  
  123. Xu Yougen 许友根. Wuju zhidu shilüe (武举制度史略). Suzhou, China: Suzhou daxue chubanshe, 1997.
  124.  
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  126.  
  127. Concise and reliable account of the military examinations from their beginnings until their abolition. Can be supplemented with Zi 1896 (cited under Introductory Works).
  128.  
  129. Find this resource:
  130.  
  131. Yang Xuewei 杨学为, ed. Zhongguo kaoshi tongshi (中国考试通史). 5 vols. Beijing: Shoudu shifan daxue chubanshe, 2004.
  132.  
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  134.  
  135. This is the largest history of the imperial examinations. Its focus is actually on the examinations as such, both modern and traditional. Volume 5 deals with the history of examinations in modern China. This compendium is so detailed that you can also use it if you want to get systematic information about the examination system in one particular dynasty.
  136.  
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  138.  
  139. Overviews by Period
  140. Divided into four parts—Han through Tang (206 BCE–905), Five Dynasties through Yuan (907–1368), Ming through Qing (1368–1911), and Taiping (1850–1864)—this section targets readers who want to know more about specific periods in the long history of the examination system. Note also that Yang 2004 (cited under General Overviews) provides detailed descriptions of the civil and military examinations in different dynasties. To a large extent, it should be noted, modern narratives of the examination system tend to follow the dynastic arrangement suggested by traditional historiography. This is also related to the fact that many of the so-called “Standard Histories” (zhengshi 正史) of imperial China included an “examination” (xuanju zhi 選舉志) chapter. Considering their large yet often unacknowledged influence on Modern Historiography, it is important to be acquainted with these chapters, also because they allow us to see how traditional historiography perceived and assessed the examination system. Wilkinson 2012 provides a detailed introduction to the Standard Histories and their basic features. Zhao 2009 is an annotated compendium of all “examination” chapters in Standard Histories. Des Rotours 1932 is a complete French translation of one such chapter. For a different traditional perspective on the Tang system, see Herbert 1988 (cited under Han through Tang (206 BCE–905)).
  141.  
  142. Des Rotours, Robert. Le Traité des Examens: Traduit de la Nouvelle Histoire des T’ang (Chap. XLIV, XLV). Paris: Librairie Ernest Leroux, 1932.
  143.  
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  145.  
  146. This is a complete translation of the “examination” chapter in the New Standard History of the Tang. In addition, it is a bibliographical guide to primary sources related to the Tang examination system and contains a set of original essays from Tang competitions as well as a terminological index.
  147.  
  148. Find this resource:
  149.  
  150. Wilkinson, Endymion. Chinese History: A New Manual. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2012.
  151.  
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  153.  
  154. Chapter 49 (pp. 620–644) of this compendium provide readers with everything they need to know about Standard Histories, including how to use them and assess their content.
  155.  
  156. Find this resource:
  157.  
  158. Zhao Botao 赵伯陶, ed. Qi shi xuanju zhi jiaozhu (七史选举志校注). Wuhan, China: Wuhan daxue chubanshe, 2009.
  159.  
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  161.  
  162. This is an annotated edition of all seven “examination” chapters in the Standard Histories, specifically Tang (on which see Des Rotours 1932), Five Dynasties, Song, Jin, Yuan, Ming, and Qing.
  163.  
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  165.  
  166. Han through Tang (206 BCE–905)
  167. Before the examination system was officially established in the Sui dynasty (581–618 CE), there were several attempts at using competitions as a device for recruiting human resources for the imperial bureaucracy. Houn 1956 and Crespigny 1966 describe the situation during the Han (206 CE –220). Yan 1997 and Miyazaki 1956 are detailed studies of two post-Han recruitment systems known in Chinese as chaju 察舉 and jiupin guanren fa. 九品官人法or jiupin zhongzheng zhi 九品中正制 (Nine-Rank System). Moore 2004 provides both a captivating narrative and a grand tour of the Tang (618–907 CE) examination system. Herbert 1988 is especially valuable for readers who want to get a sense of how contemporary historians wrote about the Tang civil competitions (for a similar approach, see also Des Rotours 1932, cited under Overviews by Period). Huang 1986 is focused on the Tang examination system from the perspective of its functions for the imperial bureaucracy. Wu 2010 is to date the most detailed account of the Tang examination system and as such an indispensable read for those who want to do research on this topic. On the close relationship between the Tang examination system and literature, see Fu 1986 (cited under Impact on Literature).
  168.  
  169. Crespigny, Rafe de. “The Recruitment System of the Imperial Bureaucracy of Later Han.” Chung Chi Journal 崇基學報 November 1966, 6.1: 67–78.
  170.  
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  172.  
  173. This is a concise overview of the recruitment system after Wang Mang was destroyed and the Han dynastic order reestablished.
  174.  
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  176.  
  177. Herbert, Penelope Ann. Examine the Honest, Appraise the Able: Contemporary Assessments of Civil Service Selection in Early T’ang China. Canberra: Australian National University, 1988.
  178.  
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  180.  
  181. Containing a complete translation of the relevant chapters in the late-eighth-century encyclopedic history Tongdian 通典, this book also provides a good introduction to the basic features of the Tang examination system.
  182.  
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  184.  
  185. Houn, Franklin. “The Civil Service Recruitment System of the Han Dynasty.” Qinghua xuebao清華學報. June 1956, 1:138–164.
  186.  
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  188.  
  189. Based on a systematic reading of all relevant primary sources, this article describes the different ways in which Han officials were recruited, including via examinations, and concludes with a discussion of the post-Han development of civil service recruitment.
  190.  
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  192.  
  193. Huang Ch’ing-lien. “The Recruitment and Assessment of Civil Officials under the T’ang Dynasty.” PhD diss., Princeton University, 1986.
  194.  
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  196.  
  197. While focused on relating recruitment (xuan 選) of those aspiring to be officials and the assessment (kao 考) of already established bureaucrats, it also provides a good introduction to the Tang examination system, especially the first chapter.
  198.  
  199. Find this resource:
  200.  
  201. Miyazaki Ichisada 宮崎市定. Kyûhin kan jinhô no kenkyû: Kakyo zenshi (九品官人法の研究:科舉前史). Kyoto: Dôbôsha, 1956.
  202.  
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  204.  
  205. This standard work on the jiupin guanren fa 九品官人法or jiupin zhongzheng zhi 九品中正制 (Nine-Rank System) by a leading Japanese scholar of the examination system is also accessible in a Chinese version (Zhonghua shuju, 2008).
  206.  
  207. Find this resource:
  208.  
  209. Moore, Oliver J. Rituals of Recruitment in Tang China: Reading an Annual Programme in the Collected Statements by Wang Dingbao (870–940). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
  210.  
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  212.  
  213. Relying on extensive primary sources, this book provides a holistic tour of the Tang examination system through all its tiers, including important glimpses of the social life of examinees.
  214.  
  215. Find this resource:
  216.  
  217. Wu Zongguo 吴宗国. Tangdai keju zhidu yanjiu (唐代科举制度研究). Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 2010.
  218.  
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  220.  
  221. Originally published in 1992, this is to date the most thorough and systematic overview of the Tang examination system, including chapters on examination officials, tiers, topics, and more.
  222.  
  223. Find this resource:
  224.  
  225. Yan Buke 閻步克. Chaju zhidu bianqian shigao (察举制度变迁史稿). Shenyang, China: Liaoning chubanshe, 1997.
  226.  
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  228.  
  229. Focuses on the history of the chaju 察舉 recruitment system. Chapter 8 (pp. 151–178) investigates the chaju’s relationship with jiupin guanren fa 九品官人法or jiupin zhongzheng zhi 九品中正制 (Nine-Rank System), on which see Miyazaki 1956. The penultimate chapter discusses how the chaju model contributed to the evolution of the keju zhidu 科舉制度 system.
  230.  
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  232.  
  233. Five Dynasties through Yuan (907–1368)
  234. In the period treated in this section, the examination system went through many changes and upheavals. From the Tang (618–907 CE) to the Song (960–1279 CE), it evolved into a ubiquitous and highly standardized institution with a radically new intellectual outlook. Jin 2009 describes this process of transformation from the mid-Tang to the Five Dynasties (907–960 CE), while Bol 1992 discusses the intellectual shifts that happened from the Tang to the Song. Chaffee 1985 is a captivitating and well-written survey of the Song examination system, which can be supplemented with Araki 1969. Lo 1987 looks at the Song examinations from the perspective of the imperial bureaucracy. On the Song examination curriculum, see also De Weerdt 2007 (cited under Examination Curriculum) and Lin 2006 (cited under Impact on Literature). A few of the alien dynasties that established themselves in China from the 8th to the 14th century also tried to use the examination system as a device for recruiting their officials. Wittfogel 1947 provides a good survey of the examinations under the Liao (907–1125 CE). Hsiao 1994 is a brief and reliable description of the Yuan (1271–1368 CE) civil competitions, whereas Lam 1985 explores the extent to which Neo-Confucians were involved in their establishment.
  235.  
  236. Araki Toshikazu 荒木敏一. Sōdai kakyo seido kenkyū (宋代科挙制度研究). Kyoto: Tōyōshi Kenkyūkai, 1969.
  237.  
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  239.  
  240. A very comprehensive and thoroughly researched study of the Song civil service examination system. Includes a very useful index of key terms and figures and a detailed table with statistical data related to top examination finalists. Best used together with Chaffee 1985, also in this section.
  241.  
  242. Find this resource:
  243.  
  244. Bol, Peter. “This Culture of Ours”: Intellectual Transitions in T’ang and Sung China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992.
  245.  
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  247.  
  248. This is a systematic and very dense study of the intellectual shifts that took place from the Tang to the Song periods and were to no small extent entangled with the evolution of the imperial examinations.
  249.  
  250. Find this resource:
  251.  
  252. Chaffee, John. The Thorny Gates of Learning in Sung China: A Social History of Examinations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
  253.  
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  255.  
  256. This book provides an extensive and well-written tour of the Song examinations, giving the reader a good sense of how the system worked and which issues are of particular relevance to social historians. Contains a chart of the Song examination ladder and various data related to jinshi 进士 (palace examination finalists) and their provenance. Is best used with Araki 1969.
  257.  
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  259.  
  260. Hsiao, Ch’i-ch’ing. “Mid-Yüan Politics.” In Cambridge History of China. Vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 515–518. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  261.  
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  263.  
  264. Even though extremely short, this is a very useful and easily accessible survey of the Yuan examination system, providing further bibliographical guidance in the footnotes.
  265.  
  266. Find this resource:
  267.  
  268. Jin Yingkun 金滢坤. Zhongwan Tang Wudai keju yu shehui bianqian (中晚堂五代科举社会变迁). Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 2009.
  269.  
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  271.  
  272. This is a detailed study of the examination system’s evolution from the mid-Tang to the Five Dynasties, focusing on the question of how this development was related to societal changes. Contains tables with data regarding jinshi 进士 (palace examination finalists) and their family and other backgrounds.
  273.  
  274. Find this resource:
  275.  
  276. Lam, Yuan-chu. “On Yuan Examination System: The Role of Northern Ch’eng-Chu Pioneering Scholars.” Journal of Turkish Studies 9 (1985): 15–20.
  277.  
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  279.  
  280. Succinct account of the Neo-Confucian influence on the Yuan examination curriculum.
  281.  
  282. Find this resource:
  283.  
  284. Lo, Winston. An Introduction to the Civil Service of Sung China: With Emphasis on Its Personnel Administration. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1987.
  285.  
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  287.  
  288. Discusses the Song examination system from the perspective of the imperial officialdom, making tangible how the civil competitions worked within the bureaucratic apparatus.
  289.  
  290. Find this resource:
  291.  
  292. Wittfogel, Karl. “Public Office in the Liao Dynasty and the Chinese Examination System.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 10.1 (1947): 13–40.
  293.  
  294. DOI: 10.2307/2717872Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295.  
  296. Written by the author of the controversial Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957) in which the Liao dynasty plays a key role, this is the best accessible English-language survey of the Liao examination system.
  297.  
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  299.  
  300. Ming through Qing (1368–1911)
  301. This section deals with late imperial China, which happens to be the most extensively researched period in the long history of the examination system. Elman 2000 (cited under General Overviews) and Zi 1894 as well as Miyazaki 1981 (both cited under Introductory Works) provide the most readable surveys of this period. Hucker 1998 is a well-written and succinct description of the Ming examination system, following candidates from the local to the palace level and beyond. Even though the paradigm of social mobility postulated in Ho 1962 has been radically revised—most systematically in Elman 1991 (cited under Modern Historiography)—this book is good at surveying the Primary Sources, providing readers with valuable glimpses of how the extant materials can be used by historians. Gong 2007 and Wang 2005 are both excellent Chinese-language surveys of the Ming examination system. While Gong 2007 is extremely detailed and most likely the best survey of the Ming competitions that you can get at this moment, Wang 2005 is shorter and more focused on providing a well-structured narrative. Besides being a very readable account of the Ming examination system, Qian 2004 is particularly good at making palpable the consequences that the civil examinations had on society at large. Shang 1958 is one of the best-known books about the examination system, deservedly so, since it combines the author’s firsthand experience as one of imperial China’s last examinees with a careful and systematic study of primary sources. Franke 1960 and Guan 2013 both deal with the final years of the examination system, when the curriculum was radically changed in favor of Western knowledge.
  302.  
  303. Franke, Wolfgang. The Reform and Abolition of the Traditional Chinese Examination System. Harvard East Asian Monographs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960.
  304.  
  305. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  306.  
  307. Provides a survey of the examination reforms that took place between 1895 and 1901 and resulted in a new format that prioritized Western knowledge. Discusses the abolition of the examination system in 1905. Relies mainly on official documents and does not include examination-related sources such as examination records. For a more detailed study, see Guan 2013.
  308.  
  309. Find this resource:
  310.  
  311. Gong Duqing 龚笃清. Mingdai keju tujian (明代科举图鉴). Changsha, China: Yuelu shushe, 2007.
  312.  
  313. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  314.  
  315. This is the best Chinese-language survey of the Ming examination system by a scholar who is actually an expert on “the eight-legged essay.” It is richly illustrated and excels at making palpable the vast amount of primary sources that are available for this period.
  316.  
  317. Find this resource:
  318.  
  319. Guan Xiaohong 关晓红. Keju tingfei yu jindai Zhongguo shehui (科举停废与近代中国社会). Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2013.
  320.  
  321. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  322.  
  323. This is the most comprehensive monograph on the last years of the imperial examination system. Extremely well-researched, it also explores the relationship between the examination system and modern schools in early-20th-century China. For those interested in doing research on this topic, it is an indispensable read.
  324.  
  325. Find this resource:
  326.  
  327. Ho, Ping-ti. The Ladder of Success in Imperial China. New York: Columbia University Press, 1962.
  328.  
  329. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  330.  
  331. This is a rather controversial book with a clear agenda: to prove that, thanks to the examination system, imperial China had a high degree of upward social mobility, almost as much as in modern industrial societies. This paradigm has been debunked by Elman 1991 (cited under Modern Historiography). Targeted against Chang 1955 (cited under Examination Tiers) this book is very good at surveying the primary sources, providing valuable glimpses of how to interpret the extant data.
  332.  
  333. Find this resource:
  334.  
  335. Hucker, Charles O. “Ming Government.” In Cambridge History of China. Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644: Part 2. Edited by Denis C. Twitchett and Frederick W. Mote, 29–54. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  336.  
  337. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  338.  
  339. This text is the fastest way to get reliable information on the Ming examination system. It also discusses what happened to examination finalists after they entered the imperial bureaucracy.
  340.  
  341. Find this resource:
  342.  
  343. Qian Maowei 钱茂伟. Guojia, keju yu shehui: Yi Mingdai wei zhongxin de kaocha (国家科举与社会.以明代为中心的考察). Beijing: Beijing tushuguan chubanshe, 2004.
  344.  
  345. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  346.  
  347. Contains a very accessible description of the Ming examination system and is extremely strong at showing the extent to which the civil competitions influenced Ming society.
  348.  
  349. Find this resource:
  350.  
  351. Shang Yanliu 商衍鎏. Qingdai keju kaoshi shulu (清代科舉考試述錄). Beijing: Shenghuo dushu xinzhi sanlian shudian, 1958.
  352.  
  353. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  354.  
  355. This book was written by one of the last Qing examination graduates (see Sheang 1985, cited under Examination Life). Includes original images of the Qing examinations. Also available in the edition Qingdai keju kaoshi shulu ji youguan zhuzuo (清代科举考试述录及有关著作) (Tianjin, China: Baihua wenyi chubanshe, 2004).
  356.  
  357. Find this resource:
  358.  
  359. Wang Kaixuan 王凯旋. Mingdai keju zhidu kaolun (明代科举制度考论). Shenyang, China: Shenyang chubanshe, 2005.
  360.  
  361. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  362.  
  363. Decidedly smaller in scope than Gong 2007, this is a well-written and narratively appealing survey of the Ming examination system.
  364.  
  365. Find this resource:
  366.  
  367. Taiping (1850–1864)
  368. In the middle of the 19th century, the Christian millenarian movement known as the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (taiping tianguo 太平天國) succeeded in occupying large parts of the Qing territory, especially the areas around Nanjing. They established their own state and equipped it with a large bureaucracy whose human resources were recruited via civil examinations. This created a unique situation in the sense that two examination systems—the Qing and the Taiping—were in force at the same time in the Chinese territory. Even though they copied very closely the Qing examination system, the Taiping examinations were radical in the sense that they replaced the Confucian curriculum with a Christian syllabus. Shang 1961 is still the best study of this bizarre episode in the long history of the examination system. Shih 1967 provides a reliable survey of the Taiping examinations, whereas Michael and Chang 1966–1971 contains English translations of some relevant Primary Sources.
  369.  
  370. Michael, Franz, and Chung-li Chang. The Taiping Rebellion. History and Documents. 3 vols. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1966–1971.
  371.  
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373.  
  374. Document Nr. 208 in this compendium (Vol. 3: 869–897) lists all the “Imperial Regulations Governing Scholarly Ranks” issued by the Taiping and is very useful for understanding how their examination system was expected to work.
  375.  
  376. Find this resource:
  377.  
  378. Shang Yanliu 商衍鎏. Taiping tianguo keju kaoshi jilüe (太平天国科举考试纪略). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1961.
  379.  
  380. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  381.  
  382. Best account of Taiping examinations. Deconstructs some myths regarding the Taiping examination system—for example, that the Taiping state also had civil service competitions for women. Also included in edition Qingdai keju kaoshi shulu ji youguan zhuzuo (清代科举考试述录及有关著作) (Tianjin, China: Baihua Wenyi Chubanshe, 2004).
  383.  
  384. Find this resource:
  385.  
  386. Shih, Vincent Y. C. The Taiping Ideology: Its Sources, Interpretations, and Influences. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967.
  387.  
  388. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  389.  
  390. Provides a good survey of the Taiping civil service examinations(especially pp. 41–43 and 268–272) but perpetuates some of the inaccuracies spotted by Shang 1961.
  391.  
  392. Find this resource:
  393.  
  394. Reference Tools and Guides to Sources
  395. Divided into four parts—Primary Sources, Secondary Sources, Terminological Issues, and Data for Specific Examinations—this section addresses readers who need to solve concrete questions related to the examination system.
  396.  
  397. Primary Sources
  398. Primary materials related to the examination system are many and rather heterogeneous. Wang 2013 (cited under General Overviews) provides an excellent survey of the most important sources. Classical Historiography for Chinese History is a fairly comprehensive and occasionally annotated list of extant primary materials. Sources for the early imperial period are easily accessible, mainly because they have been gathered and published in modern editions, of which the most comprehensive is Yang 2003 (cited under Collections of Source Materials). In addition, Xu 2006 and Fu, et al. 2009 (both cited under Data for Specific Examinations) are particular helpful for those doing research on the Tang and Song periods. Wen 2006 is the first place to check if you are trying to retrieve well-known primary sources that tend to be scattered in different collectanea. In terms of accessibility, it is slightly more complex to both locate and retrieve primary sources related to the Ming and Qing civil service examinations. This is mainly due to the vast quantity of extant primary materials from these dynasties, including a large number of archival sources. In addition, these materials have not been systematically catalogued yet so that it is not always easy to find (sometimes even to know) what one is looking for. Including detailed information on the most important institutions in China and Taiwan, Wilkinson 2012 provides guidance for those who want to retrieve archival sources and use libraries in China and Taiwan. Elman 1989 and Thatcher 1998 are surveys of two collections of examination-related sources located in the United States. West 1998 is the catalog of a British collection of late Qing primary materials that also includes examination-related sources such as primers and anthologies. The Capital Library of China has one of the largest collections of examination materials from the late Qing. If you are trying to find examination-related texts included in the often voluminous collected writings (wenji 文集) of Qing literati, Wang and Yang 1979 provides the quickest access, including a special section on texts related to the Eight-Legged Essay.
  399.  
  400. Capital Library of China.
  401.  
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403.  
  404. The Capital Library of China (Shoudu tushuguan 首都图书馆) inherited the book collection of the Imperial Academy (Guozijian 國子監), which was a key institution within the late imperial examination system (see the commentary for Schools and the citation for Beijing Confucian Temple and the Imperial College, under Museums). In spite of the Capital Library’s growing internet presence, especially as far as its catalog is concerned, the most convenient and safest way to retrieve the materials you need is to use the card catalogs in situ. Most relevant sources are filed under the category keyi 課藝 (Examination essays for the classroom) in the section ji 集 (Literature).
  405.  
  406. Find this resource:
  407.  
  408. Classical Historiography for Chinese History.
  409.  
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411.  
  412. Section 13 in this online manual of Chinese history (compiled by Benjamin Elman) is focused on “Civil and Military Examination Bibliographies”. It includes both secondary and primary materials, which are occasionally annotated. Intermittently, it specifies where the primary sources listed can be found.
  413.  
  414. Find this resource:
  415.  
  416. Elman, Benjamin. “Ch’ing Dynasty Education Materials in the Department of Special Collections, UCLA.” Late Imperial China 10.2 (December 1989): 379–418.
  417.  
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419.  
  420. Provides a thorough survey of the examination-related sources held by the University of California at Los Angeles.
  421.  
  422. Find this resource:
  423.  
  424. Thatcher, Melvin. “Selected Sources for Late Imperial China on Microfilm at the Genealogical Society of Utah.” Late Imperial China 19.2 (December 1998): 111–129.
  425.  
  426. DOI: 10.1353/late.1998.0008Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427.  
  428. The Genealogical Society contains a large number of so-called examination records, on which see Data for Specific Examinations. In fact, these are microfilm versions of original copies stored at the First Historical Archives in Beijing.
  429.  
  430. Find this resource:
  431.  
  432. Wang Zhongmin 王重民, and Yang Dianxun 楊殿旬, eds. Qingdai wenji pianmu fenlei suoyin (清代文集篇目分類索引). Taipei: Guofeng chubanshe, 1979.
  433.  
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435.  
  436. This is an index to the individual texts contained in collected works of Qing authors. It includes on pp. 562–572 a section listing individual texts focused on the “eight-legged” genre.
  437.  
  438. Find this resource:
  439.  
  440. Wen Qingge 文清閣, ed. Lidai keju wenxian jicheng (歷代科舉文獻集成). 10 vols. Beijing: Beijing Yanshan chubanshe, 2006.
  441.  
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443.  
  444. This is a well-edited collection of the best-known primary sources on the imperial examinations, including texts from all dynasties and the Republican era. To save yourself time and trouble, you should check here first for nonarchival primary sources you may want to retrieve.
  445.  
  446. Find this resource:
  447.  
  448. West, Andrew Christopher. Catalogue of the Morrison Collection of Chinese Books. London: University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies, 1998.
  449.  
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451.  
  452. This is a catalogue of the books collected by Robert Morrison (b. 1782–d. 1834) and now held by the School of Oriental and African Studies in London. There are several examination-related volumes, in particular anthologies of examination essays and primers.
  453.  
  454. Find this resource:
  455.  
  456. Wilkinson, Endymion. Chinese History: A New Manual. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2012.
  457.  
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459.  
  460. Section 66.2 (pp. 808–832) is a guide to archives in China and Taiwan. It includes a very useful introductory section explaining the paper flow of the Qing bureaucracy. Section 75 (pp. 968–977) provides a survey of the most important catalogues for locating traditional books.
  461.  
  462. Find this resource:
  463.  
  464. Secondary Sources
  465. Besides Elman 2000 (cited under General Overviews) and Classical Historiography for Chinese History (cited under Primary Sources), there are two English-language bibliographies of secondary sources related to the examination system: Parker 1986, which provides a good survey of articles written in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as well as of major works authored by Japanese scholars; and Waltner 1983, which is focused on issues of social mobility. Mao 1999 provides a well-structured survey of modern Chinese scholarship, whereas Liu 2005 is more comprehensive in its approach, including Japanese and Korean research as well as Western sources not listed in other bibliographies. Kejuxue Luncong, the journal published by the Museum of the Chinese Imperial Examination System (see under commentary for Museums), features regular bibliographical updates on the most recent Chinese scholarship. Not surprisingly, publications on the examination system keep emerging at a fast pace and in various contexts. The best way to keep up-to-date is to follow the suggestions provided in Wilkinson 2012.
  466.  
  467. Kejuxue Luncong (科举学论丛). 2007–.
  468.  
  469. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  470.  
  471. Published by the Museum of the Chinese Imperial Examination System (see under Museums), this is the only academic journal with an exclusive focus on the imperial examinations. It appears two to three times a year and usually contains a bibliographical update on the most recent publications regarding the examination system.
  472.  
  473. Find this resource:
  474.  
  475. Liu Haifeng 刘海峰. Kejuxue daolun (科举导论). Wuhan, China: Huazhong shifan daxue chubanshe, 2005.
  476.  
  477. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  478.  
  479. This book on various aspects of the examination system includes on pages 413–462 a bibliography of secondary sources that is not as well organized as Mao 1999, but far more comprehensive, including Japanese and Korean scholarship as well as some Western secondary sources.
  480.  
  481. Find this resource:
  482.  
  483. Mao Peiqi 毛佩琦, ed. Zhongguo zhuangyuan dadian (中国状元大典). Kunming, China: Yunnan renmin chubanshe, 1999.
  484.  
  485. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  486.  
  487. This dictionary of top finalists at the palace examinations includes on pp. 1231–1278 a list of Chinese secondary sources on the examination system. It is conveniently arranged according to dynasties so that it is very easy to retrieve the specific literature you may be looking for.
  488.  
  489. Find this resource:
  490.  
  491. Parker, Franklin. “Civil Service Examinations in China: Annotated Bibliography.” Chinese Culture 27.2 (June 1986): 103–110.
  492.  
  493. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  494.  
  495. This is an important bibliography for those who want to retrieve secondary sources from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It also provides thumbnail synopses of major works by Japanese scholars.
  496.  
  497. Find this resource:
  498.  
  499. Waltner, Ann. “Building on the Ladder of Success: The Ladder of Success in Imperial China and Recent Work on Social Mobility.” Ming Studies 17 (1983): 30–36.
  500.  
  501. DOI: 10.1179/014703783788755485Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  502.  
  503. Focused on issues of social mobility, this bibliography is a good companion to Meskill 1963 (cited under Modern Historiography).
  504.  
  505. Find this resource:
  506.  
  507. Wilkinson, Endymion. Chinese History: A New Manual. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2012.
  508.  
  509. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  510.  
  511. Chapter 76, “Keeping Up to Date” (pp. 978–987), provides a survey of how to access the most recent scholarship on Chinese history, especially journal articles and PhD theses.
  512.  
  513. Find this resource:
  514.  
  515. Terminological Issues
  516. Due to its long history and ubiquitous presence in imperial China, the examination system generated a complex terminology that is often hard to understand without guidance. Hucker 1985 lists and explains the most important administrative terms related to the imperial examinations. It is best used with Elman 2000, whose voluminous index often provides more accurate English renditions of the original terms, and Zi 1894, which has the most complete list of terms for late Qing civil examinations. In Chinese, there are two dictionaries of examination-related terminology, namely Zhai 2006 and Yang 2006. Mao 1999 is more modest in scale, but provides more rounded explanations of the technical terms. This applies as well to Chen 1994, which also includes examination-related expressions used in colloquial contexts. Chen 2009 is not primarily a dictionary, but includes an extensive list of technical terms of the Ming examination system. Note that a convenient way to understand late imperial examination terminology is to go directly to the manuals published by the examination authorities, specifically Su’erna 1969 and Libu 1989 (both cited under Examination Tiers); these are also neatly organized according to key topics.
  517.  
  518. Chen Meilin 陈美林. Rulin waishi cidian (儒林外史辞典). Nanjing, China: Nanjing daxue chubanshe, 1994.
  519.  
  520. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  521.  
  522. This is a dictionary of the famous novel The Scholars (cited under Impact on Literature). It includes on pp. 745–928 a lucidly annotated list of examination-related terms, some of which are derived from colloquial, rather than official, contexts.
  523.  
  524. Find this resource:
  525.  
  526. Chen Wenxin 陈文新, ed. Mingdai keju yu wenxue biannian (明代科举与文学编年). Wuhan, China: Wuhan daxue chubanshe, 2009.
  527.  
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529.  
  530. This is a chronologically arranged compendium of Ming examination materials with a focus on the system’s relationship with literature. It contains an extensive index of technical terms included in the main text. Even though the index does not provide any explanations, more often than not it is possible to grasp the meaning of terms by seeing them in the specific context of the main text.
  531.  
  532. Find this resource:
  533.  
  534. Elman, Benjamin A. A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
  535.  
  536. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  537.  
  538. The substantial index on pp. 797–847 includes many key terms of the imperial examinations, along with Chinese characters and often excellent English renditions.
  539.  
  540. Find this resource:
  541.  
  542. Hucker, Charles O. A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985.
  543.  
  544. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  545.  
  546. Contains the most important administrative terms related to the examinations, including their role through the centuries. The introductory chapters provide readers with a good sense of the examination system’s position within the imperial bureaucracy.
  547.  
  548. Find this resource:
  549.  
  550. Mao Peiqi 毛佩琦, ed. Zhongguo zhuangyuan dadian (中国状元大典). Kunming, China: Yunnan renmin chubanshe, 1999.
  551.  
  552. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  553.  
  554. This dictionary of top finalists at the palace examinations includes on pp. 768–927 a list of key terms related to the examination system. Even though much shorter than Zhai 2006 and Yang 2006, it is better at explaining the terms.
  555.  
  556. Find this resource:
  557.  
  558. Zhai Guozhang 瞿国璋, ed. Zhongguo keju cidian (中国科举辞典). Nanchang, China: Jiangxi jiaoyu chubanshe, 2006.
  559.  
  560. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  561.  
  562. This is the first modern dictionary of the examination system. Quite useful for accessing short information on people and technical terms, but rather weak if you want to know more about primary sources. The statistical tables for the Ming and Qing palace examinations (pp. 1316–1322) are useful if you want to see the late imperial examination cycle at almost a single glance.
  563.  
  564. Find this resource:
  565.  
  566. Yang Xuewei 杨学为, ed. Zhongguo kaoshi da cidian (中国考试大辞典). Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe, 2006.
  567.  
  568. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  569.  
  570. This is a very comprehensive dictionary of examinations in China, with good explanations of the terms, which are arranged according to the number of character strokes. It includes also many terms pertaining to examinations in modern China, such as the HSK or SAT.
  571.  
  572. Find this resource:
  573.  
  574. Zi, Étienne. Pratique des examens littéraires en Chine. Shanghai: Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique, 1894.
  575.  
  576. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577.  
  578. The index to this work includes all important administrative terms for the late Qing examination system. Uses a French transcription of Chinese characters that requires some practice to get used to. Regarding this book, see also Introductory Works (Zi 1896, also cited under Introductory Works, has a detailed list of the technical terms used at late Qing military examinations).
  579.  
  580. Find this resource:
  581.  
  582. Data for Specific Examinations
  583. One problem that historians of imperial China often encounter is how to find information about a specific examination they may come across during their research. As it happens, it is easier to locate information about examinations dating from the early imperial period, especially the Tang and Song periods, because all relevant passages have been retrieved from various sources and brought together in compendiums arranged in the chronological order of the examinations. Xu 2006 covers the Tang dynasty, while Fu, et al. 2009 is a voluminous chronology of the Song examination system. Chen and Song 2003 provides a rather detailed chronology of the supralocal Yuan examinations. As to the Ming and Qing competitions, the situation is slightly more complex. Not all Examination Tiers are equally accessible in terms of data. Local competitions were only loosely monitored by the imperial center, so that most information never reached the center in order to be filed in the imperial archives. As opposed to local situations, provincial, metropolitan, and palace competitions were fairly well-documented, mainly due to the fact that their outcome had to be directly transmitted to the center via so-called examination reports (timinglu 題名錄) and records (shilu 試錄). Examination records included a roster of all examination officials involved in the examinations; a list of the examination topics and all finalists; and an anthology of the best essays given in answer to the topics (one per topic). Examination reports were identical with examination records, minus the anthology section. In other words, gaining access to its report or record is the most reliable and convenient way to obtain basic data about a specific examination, and also to confirm that the examination took actually place. The vast majority of the examination reports and records from the Ming and Qing periods have survived; Elman 2000 provides the best survey. For Ming examination records accessible through modern reprints, see also Qu 1969 and Shen 2006–2010 (both cited under Collections of Source Materials). Another way to obtain basic data related to provincial, metropolitan, and palace examinations of the Ming and Qing periods consists in using examination chronicles (gongju kao 貢舉考), which survey a large number of competitions. Zhang 1995–2002 is the most detailed of these, covering the Ming examination cycle from its beginnings until the Wanli period. Fashishan 2012 is focused on the Qing examination cycle from the early period until its very end, while Huang 2006 covers the Ming and Qing cycles until 1846. Information about palace examination finalists is also easily accessible because their names were engraved on steles, which were edited and indexed in Zhu and Xie 1980. For information on specific palace examinations prior to and during the late imperial period, see also Deng, et al. 1993 and Zhong, et al. 1995 (both cited under Collections of Source Materials).
  584.  
  585. Chen Gaohua 陈高华, and Song Dejin 宋德金, eds. Zhongguo kaoshi shi wenxian jicheng (中国考试史文献集成). Vol. 4. Beijing: Gaodeng jiaoyu chubanshe, 2003.
  586.  
  587. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  588.  
  589. This is the fourth volume of a larger compendium, for which see Yang 2003 (cited under Collections of Source Materials). It includes on pp. 843–920 a very detailed chronology of the Yuan examination cycle at the supralocal levels.
  590.  
  591. Find this resource:
  592.  
  593. Elman, Benjamin A. A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
  594.  
  595. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  596.  
  597. This book contains on pp. 627–645 a very important appendix titled “Civil Examination Primary Sources, 1148–1904 (1,042 Reports).” It provides guidance to those who want to find out if a specific examination report or record is extant and, if so, where one can access it.
  598.  
  599. Find this resource:
  600.  
  601. Fashishan 法式善. Qingmi shuwen sanzhong (清秘述聞三种). 3 vols. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2012.
  602.  
  603. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  604.  
  605. This examination chronicle, initiated by a Mongol aficionado of the system, covers the entire Qing examination cycle, providing thumbnail information—such as names of the main examiners and the top finalist, as well as the topics for the eight-legged essays in the first round—about all competitions that took place on the provincial, metropolitan, and palace levels. It provides good coverage of the Shuntian provincial examination cycle in the imperial capital.
  606.  
  607. Find this resource:
  608.  
  609. Fu Xuanzong 傅璇琮, Gong Yanming 龚延明, and Zu Hui 祖慧, comps. Song dengke jikao (宋登科记考). 2 vols. Nanjing, China: Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe, 2009.
  610.  
  611. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  612.  
  613. This is a voluminous chronology of the Song examination cycle, citing under each competition all relevant data and sources.
  614.  
  615. Find this resource:
  616.  
  617. Huang Chonglan 黃崇蘭. “Ming gongju kaolüe/ Guochao gongju kaolüe” (明貢舉考略/國朝貢舉考略). In Lidai keju wenxian jicheng (歷代科舉文獻集成). Vols. 7–8. Edited by Wen Qingge 文清閣, 3627–4135. Beijing: Beijing yanjing chubanshe, 2006.
  618.  
  619. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  620.  
  621. Similar to Fashishan 2012, this large compendium provides brief information related to provincial, metropolitan, and palace competitions. It covers the Ming and Qing cycles until 1846. Includes the names of main examiners and the top finalist as well the topics for the eight-legged essays in the first round. It also contains information about the number of participants at the palace examinations, occasionally recording unusual events that happened during a specific competition.
  622.  
  623. Find this resource:
  624.  
  625. Xu Song 徐松, comp. “Dengke jikao” (登科記考). In Lidai keju wenxian jicheng (歷代科舉文獻集成). Vol. 4. Edited by Wen Qingge 文清閣, 1721–2225. Beijing: Beijing yanjing chubanshe, 2006.
  626.  
  627. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  628.  
  629. This is a chronology of the Tang examination cycle compiled by a late Qing scholar, citing under each examination all relevant data and passages pertaining to its history. There is also a three-volume edition of this work (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1984) which is punctuated and partly indexed.
  630.  
  631. Find this resource:
  632.  
  633. Zhang Chaorui 張朝瑞. “Huang Ming gongju kao” (皇明貢舉考). In Xuxiu siku quanshu (續修四庫全書). Vol. 828. Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1995–2002.
  634.  
  635. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  636.  
  637. This is a very detailed chronicle of the Ming examination cycle until 1582, including information on unusual events, principal examiners, finalists, and all topics given at the supralocal examinations.
  638.  
  639. Find this resource:
  640.  
  641. Zhu Baojiong 朱保炯, and Xie Peilin 谢霈林. Ming Qing jinshi timing beilu suoyin (明清进士题名碑索引). 3 vols. Shanghai: Shanghai guji chunbanshe, 1980.
  642.  
  643. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  644.  
  645. This is an index to the names of all palace finalists of the Ming and Qing periods. It relies mainly on the name steles in the Beijing Confucius temple (on which see Museums) that were erected after each palace examination. It is arranged according to the chronological order of palace competitions, listing all the finalists’ names, which are individually searchable via the index sections.
  646.  
  647. Find this resource:
  648.  
  649. Collections of Source Materials
  650. Collections of Primary Sources related to the examination system can be divided into two main types: eclectic collections that gather relevant materials retrieved from a vast number of various sources, and homogeneous collections which aim at bringing together the same type of examination-related sources. Yang 2003 is a large-scale eclectic collection that aims at including all the important passages and texts pertinent to the history of the examination system from its beginnings until 1911. It is especially valuable for the early imperial period as it brings together materials that are scattered in a vast array of primary sources. Li and Lin 2011 is also eclectic to the extent that it gathers in one volume illustrative materials from different sources, in particular photographs dating from the 19th century. The largest among the homogeneous collections is Gu 1992, which gathers examination essays from the Qing dynasty, mainly from the provincial and metropolitan levels. Fang 1979 is also a collection of late imperial examination essays, specifically eight-legged compositions. Qu 1969 and Shen 2006–2010 are both focused on the same type of source, namely Ming examination records (shilu 試錄), on which see Elman 2000 (cited under Data for Specific Examinations). Deng, et al. 1993 and Zhong, et al. 1995 are hybrid collections: i.e., they are focused on the same type of materials—primary sources related to the history of the palace examinations, in particular the examination topics and original examination essays—but use the eclectic method to retrieve the most relevant passages and texts. For an extensive collection of well-known primary texts related to the civil examinations, see also Wen 2006 (cited under Primary Sources).
  651.  
  652. Deng Hongbo 邓洪波, Peng Mingzhe 彭明哲, and Gong Kangyun 龚抗云, comps. Zhongguo lidai zhuangyuan dian shi juan (中国历代状元殿试卷). 2 vols. Haikou, China: Hainan chubanshe, 1993.
  653.  
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655.  
  656. This is a collection of materials related to the palace examinations. Arranged according to the chronological order of the competitions, it includes the topics and selected essays for all palace examinations as well as information about the top finalists and some basic data on the metropolitan competitions. It is very similar in its approach and use of materials to Zhong, et al. 1995.
  657.  
  658. Find this resource:
  659.  
  660. Fang Bao 方苞. Qinding sishuwen (欽定四書文). Taipei: Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan, 1979.
  661.  
  662. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663.  
  664. This is the most famous of all anthologies of the Eight-Legged Essay. Includes essays from the Ming and the Qing until the 18th century. All essays are commented upon by the anthologist Fang Bao. This collection has been recycled many times in modern books about the eight-legged essay. For this anthology, see also Guy 1994 (cited under the Eight-Legged Essay).
  665.  
  666. Find this resource:
  667.  
  668. Gu Tinglong 顧廷龍, ed. Qingdai zhujuan jicheng (清代硃卷集成). 420 vols. Taipei: Chengwen chubanshe, 1992.
  669.  
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671.  
  672. The largest compendium of examination essays ever published. The copies of the essays included here are not, however, the original examination papers, but derive from often- embellished versions that circulated in vanity publications compiled by finalists of civil competitions. As these publications tended to include biographical information, this compendium can also be used to find data related to examination finalists.
  673.  
  674. Find this resource:
  675.  
  676. Li Bing 李兵, and Lin Jieyu 林介宇, eds. Keju jiuying lu (科举旧影录). Changsha, China: Hunan daxue chubanshe, 2011.
  677.  
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679.  
  680. This book is to date the best and most comprehensive collection of images and illustrations related to the examination system, most notably photographs dating from the late Qing period. It can be supplemented with Yang 2003.
  681.  
  682. Find this resource:
  683.  
  684. Qu Wanli 屈萬里, ed. Mingdai dengkelu huibian (明代登科錄彙編). 22 vols. Taipei: Xuesheng shuju, 1969.
  685.  
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687.  
  688. This is an extensive compendium of provincial, metropolitan and palace examination records held by different libraries in Taiwan.
  689.  
  690. Find this resource:
  691.  
  692. Shen Jianguo 沈建国, ed. Tianyi ge cang Mingdai keju lu xuankan (天一阁藏明代科举录选刊). 62 boxes. Ningbo, China: Ningbo chubanshe, 2006–2010.
  693.  
  694. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  695.  
  696. The Tianyige was one of the most famous libraries of traditional China, having a special focus on examination sources, in particular official reports and records. This compendium is a facsimile edition of the Tianyige’s collection of examination records. A list of the palace examination records included is available online. The metropolitan records are also online. The provincial records are by far the majority.
  697.  
  698. Find this resource:
  699.  
  700. Yang Xuewei 杨学为, ed. Zhongguo kaoshi shi wenxian jicheng (中国考试史文献集成). 9 vols. Beijing: Gaodeng jiaoyu chubanshe, 2003.
  701.  
  702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703.  
  704. This is the largest eclectic compendium of sources related to the examinations in China. It is arranged chronologically: Volumes 7 and 8 deal with modern China. Volume 9 is a collection of images that can be used as a supplement to Li and Lin 2011, especially for those interested in the actual physical appearance of examination-related documents. Volume 6 has an interesting chapter listing sources pertaining to the dissemination of the examination system outside of China.
  705.  
  706. Find this resource:
  707.  
  708. Zhong Guangjun 仲光军, Shang Yuheng 尚玉恒, and Ji Nansheng 冀南生. Lidai jindian dianshi dingjia zhujuan (历代金殿殿试鼎甲硃卷). 2 vols. Shijiazhuang, China: Huashan wenyi chubanshe, 1995.
  709.  
  710. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  711.  
  712. Contains all extant palace examination topics from Tang through Qing along with one or two original essays from each competition and occasionally some information on the topics given at the metropolitan competition. List of sources used appears in Volume 2: pp. 1071–1073.
  713.  
  714. Find this resource:
  715.  
  716. Museums
  717. In recent years, especially since the centenary of the abolition of the examination system in 2005, general interest in the imperial competitions has been on the rise. This has led, among many other things, to the establishment of four museums: Jiangnan Examination Office in Nanjing, Beijing Confucian Temple and the Imperial College, Museum of the Chinese Imperial Examination System in Shanghai, and China Keju Museum in Pingyao (Shanxi Province). Even though none of these institutions can be considered to be extremely ambitious in terms of quantity or quality, they are still the best mode of access for those interested in knowing more about the material aspects of the imperial examinations. While Beijing Confucian Temple and the Imperial College and Museum of the Chinese Imperial Examination System have their own websites, the other two museums are unfortunately not online yet so that the only way to know more about their collections is either directly on location or via books. Zhou 2008 provides the best survey of what the Jiangnan Examination Office is all about. Dong 2004 has a brief survey of the Pingyao collection. Finally, the journal Kejuxue Luncong (cited under Secondary Sources) reflects the various activities taking place at the Shanghai museum, but also at other locations in China
  718.  
  719. Beijing Confucian Temple and the Imperial College.
  720.  
  721. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  722.  
  723. Besides the “Exhibition of the Chinese Imperial Examination”, the museum hosts a complete version of the Confucian canon engraved on stone and a forest of steles listing palace examination finalists (see Zhu and Xie 1980, cited under Data for Specific Examinations). Address of the actual museum: Beijing, 15 Guozijian jie (国子监街), postal code: 100007, near subway stop Yonghegong (雍和宫).
  724.  
  725. Find this resource:
  726.  
  727. China Keju Museum, Pingyao, Shanxi Province.
  728.  
  729. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  730.  
  731. Located inside the Confucius temple of Pingyao, the China Keju Museum (Zhongguo Keju Bowuguan 中国科举博物馆) has a permanent exhibition on the examination system with good coverage of the local competitions. Address: 67 Chenghuangmiao jie (城隍庙街), postal code: 031100.
  732.  
  733. Find this resource:
  734.  
  735. Dong Peiliang 董培良. Pingyao wenmiao (平遥文庙). Taiyuan, China: Shanxi jingji chubanshe, 2004.
  736.  
  737. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  738.  
  739. Contains a good introduction to the history and holdings of the China Keju Museum in Pingyao (pp. 53–92).
  740.  
  741. Find this resource:
  742.  
  743. Jiangnan Examination Office, Nanjing, China.
  744.  
  745. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  746.  
  747. Located on the former site of imperial China’s largest examination compound, the Jiangnan Examination Office (Jiangnan gongyuan 江南贡院) is a theme park that tries to capture the atmosphere that was prevalent at the provincial competitions. Its most famous exhibit is the reconstructed cell in which examinees were confined during the competitions. Address: Nanjing, 1 Jijing ninglu (集京宁路), postal code: 200001, near subway stop Sanshanjie (三山街站).
  748.  
  749. Find this resource:
  750.  
  751. Museum of the Chinese Imperial Examination System, Confucius Temple, Shanghai.
  752.  
  753. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  754.  
  755. Located inside the Shanghai Confucius temple, the Shanghai Jiading Zhongguo keju bowuguan 上海嘉定中国科举博物馆 has several objects on display, having a particular focus on cheating devices. Address: 183 Nanda jie (南大街), postal code: 201800, near subway stop West Jiading (嘉定西站).
  756.  
  757. Find this resource:
  758.  
  759. Zhou Daoxiang 周道祥. Jiangnan gongyuan shihua (江南贡院史话). Nanjing, China: Nanjing chubanshe, 2008.
  760.  
  761. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  762.  
  763. Written in collaboration with the Jiangnan Examination Office, this is a detailed and well-illustrated study of the examination halls of Jiangnan.
  764.  
  765. Find this resource:
  766.  
  767. Modern Historiography
  768. To different degrees, modern historiography of the examination system has oscillated between admiration and contempt. To better assess the arguments made by scholars while using the secondary literature, it is therefore important to be aware of this historiographical pendulum and its movements. Whereas admiration has been reserved for the system’s “hardware” (i.e., its meritocratic structure), contempt has been mainly focused on its “software” (i.e., the Examination Curriculum, especially the so-called Eight-Legged Essay, which prioritized literary over vocational content). The two most polemical and influential instances of “contemptuous” historiography are Hu 1963 and Mao 1955. Kagan 1972 contains by far the most vivid account, revealing the strong sentiments the system was able to trigger among Chinese intellectuals in the 20th century. Weber 1951 developed a complex and still dominant theory to explain why the examination curriculum prevented modernity from emerging in imperial China. This paradigm was remodeled in the work of Levenson 1972 and later imported via French theory in Bourdieu and Passeron 1990. “Admirative” historiography has been mainly concerned with the impact that the examination system had on social mobility in imperial China. Meskill 1963 is the most accessible point of entry for acquiring a good grasp of the “admirative” approach. It can and should in fact be updated with Elman 1991, which, influenced by Bourdieu and Passeron 1990, questions the meritocratic features of the examination system, claims that the examination system was in fact an institution mainly at the service of social reproduction. For a radically new approach to the historiographical value of the examination system, see Woodside 2006 (cited under Foreign Perspectives).
  769.  
  770. Bourdieu, Pierre, and Jean-Claude Passeron. Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London: SAGE, 1990.
  771.  
  772. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  773.  
  774. Relying on Weber 1951 and Levenson 1972, this work, especially chapters 1 and 2, draws a bold comparison between the French system of grandes écoles and the Chinese imperial examinations.
  775.  
  776. Find this resource:
  777.  
  778. Elman, Benjamin A. “Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China.” Journal of Asian Studies 50.1 (February 1991): 7–28.
  779.  
  780. DOI: 10.2307/2057472Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  781.  
  782. This is a rather straightforward application of the sociological framework developed in Bourdieu and Passeron 1990 for the Chinese imperial examinations, contesting the paradigm established by Ho 1962 (cited under Overviews by Period: Ming through Qing (1368–1911)).
  783.  
  784. Find this resource:
  785.  
  786. Hu, Shi. The Chinese Renaissance: The Haskell Lectures 1933. New York: Paragon, 1963.
  787.  
  788. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  789.  
  790. This is the most articulate attack on the examination system by an intellectual belonging to the anti-Confucian May Fourth Movement of 1919. Hu called the system’s curriculum “literary gymnastics,” comparing it to scholasticism in the European Middle Ages.
  791.  
  792. Find this resource:
  793.  
  794. Kagan, Richard C. “Ch’en Tu-hsiu’s Unfinished Autobiography.” China Quarterly 50 (April–June 1972): 295–314.
  795.  
  796. DOI: 10.1017/S0305741000050323Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  797.  
  798. In his autobiography, Chen Duxiu, founder of the Chinese Communist Party, described his experience as a provincial candidate, depicting the late Qing competitions as a repellent freakshow.
  799.  
  800. Find this resource:
  801.  
  802. Levenson, Joseph R. Confucian China and Its Modern Fate: A Trilogy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972.
  803.  
  804. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  805.  
  806. This is an elegant and intelligent elaboration of the paradigm sketched out in Weber 1951. Chapter 2 of Volume 1 in this trilogy deals with the examination system and the “amateur ideal” it fostered among literati in imperial China.
  807.  
  808. Find this resource:
  809.  
  810. Mao Zedong. Oppose the Party “Eight-Legged Essay.” Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1955.
  811.  
  812. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  813.  
  814. In this famous speech held by Chairman Mao in 1942, the examination system’s main essay genre is used as a simile to describe repetitive and mechanical behavior among cadres and other bureaucrats. Mao’s speech and its content are the first associations most people in the PRC tend to come up with regarding the imperial examinations.
  815.  
  816. Find this resource:
  817.  
  818. Meskill, Johanna, ed. The Chinese Civil Service: Career Open to Talent? Boston: Heath, 1963.
  819.  
  820. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  821.  
  822. This slim volume with a very informative introduction by the editor is focused on the extent to which the examination system was a meritocratic institution fostering social upward mobility. It gathers essays by various experts with different views on the subject, most notably Edward A. Kracke and Ping-ti Ho.
  823.  
  824. Find this resource:
  825.  
  826. Weber, Max. The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism. Translated and edited by Hans H. Gerth. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1951.
  827.  
  828. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  829.  
  830. Without any reading skills in Chinese and relying on translated materials as well as legions of secondary literature, the famous German sociologist wrote a seminal study of Confucianism, which includes a still very influential treatment of the civil service examinations. The critical edition of the German original (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1991) includes a complete list of all sources used by Weber as well as a glossary of all sinological terms and Chinese characters.
  831.  
  832. Find this resource:
  833.  
  834. Examination Tiers
  835. The examination system consisted of four main tiers: (1) local competitions taking place at the county and prefectural levels; (2) provincial competitions taking place in the provincial capitals; (3) metropolitan competitions taking place in the imperial capital; and (4) palace competitons that took place in the imperial palace. Even though the structure tended to be similar throughout the system’s long history, there were terminological and other differences along the centuries. Yang 2004 (cited under General Overviews) provides the best access to the historical evolution of the examination tiers. Moore 2004 (cited under Overviews by Period: Han through Tang (206 BCE–905)) and Chaffee 1985 (cited under Overviews by Period: Five Dynasties through Yuan (907–1368)), provide the best overviews of the Tang and Song examination tiers. In the late imperial examination system, there was a clear divide between the local competitions and the supralocal tiers. The local competitions were known as “little examinations” (xiaokao 小考), mainly because they were less demanding in terms of content and discipline. By contrast, the supralocal competitions were known as “big examinations” (dakao 大考) and usually took place in huge examination halls, in which candidates were confined in tiny cubicles where they had to write several essays. The names on the examination papers were then covered and the contents recopied so that the evaluation was completely anonymous. Wilkinson 2012 and Zi 1894 (both cited under Introductory Works), provide overviews of the late imperial examination levels. The best survey of the late imperial local examinations is Chang 1955, which also includes excellent chapters on the social life of local examinees. For those interested in doing research on the late imperial local examinations, the best point of entry in terms of Primary Sources is Su’erna 1969. Williams 2005 (cited under Examination Administration), and Jiang 2010 are both detailed studies of late imperial provincial competitions. Zhou 2008 (cited under Museums) provides a historical description of the largest provincial examination halls in late imperial China. Magone 2001 is focused on the location, personnel, candidates, and papers at an early Qing metropolitan examination. Man-cheong 2004, Lai 1970, and Fu 2006 provide different perspectives on the palace examination tier, including an autobiographical account and the English version of a palace examination essay. For those interested in doing research on late imperial supralocal examination tiers, the best point of entry in terms of primary sources is Libu 1989.
  836.  
  837. Chang, Chung-li. The Chinese Gentry: Studies on their Role in Nineteenth-Century Chinese Society. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1955.
  838.  
  839. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  840.  
  841. This is the best English-language monograph on the late imperial local competitions, which were rather complex since they consisted of different levels and also involved the management via official Schools of candidates stuck between the local and provincial tiers. It also includes chapters on the social life of local examinees. Note that Ho 1962 (cited under Overviews by Period: Ming through Qing (1368–1911)) specifically targets this book, suggesting an alternative paradigm of how to look at local examinations and their impact on Chinese society.
  842.  
  843. Find this resource:
  844.  
  845. Fu Zengxiang 傅增湘. “Qingdai dianshi kaolüe” (清代殿試考略). In Lidai keju wenxian jicheng (歷代科舉文獻集成). Vol. 10. Edited by Wen Qingge 文清閣. Beijing: Beijing yanshan chubanshe, 2006.
  846.  
  847. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  848.  
  849. Originally published in 1933, this book provides a thorough survey of Qing palace examinations. It describes their settings, topics, essay formats, rituals, and personnel, including the examiners and their evaluation standards. It also contains a few original palace examination essays from the late Qing.
  850.  
  851. Find this resource:
  852.  
  853. Jiang Chuansong 姜传松. Qingdai Jiangxi xiangshi yanjiu (清代江西乡试研究). Wuhan, China: Huazhong shifan daxue chubanshi, 2010.
  854.  
  855. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  856.  
  857. To date, this is the most detailed study of a single provincial examination venue (Nanchang) that we have for the Qing period. Has a substantial number of appendices containing key data (topics, names of examiners and finalists) for all Jiangxi competitions that took place during the Qing.
  858.  
  859. Find this resource:
  860.  
  861. Lai, T’ien Ch’ang. A Scholar in Imperial China. Hong Kong: Kelly & Walsh, 1970.
  862.  
  863. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  864.  
  865. This is a slim volume that revolves around one examination written for the palace competition of 1903 by Lai Jixi 赖际熙, who later on in life became the first Head of the Chinese Department of the University of Hong Kong. It contains a facsimile of the original examination paper and an English rendition of its content.
  866.  
  867. Find this resource:
  868.  
  869. Libu 禮部, comp. Qinding kechang tiaoli (欽定科場條例). 12 vols. Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1989.
  870.  
  871. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  872.  
  873. Officials in Qing China serving as examiners in supralocal competitions were required to read this manual specifying in detail all regulations in force during the examinations. For historians, this primary source is a large window into the world of supralocal examinations. There are several editions of this manual, one of which is included in Wen 2006 (cited under Primary Sources).
  874.  
  875. Find this resource:
  876.  
  877. Magone, Rui. “Once Every Three Years: People and Papers at the Metropolitan Examination of 1685.” PhD diss., Free University of Berlin, 2001.
  878.  
  879. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  880.  
  881. This thesis looks at one single metropolitan examination from four different perspectives: settings, personnel, candidates, and examination papers. The main text is preceded by a discussion of the modern historiography of the examination system.
  882.  
  883. Find this resource:
  884.  
  885. Man-Cheong, Iona. The Class of 1761: Examinations, State, and Elites in Eighteenth-Century China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004.
  886.  
  887. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  888.  
  889. This book is focused on one single late imperial palace examination, taking a particular interest in the ritualistic dimension of this competition as well as the cohort of finalists. It includes important appendices on the provincial examination quotas as well as the number of attempts taken by each of the finalists in previous examinations and a complete list of all palace examination participants in the year 1761.
  890.  
  891. Find this resource:
  892.  
  893. Su’erna 素爾訥, comp. Qinding xuezheng quanshu (欽定學政全書). 2 vols. Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1969.
  894.  
  895. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  896.  
  897. Local examinations were supervised by an official called a xuezheng (學政), who was assigned by the center to a specific province. In order to know exactly what to do on the job, the xuezheng was given a manual, which is this book. Available in different editions, one of which is included in Wen 2006 (cited under Primary Sources).
  898.  
  899. Find this resource:
  900.  
  901. Examination Administration
  902. Traditionally, and most prominently so in the late imperial period, the administrative headquarters of the examination system was the Board of Rites (libu 禮部). The Board took care of the provincial, metropolitan, and palace examinations, selecting from different institutions the personnel needed to run these competitions, including examiners and supervising officials, but also thousands of copiers, soldiers, and other staff. Via the official Schools and the Education intendants (xuezheng 學政), regarding whom see Grimm 1969 (cited under Schools), the Board supervised the local examinations and the large student population at the county and prefectural levels. The Board of Rites was also responsible for the legal aspects of the examination system, being in charge of compiling and updating manuals specifying all regulations that were in force at the competitions (for the two most relevant manuals, see Su’erna 1969 and Libu 1989, both cited under Examination Tiers). The introductory chapters with integrated organigrams in Hucker 1985 provide the quickest access to the administrative context of the civil examination system in different dynasties, showing how the Board of Rites related to the rest of the imperial bureaucracy and how it interacted with the regional authorities. Lui 1990 provides a very accessible survey of the imperial bureaucracy during the Qing, including a chapter on the Six Boards. Huang 1976 is a detailed study of the Qing examination administration. Wang 2009 shows the Ming examination administration at work tackling the question of how to successfully implement provincial quotas. Lui 1981 is focused on the Hanlin Academy (Hanlin yuan 翰林院), a late imperial central institution that catered to palace examination graduates, training them for their bureaucratic careers but also using them as examiners in the provincial and metropolitan competitions. Historiographically speaking, one of the most fiercely discussed aspects of the examination administration is its efficiency, specifically the extent to which it was corrupt and fraudulent. Li 1997 and Williams 2005 are detailed studies of two major examination scandals that occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries. Magone 2006 discusses the history of late imperial examinations from the perspective of fraud and corruption, coming to the conclusion that, statistically speaking, examination scandals were few and far between.
  903.  
  904. Huang Guangliang 黃光亮. Qingdai keju zhidu zhi yanjiu (清代科舉制度之研究). Taipei: Jiaxin shuini gongsi wenhua jijinhui, 1976.
  905.  
  906. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  907.  
  908. This is a detailed study of the Qing examination administration, describing in great detail how competitions were administered at the local, provincial, and metropolitan tiers. Chapter 2 includes an extensive discussion of the history of examination administration prior to the Qing period.
  909.  
  910. Find this resource:
  911.  
  912. Hucker, Charles O. A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985.
  913.  
  914. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  915.  
  916. The introduction, titled “Governmental Organization Era by Era,” provides, via commentary and detailed charts, quick access to the structure of the imperial bureaucracy along the centuries, showing how the examination system related to other official institutions.
  917.  
  918. Find this resource:
  919.  
  920. Li Guorong 李国荣. Kechang yu wubi: Zhongguo gudai zuida kechang’an toushi (科场与舞弊: 中国古代最大科场案透视). Beijing: Zhongguo dang’an chubanshe, 1997.
  921.  
  922. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  923.  
  924. While providing a survey of examination scandals through the centuries, this slim volume is mainly focused on one of the greatest frauds in the long history of the imperial examinations, specifically the Shuntian examination scandal of 1858.
  925.  
  926. Find this resource:
  927.  
  928. Lui, Adam Yuen-Chung. The Hanlin Academy: Training Ground for the Ambitious, 1644–1850. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1981.
  929.  
  930. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  931.  
  932. Ming and Qing palace examination graduates usually entered the imperial bureaucracy via the Hanlin Academy, a central institution that was located in the vicinity of the Forbidden City. It was here that they received their first training, often serving as examiners in provincial and metropolitan competitions. This book provides a good survey of the Academy and how it worked.
  933.  
  934. Find this resource:
  935.  
  936. Lui, Adam Yuen-Chung. Ch’ing Institutions and Society, 1644–1795. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Centre of Asian Studies, 1990.
  937.  
  938. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  939.  
  940. This is a very accessible survey of the Qing administration system, highlighting its basic features. Chapter 3 (pp. 33–45) deals with the Six Boards, including a brief treatment of the Board of Rites. Chapter 6 (pp. 79–93) contains a succinct discussion of the examination system’s impact on social mobility during the Qing.
  941.  
  942. Find this resource:
  943.  
  944. Magone, Rui. “The Corruption That Wasn’t There: Fraud Prevention and Its Limits in Qing Civil Examinations.” In Über Himmel und Erde: Festschrift für Erling von Mende. Edited by Raimund T. Kolb and Martina Siebert, 293–308. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2006.
  945.  
  946. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  947.  
  948. Provides an overview of Qing examination scandals, coming to the conclusion that they were few and far between. Argues that this finding does not necessarily mean that the system was not corrupt., but rather reflects a certain type of historiography.
  949.  
  950. Find this resource:
  951.  
  952. Wang Weizhen 汪维真. Mingdai xiangshi jie’e zhidu yanjiu (明代解额制度研究). Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2009.
  953.  
  954. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  955.  
  956. This is the best study of provincial examination quotas—specifically how they evolved and what impact they had on the distribution of examination capital in Ming society. Among other things, it shows the examination administration in action as it tried to implement the regulations regarding provincial quotas.
  957.  
  958. Find this resource:
  959.  
  960. Williams, John R. “Fraud and Inquest in Jiangnan: The Politics of Examination in Early Qing China.” PhD diss., University of California at Berkeley, 2005.
  961.  
  962. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  963.  
  964. Systematic study of corruption at an early Qing Jiangnan provincial examination, focusing on the conflict of interests, both Manchu and Chinese, behind the fraudulent behavior of examiners and examinees.
  965.  
  966. Find this resource:
  967.  
  968. Education
  969. Due to its open and ubiquitous structure—almost any male person in the empire was entitled to sit for the competitions—the examination system had a decisive impact on the educational landscape of late imperial China. In order to succeed at the competitions, candidates began to internalize the Examination Curriculum at a very early age, guided by family tutors and teachers in private Schools or with the help of Examination Aids. This training required from aspiring candidates one to two decades of systematic learning, with the result that not much time was left for studying fields of knowledge not included in the examination curriculum (such as mathematics). It is therefore not a complete exaggeration to say that the examination system monopolized the educational landscape in imperial China, especially in the Ming and Qing periods. Lee 2000 provides a comprehensive survey of the history of education in China, describing and explaining how the examination system grew in importance over the centuries and succeeded in becoming the central educational institution in late imperial times. The most decisive period for the system’s rise to preeminence was the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE), during which extensive debates were carried out regarding the educational relevance of civil service examinations. Terada 1965 and Yuan 1991 provide detailed accounts of these debates, including their political and intellectual contexts. For the impact that Neo-Confucianism had on Song and Yuan education, see de Bary and Chaffee 1989 (cited under Orthodoxy). Elman and Woodside 1994 is focused on the educational landscape of the Ming and Qing periods, including fields and practices of knowledge that were not part of the civil service examination curriculum. Rawski 1979 is an important study for those interested in issues of literacy, in particular the extent to which the examination system helped shape the different levels of education prevalent in late imperial China. Ridley 1973 shows in great and captivating detail how education was practiced in late imperial China, specifically how children acquired the vast amounts of knowledge required for passing the civil competitions. Diény 1994 provides a concrete example of these educational practices by tracing the intellectual formation of the famous Qing historian Cui Shu. Finally, Li 2007 is a systematic study of the educational and cultural impact that palace examination finalists and their cohorts had on Qing society.
  970.  
  971. Diény, Jean-Pierre. “Les années d’apprentissage de Cui Shu.” Études chinoises 13.1–2 (1994): 173–200.
  972.  
  973. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  974.  
  975. This is a short and captivating account of the early years of Qing historian Cui Shu 崔述 (b. 1740–d. 1816), showing the deep impact that the examination system had on his intellectual formation.
  976.  
  977. Find this resource:
  978.  
  979. Elman, Benjamin, and Alexander Woodside, eds. Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 1600–1900. Papers originally presented at a conference held at Santa Barbara, CA, 8–14 June 1989. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
  980.  
  981. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  982.  
  983. This is a carefully edited conference volume featuring fourteen contributions on a wide range of topics related to education in late imperial China, including elementary schools, the study of mathematics, women’s education, and Manchu learning.
  984.  
  985. Find this resource:
  986.  
  987. Lee, Thomas H. C. Education in Traditional China: A History. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
  988.  
  989. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  990.  
  991. This is the most comprehensive history of education in China in a Western language. It has a very extensive and useful bibliography. Especially valuable is chapter 1, which provides readers with a highly readable introduction to the ideals and major themes prevalent in traditional Chinese education.
  992.  
  993. Find this resource:
  994.  
  995. Li Runqiang 李润强. Qingdai jinshi qunti yu xueshu wenhua (清代进士群体与学术文化). Beijing: Shehui kexue chuabanshe, 2007.
  996.  
  997. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  998.  
  999. Provides a thorough investigation of jinshi graduates from the perspective of culture, highlighting the fields in which the examination system influenced late imperial intellectual life.
  1000.  
  1001. Find this resource:
  1002.  
  1003. Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida. Education and Popular Literacy in Ch’ing China. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979.
  1004.  
  1005. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1006.  
  1007. Among many other issues, this seminal work explores the extent to which late imperial literacy was shaped by the civil service examinations. It also takes a nuanced look at what it meant to be literate in traditional China, pointing out that literacy served many functions other than just sitting for the civil examinations.
  1008.  
  1009. Find this resource:
  1010.  
  1011. Ridley, Charles. “Educational Theory and Practice in Late Imperial China: The Teaching of Writing as a Specific Case.” PhD diss., Stanford University, 1973.
  1012.  
  1013. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1014.  
  1015. This thesis describes in detail how students learned and coped with the complex late imperial examination curriculum, in particular essay-writing. Chapter 7, “The Cultural Scope of Civil Examinations and the Eight-Legged Essay among Elites” (pp. 370–420), in Elman 2000 (cited under Examination Curriculum), integrates the main points of this thesis.
  1016.  
  1017. Find this resource:
  1018.  
  1019. Terada Gō 寺田剛. Sōdai kyōikushi gaisetsu (宋代敎育史槪說). Tokyo: Hakubunsha, 1965.
  1020.  
  1021. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1022.  
  1023. This is a seminal and thoroughly researched history of education during the Song dynasty, from its beginnings until its final years, and can be supplemented with Yuan 1991
  1024.  
  1025. Find this resource:
  1026.  
  1027. Yuan Zheng 袁征. Songdai jiaoyu: Zhongguo gudai jiaoyu de lishixing zhuanzhe (宋代教育:中国古代教育的历史性转折). Guangzhou, China: Guangdong gaodeng jiaoyu chubanshe, 1991.
  1028.  
  1029. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1030.  
  1031. Extremely detailed history of education during the Song, including chapters on textbooks used in schools and academies as well as famous teachers and their teaching practices. Has an index of key persons and terms, which is extremely useful for finding information in the main text.
  1032.  
  1033. Find this resource:
  1034.  
  1035. Schools
  1036. As an institution that tested knowledge, the late imperial examination system also incorporated a vast network of official schools that spanned the entire territory. This network had at its bottom a large number of local schools (xuegong 學宮, or xuexiao 學校), normally one per county, and at its top the imperial academy (guozijian 國子監), which was based in the capital. Both the local schools and the imperial academy were normally built next to a Confucius temple (kongmiao 孔廟), where teachers and students performed various rituals on a regular basis. Despite their designation, most of these schools were not real schools, even though they usually had a teaching staff. Rather, their main function consisted in enrolling and thus managing the large student population that remained stuck between the local and provincial levels of the examination ladder. Once every three years, the imperial center would dispatch Education intendants (xuezheng 學政) to the various provinces where they would test and check on this student population in the official schools. Zi 1894 (cited under Introductory Works) provides the best survey of official schools during the Qing. Grimm 1969 describes the functions of education intendants in the official schools. Ma 1975 discusses the teaching staff at these schools. Since the official schools did not offer much teaching, they were always shadowed by private academies (shuyuan 書院), which offered classes for those preparing for the civil examinations. Meskill 1982 and Walton-Vargo 1989 are good surveys of late imperial academies, providing information on how they functioned on a daily basis as well as how much they cost and how they related to the examination system. Broader in its approach, Li 2005 traces the relationship between private academies and the civil examinations from the Song to the late imperial period. Zhao 1995 is a systematic study of the relationship between schools, both official and private, and the examination system during the Ming. Woodside 1994 is an insightful discussion of the late imperial educational landscape, focusing on the antagonism between state intertia and local activism. To a considerable extent, the late imperial situation, especially if we compare it with the educational landscape of Tang and Song times, was unique in the way it promoted the civil service examinations to the detriment of the state school system. As it happens, the emergence of this specific constellation can be traced back to debates that took place in previous dynasties, most prominently during the Song. Lee 1985 provides a good survey and discussion of these debates.
  1037.  
  1038. Grimm, Tilemann. “Ming Education Intendants.” Paper presented at the Research Conference on Ming Government, held at the University of Illinois, Urbana, in 1965. In Chinese Government in Ming Times: Seven Studies. Edited by Charles Hucker, 129–147. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969.
  1039.  
  1040. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1041.  
  1042. A concise survey of the functions that Ming education intendants were expected to perform during their provincial tours, including some discussion of their relationship with local elites.
  1043.  
  1044. Find this resource:
  1045.  
  1046. Lee, Thomas H. C. Government Education and Examinations in Sung China. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1985.
  1047.  
  1048. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1049.  
  1050. This is a detailed study of the school system in Song China and its relationship with the civil service examinations. It includes on p. 250 a synoptic timeline of major educational decisions taken by reformers and anti-reformers. See also Terada 1965 and Yuan 1991 (both cited under Education).
  1051.  
  1052. Find this resource:
  1053.  
  1054. Li Bing 李兵. Shuyuan yu keju guanxi yanjiu (书院与科举关系研究). Wuhan, China: Huazhong shifan daxue chubanshe, 2005.
  1055.  
  1056. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1057.  
  1058. This is a systematic study of the relationship between private academies and the examination system, highlighting the historical evolution that took place from the Song to the late imperial period.
  1059.  
  1060. Find this resource:
  1061.  
  1062. Ma, Tai-loi. “The Local Education Officials of Ming China, 1368–1644.” Oriens Extremus 22.1 (1975): 11–27.
  1063.  
  1064. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1065.  
  1066. Describes the functions of the teaching officials who worked in Ming state schools at the local level.
  1067.  
  1068. Find this resource:
  1069.  
  1070. Meskill, John. Academies in Ming China: A Historical Essay. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982.
  1071.  
  1072. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1073.  
  1074. Includes a concise account of how the official schools catering to the examination system related to and gave rise to academies in the Ming period and describes the curricular and other activities taking place in these private institutions.
  1075.  
  1076. Find this resource:
  1077.  
  1078. Walton-Vargo, Linda. “The Institutional Context of Neo-Confucianism: Scholars, Schools, and Shu-yüan in Sung-Yuan China.” In Neo-Confucian Education: The Formative Stage. Edited by William Theodore de Bary and John W. Chaffee, 457–492. Studies on China 9. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
  1079.  
  1080. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1081.  
  1082. Traces the evolution of local schools in the Ming prefecture (near modern Ningbo) and their complex relationship with the central state in the period from the Northern Song to the late Yuan.
  1083.  
  1084. Find this resource:
  1085.  
  1086. Woodside, Alexander. “The Divorce between the Political Center and Educational Creativity in Late Imperial China.” In Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 1600–1900. Edited by Benjamin Elman and Alexander Woodside, 458–492. Studies on China 19. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
  1087.  
  1088. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1089.  
  1090. Discusses different opinions that Qing literati had about the function of schools in society, including in geographically peripheral areas, and also how the schools’ relationship with the examination system should ideally look like.
  1091.  
  1092. Find this resource:
  1093.  
  1094. Zhao Zifu 赵子富. Mingdai xuexiao yu keju zhidu yanjiu (明代学校与科举制度研究). Beijing: Beijing yanshan chubanshe, 1995.
  1095.  
  1096. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1097.  
  1098. Most thorough account of education in the Ming from the perspective of the examination system. Includes all kinds of schools.
  1099.  
  1100. Find this resource:
  1101.  
  1102. Examination Curriculum
  1103. The curriculum of the imperial examination system changed many times during its long history, accommodating through the centuries a great variety of genres, ranging from policy essays and regulated verse forms to “eight-legged” compositions and bureaucratic documents such as memorials and legal decisions. Wang and Kong 2005 provide the best historical survey of the examination curriculum, containing sample texts for all genres. Elman 2000 is the most convenient access for readers who want to know what the examination curriculum looked like in a specific period in history. Zi 1894 and Lui 1974 provide samples of the Qing examination curriculum. Historiographically speaking, one of the most intriguing questions is what caused the curriculum to change along the centuries. One possible reason is related to the impact that intellectual trends in different knowledge communities, in particular Confucian scholarship, had on the examinations, most notably via the provincial and metropolitan examiners, many of whom were plugged into the vanguard of mainstream discourse. De Weerdt 2007 highlights these connections for the Song, showing that they did indeed cause the curriculum to evolve. Elman 1994 and Yu 1998 try to prove the same for the mid-Qing period, coming to diametrically opposite conclusions. Zhang 2005 describes the fast-moving and radical changes the late imperial examination curriculum was exposed to in the early 20th century after the political center had decided to discard the Eight-Legged Essay in favor of Western knowledge.
  1104.  
  1105. De Weerdt, Hilde. Competition over Content: Negotiating Standards for the Civil Service Examinations in Imperial China (1127–1276). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2007.
  1106.  
  1107. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1108.  
  1109. Focused on the examination curriculum and its entanglements with the literati world of the Southern Song, this book highlights the importance of the civil examinations for intellectual history in imperial China.
  1110.  
  1111. Find this resource:
  1112.  
  1113. Elman, Benjamin A. “Changes in Confucian Civil Service Examinations from the Ming to the Ch’ing Dynasty.” In Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 1600–1900. Edited by Benjamin Elman and Alexander Woodside, 111–149. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
  1114.  
  1115. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1116.  
  1117. Provides an excellent survey of the changes of the late imperial examination curriculum. Argues that the curricular changes in the late 18th century were connected to an intellectual battle that was taking place between the Song Learning and Han Learning camps. It also suggests that the Han Learning camp was causing curricular changes via the policy questions in the third round of provincial and metropolitan examinations.
  1118.  
  1119. Find this resource:
  1120.  
  1121. Elman, Benjamin A. A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
  1122.  
  1123. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1124.  
  1125. The “Timelines for Civil Examination Curriculum Change, 650–1905” on pp. 729–737 provide a synoptic view of the examination curriculum along the centuries, showing among many other things that the genres became fewer and more standardized toward the late imperial period.
  1126.  
  1127. Find this resource:
  1128.  
  1129. Lui, Adam Yuen-Chung. “Syllabus of the Provincial Examination (hsiang-shih) under the Early Ch’ing.” Modern Asian Studies 8.3 (May 1974): 391–396.
  1130.  
  1131. DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X00014694Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1132.  
  1133. This is a detailed description of the early Qing examination curriculum and is best used with Zi 1894, which reflects the situation in the late Qing.
  1134.  
  1135. Find this resource:
  1136.  
  1137. Wang Xiaoyang 汪小洋, and Kong Qingmao 孔庆茂. Keju wenti yanjiu (科举文体研究). Tianjin, China: Tianjin guji chubanshe, 2005.
  1138.  
  1139. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1140.  
  1141. Discusses the evolution of examination genres and includes a chronological list of relevant passages on the history of the examination genres. Contains samples of all examination genres.
  1142.  
  1143. Find this resource:
  1144.  
  1145. Yu, Li. “Social Change during the Ming-Qing Transition and the Decline of Sichuan Classical Learning in the Early Qing.” Late Imperial China 19.1 (June 1998): 26–55.
  1146.  
  1147. DOI: 10.1353/late.1998.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1148.  
  1149. Looks at the Sichuan provincial examinations during the Qing and comes to a conclusion, different from Elman 1994, that no curricular changes were taking place via the policy questions in the third round of provincial and metropolitan examinations, at least not in Sichuan.
  1150.  
  1151. Find this resource:
  1152.  
  1153. Zhang Yaqun 张亚群. Keju gefei yu jindai Zhongguo gaodeng jiaoyu de zhuanxing (科举革废与近代中国高等教育的转型). Wuhan, China: Huazhong shifan daxue chubanshe, 2005.
  1154.  
  1155. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1156.  
  1157. In 1901, the examination curriculum was radically changed in favor of Western knowledge. These changes and their consequences for the civil competitions are described on pp. 91–103. For more information on this development, see also Franke 1960 and Guan 2013 (both cited under Overviews by Period: Ming through Qing (1368–1911)) and Cao 2012 (cited under Examination Aids).
  1158.  
  1159. Find this resource:
  1160.  
  1161. Zi, Étienne. Pratique des Examens Littéraires en Chine. Shanghai: Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique, 1894.
  1162.  
  1163. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1164.  
  1165. Contains detailed information about the late Qing examination curriculum in all tiers of the system. Includes sample essays in Chinese with French translation. Is best used with Lui 1974, which reflects the curricular situation in the early Qing.
  1166.  
  1167. Find this resource:
  1168.  
  1169. The Eight-Legged Essay
  1170. The “eight-legged essay” was the principal genre of the late imperial Examination Curriculum, in part due to the fact that it was the genre used to give the answer to the first topic asked at the civil competitions, especially at the provincial and metropolitan levels. During the evaluation process, examiners would form their decision on whether or not to pass a candidate mainly based on their reading of the first three eight-legged essays he wrote for the first examination round. Accordingly, this genre was practiced by millions of people everywhere in the empire, generating an estimated total of at least twenty million compositions at the provincial and metropolitan levels during the Ming and Qing periods. Since this genre combined thorough knowledge of the Confucian canon and its exegesis with highly sophisticated literary skills, years of training were required before examinees were able to master its contents and rhetorics. Over the centuries, the constant preoccupation with this genre gave rise, especially in so-called Examination Aids, to both a rich and nuanced technical language describing the different aspects of the composition and evaluation process. Concurrently, the eight-legged essay, in spite of its close association with the civil examinations, was also appreciated as a literary genre with a great aesthetic potential. In fact, a large number of anthologies gathering the best manifestation of the genre’s literary qualities circulated in the empire, allowing connoisseurs and other readers to savor the eight-legged style at its best. We have therefore to keep in mind that our extant sources tend to reflect two opposite images of the eight-legged genre: on the one hand, a pragmatic, examination-oriented and hence rather sordid image that becomes especially visible in mass-produced examination aids printed on cheap paper; and, on the other, most prominently in Fang 1979 (cited under Collections of Source Materials), an aesthetic, elitist, and somehow sanitized image that tried, as much as it was possible, to distance itself from the reality of the civil competitions. Plaks 1986 and Tu 1974–1975 are the best and most accessible introductions to this genre, being particularly interested in its literary qualities. By contrast, Durand 1999 is mainly focused on eight-legged essays that were written for the examinations. Chapter 7 of Elman 2000 (cited under General Overviews), provides a synoptic tour of the genre. Guy 1994 makes palpable the tension between aesthetics and pragmatism that the eight-legged genre was exposed to in the late 18th century. Lo 1990 and Plaks 1994 provide excellent English translations of several famous eight-legged essays. Wang 2002 and Gong 2006 are substantial monographs that are especially valuable for those who want to do research on this topic.
  1171.  
  1172. Durand, Pierre-Henri. “L’homme bon et la montagne. Petite contribution en trois temps à l’étude de la prose moderne.” Etudes chinoises 18.1–2 (1999): 223–288.
  1173.  
  1174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1175.  
  1176. This article is focused on eight-legged essays that were actually written for the examinations. It compares several compositions from the same competition in an attempt to uncover their standards of quality.
  1177.  
  1178. Find this resource:
  1179.  
  1180. Gong Duqing 龚笃清. Mingdai baguwen shitan (明代八股文史探). Changsha, China: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 2006.
  1181.  
  1182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1183.  
  1184. Detailed and occasionally very technical account of the eight-legged essay, which also discusses the essay’s relationship with and impact on Ming literature and culture.
  1185.  
  1186. Find this resource:
  1187.  
  1188. Guy, R. Kent. “Fang Pao and the Ch’in-ting Ssu-shu wen.” In Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 1600–1900. Edited by Benjamin Elman and Alexander Woodside, 150–182. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
  1189.  
  1190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1191.  
  1192. This article is focused on Fang Bao’s Qinding sishu wen (see Fang 1979, cited under Collections of Source Materials) perhaps the best-known anthology of eight-legged essays ever published in late imperial China. It shows the extent to which the genre’s literary and ideological standards were being constantly eroded by examination-oriented pragmatism.
  1193.  
  1194. Find this resource:
  1195.  
  1196. Lo, Andrew, trans. “Four Examination Essays of the Ming Dynasty.” Renditions 33–34 (1990): 167–181.
  1197.  
  1198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1199.  
  1200. Contains well-annotated English renditions of four eight-legged essays taken from Fang Bao’s famous collection discussed in Guy 1994, and has a clear focus on the aesthetic qualities of the genre rather than its uses at the civil competitions.
  1201.  
  1202. Find this resource:
  1203.  
  1204. Plaks, Andrew. “Pa-ku wen.” In The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature. Edited by William Nienhauser, 641–643. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986.
  1205.  
  1206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1207.  
  1208. Succint introduction to the genre by one leading expert. Includes a very helpful bibliography of primary and secondary sources.
  1209.  
  1210. Find this resource:
  1211.  
  1212. Plaks, Andrew. “The Prose of Our Time.” In The Power of Culture: Studies in Chinese Cultural History. Edited by Willard J. Peterson, Andrew Plaks, and Ying-shih Yü, 206–217. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1994.
  1213.  
  1214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1215.  
  1216. A very well-structured introduction to the eight-legged genre, it also contains an English translation of one essay by the famous eight-legged stylist Wang Ao 王鏊 (b. 1450–d. 1526). Note that the same essay was also translated (in a radically different manner) by Elman 2000 (pp. 397–399; cited under General Overviews).
  1217.  
  1218. Find this resource:
  1219.  
  1220. Tu, Ching-i. “The Chinese Examination Essay: Some Literary Considerations.” Monumenta Serica 31 (1974–1975): 393–406.
  1221.  
  1222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1223.  
  1224. For those who want to have more detailed knowledge on the rhetorical grid that the eight-legged essay relied upon, this is the best point of entry, together with Plaks 1994.
  1225.  
  1226. Find this resource:
  1227.  
  1228. Wang Kaifu 王凯符. Baguwen gaishuo (八股文概说). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2002.
  1229.  
  1230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1231.  
  1232. Well-structured introduction to the topic. Contains an annotated selection of famous eight-legged essays taken from Fang Bao’s anthology (on which see Guy 1994).
  1233.  
  1234. Find this resource:
  1235.  
  1236. Examination Aids
  1237. In order to prepare for the civil service competitions, candidates relied mainly on books specializing in different aspects of the Examination Curriculum. These books are commonly known as “examination aids” (and in Chinese as kaoshi yongshu 考試用書). In terms of quantity, they were an important and extremely lucrative segment of the late imperial book market, in part because most candidates, unable to afford a personal tutor or the tuition fees demanded by private academies offering training and guidance, had to rely on them. These examination aids were extremely diverse. Some were focused on essay writing, featuring model essays and successful compositions from previous competitions or serving as step-by-step primers for those still learning how to write in the different examination genres. Another type of examination aid was focused on the Confucian canon, highlighting and commenting upon the passages most likely to serve as examination topics. There were also encyclopedic examination aids, whose main purpose was to gather all information that examinees needed to cope with the third round’s policy questions. Some examination aids were concerned with guiding the candidates through the competitions, providing them with tips of how to behave, especially when things got stressful. An astoundingly large number of examination aids were of extremely small size so that candidates could smuggle them into the examination halls and copy from them. Chow 2004 is the most systematic introduction to the world of examination aids, highlighting the impact they had on the late imperial book market. Durand 1992 shows the extent to which aspiring candidates with good writing skills but little examination success had to work as authors of commercial anthologies in order to be able to finance their “examination lives.” Shen 2009 and Shen 2012 are the best treatments of examination aids during the Ming and Qing periods, especially for those who need systematic guidance through the sources. Liu 1996 and Zhou 1997 are focused on two types of examination aids, specifically essay anthologies and encyclopedic works. Cao 2012 shows in great and often captivating detail what happened to the world of examination aids when the official examination curriculum was suddenly changed in the early 20th century in order to accommodate Western knowledge.
  1238.  
  1239. Cao Nanping 曹南屏. “Keju, chuban yu zhishi zhuanxing” (科举、出版与知识转型). PhD diss., Shanghai Fudan University, 2012.
  1240.  
  1241. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1242.  
  1243. This extremely dense doctoral dissertation retraces the impact that the sudden early-20th-century examination curriculum reform in favor of Western knowledge had on the production and distribution of examination aid literature.
  1244.  
  1245. Find this resource:
  1246.  
  1247. Chow, Kai-wing. Publishing, Culture, and Power in Early Modern China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004.
  1248.  
  1249. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1250.  
  1251. Focused to a large extent on the relationship between the late imperial world of publishing and the civil examinations, this book shows how competitive the market for examination aids tended to be; as a result advertising, often via paratextual devices, became an indispensable sales strategy.
  1252.  
  1253. Find this resource:
  1254.  
  1255. Durand, Pierre-Henri. Lettrés et pouvoirs: Un procès littéraire dans la Chine impériale. Paris: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 1992.
  1256.  
  1257. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1258.  
  1259. Only to a modest extent focused on the civil service competitions, this book features an illuminating chapter titled “Les métiers de la prose moderne” (pp. 76–91), in which the composition and production of examination aids in the early Qing period is extensively discussed.
  1260.  
  1261. Find this resource:
  1262.  
  1263. Liu Hsiang-kwang 劉祥光. “Shiwen gao: Keju shidai de kaosheng bidu” (時文稿：科舉時代的考生必讀). Jindai Zhongguo shi yanjiu tongxun 近代中國史研究通訊. 1996, 22: 46–68.
  1264.  
  1265. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1266.  
  1267. Discusses anthologies of eight-legged essays catering to examination candidates.
  1268.  
  1269. Find this resource:
  1270.  
  1271. Shen Junping 沈俊平. Juye jinliang: Ming zhongye yihou fangke zhiju yongshu de shengchang yu liutong (舉業津梁: 明中葉以後坊刻制舉用書的生產與流通). Taipei: Xuesheng shuju, 2009.
  1272.  
  1273. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1274.  
  1275. This is the most thorough survey of Ming examination aid literature, including chapters on readers, formats, and types of examination aids. There is a list of all extant Ming examination aids on pp. 350–451, containing thumbnail information about their contents.
  1276.  
  1277. Find this resource:
  1278.  
  1279. Shen Junping 沈俊平. “Qingdai fangke kaoshi yongshu de yingxiang yu chaoting de huiying” (清代坊刻考試用書的影響與朝廷的回應). Zhongguo wenhua yanjiusuo xuebao 中國文化研究所學報. 2012, 54: 70–96.
  1280.  
  1281. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1282.  
  1283. Focused on the Qing, this is a sequel to Shen 2009. It has a special interest in the Qing court’s ambivalent reaction to the production and selling of examination aid literature.
  1284.  
  1285. Find this resource:
  1286.  
  1287. Zhou Yanwen 周彦文. “Lun lidai shumu zhong de zhiju lei shuji” (論歷代書目中的制舉類書籍). Shumu jikan 書目季刊 1997, 31: 1–13.
  1288.  
  1289. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1290.  
  1291. Discusses the role that encyclopedias played as examination aids in imperial China.
  1292.  
  1293. Find this resource:
  1294.  
  1295. Orthodoxy
  1296. The imperial bureaucracy used the Examination Curriculum not only for recruiting, but also for purposes of indoctrination. Those who sat for the examinations had to memorize, write about, and show allegiance to Confucian contents that were deemed orthodox by the imperial authorities. Confucian orthodoxy was however not a rigid and immutable concept. It could change over time, and it did so, even within one and the same dynasty, as is most convincingly shown by De Weerdt 2007 (cited under Examination Curriculum). Or it could be undermined by the Confucian texts it mainly referred to, in some cases even causing the emperor’s wrath, as is most vividly discussed in Elman 1993. In the long history of civil service examinations, there was indeed a palpably major rift in terms of orthodoxy, specifically in the late Song, when Neo-Confucianism began to expose the canonical texts that imperial orthodoxy relied upon to radically new interpretations, shifting the focus from the Five Classics (wujing 五經) to the Four Books (sishu 四書). Over the centuries, Neo-Confucianism was adopted by the imperial center as the orthodox interpretation of the Confucian canon. As such, it became the most important and dominant Confucian school of late imperial China, in part because Neo-Confucian exegesis was an integral part of the examination system’s principal genre, the Eight-Legged Essay. Gardner 1986 is a very accessible introduction to the Neo-Confucian exegesis of canonical texts. De Bary and Chaffee 1989 presents different perspectives on the impact that Neo-Confucianism had on Education in imperial China, including the civil service examinations. Liu 1973 traces the process by which Neo-Confucianism succeeded in becoming the state orthodoxy after the Song. Wu 2008 shows the consequences that Neo-Confucianism had on the late imperial mental landscape via the examination system. Yu 1997 reveals that the definition of orthodoxy via the right selection and correct establishment of canonical texts was an important concern of the imperial center, requiring a considerable amount of energy and the participation of several Confucian experts. Finally, Zheng 1989 and Chow 1996 investigate the extent to which orthodoxy was actually adhered to during the Ming and Qing civil service competitions.
  1297.  
  1298. Chow, Kai-wing. “Writing for Success: Printing, Examinations, and Intellectual Change in Late Ming China.” Late Imperial China 17.1 (1996): 120–157.
  1299.  
  1300. DOI: 10.1353/late.1996.0006Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1301.  
  1302. Shows that, in order to excel at the examinations, candidates during the late Ming had to be innovative, not just in style but also in terms of contents, so that they often integrated non-orthodox contents in their compositions.
  1303.  
  1304. Find this resource:
  1305.  
  1306. de Bary, William Theodore, and John W. Chaffee, eds. Neo-Confucian Education: The Formative Stage. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
  1307.  
  1308. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1309.  
  1310. This is an edited volume that is focused on the impact that the emergence of Neo-Confucianism in Song China had on education, including the civil service examinations.
  1311.  
  1312. Find this resource:
  1313.  
  1314. Elman, Benjamin. “Where is King Ch’eng? Civil Examinations and Confucian Ideology during the Early Ming, 1368–1415.” T’oung Pao 79 Fasc.1–3 (1993): 23–68.
  1315.  
  1316. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1317.  
  1318. This article revolves around the antagonism that could emerge between autocratic emperorship and well-established Confucian elites in the early Ming. It contains an important discussion of canonical passages that undermined the power of autocratic rulers by claiming that in extreme cases of bad rulership regicide was a permissible act.
  1319.  
  1320. Find this resource:
  1321.  
  1322. Gardner, Daniel K. Chu-Hsi and the Ta-hsueh: Neo-Confucian Reflection on the Confucian Canon. Harvard East Asian Monographs 118. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986.
  1323.  
  1324. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1325.  
  1326. Including an English translation of a Neo-Confucian commentary to a canonical text, this is the best book for those who want to get a sense of how Neo-Confucian exegesis radically changed the way the Confucian canon was interpreted.
  1327.  
  1328. Find this resource:
  1329.  
  1330. Liu, James T. C. “How Did a Neo-Confucian School Become the State Orthodoxy?” Philosophy East and West 23.4 (1973): 483–505.
  1331.  
  1332. DOI: 10.2307/1397719Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1333.  
  1334. This is a succinct account of how Zhu Xi’s brand of Neo-Confucianism succeeded in becoming the main school of exegesis at the civil service examinations.
  1335.  
  1336. Find this resource:
  1337.  
  1338. Wu Zhengqiang 吴铮强. Keju lixuehua: Juntianzhi bengkui yilai de junmin zhenghe (科举理学化: 均田制崩溃以来的君民整合). Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe, 2008.
  1339.  
  1340. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1341.  
  1342. Describes in detail how the Neo-Confucian curriculum changed the way the examination system worked as well as the impact of these changes on Chinese society.
  1343.  
  1344. Find this resource:
  1345.  
  1346. Yu, Pauline. “Canon Formation in Late Imperial China.” In Culture and State in Chinese History: Conventions, Accommodations, and Critiques. Edited by Theodore Huters, R. Bin Wong, and Pauline Yu, 83–104. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997.
  1347.  
  1348. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1349.  
  1350. Shows that state orthodoxy relied to a great extent on the Confucian canon. Consequently, control over the canon in terms of its scope and content was a main concern of the imperial authorities.
  1351.  
  1352. Find this resource:
  1353.  
  1354. Zheng Bangzhen 鄭邦鎮. “Baguwen ‘shou jing zun zhu’ de kaocha: Ju Qinding sishuwen si ti ba pian wei li”(八股文守經遵注的考察:舉欽定四書文四題八篇為例). Qingdai xueshu yantaohui 清代學術研討會, 1 (1989): 1–16.
  1355.  
  1356. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1357.  
  1358. Looks at eight eight-legged essays from Fang Bao’s famous anthology (on which see Fang 1979, cited under Collections of Source Materials) in an attempt to assess the extent to which examinees adhered to Neo-Confucian orthodoxy in their compositions.
  1359.  
  1360. Find this resource:
  1361.  
  1362. Impact on Literature
  1363. The examination system had a significant impact on the development of traditional Chinese literature. Due to its ubiquity in the empire and the fateful role it played in the lives of many individuals as well as the lineages that backed them, the system was a favorite choice for subject matter among literary authors, especially novelists. The most famous examples are Wu Jingzi’s The Scholars (Wu 1957) and Pu Songling’s Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio (Pu 2006), which were both composed by less than successful participants of the civil examinations. Besides The Scholars and Strange Tales, there were legions of other popular novels in late imperial China with a specific focus on the civil examinations. Ye 2009 provides a systematic study of this large literary production. Lu 2009 is a famous modern short story highlighting the negative consequences the examination system could have on the lives of unsuccessful candidates. Besides its thematic presence, the examination system also influenced literature via its curriculum, most notably in the Tang period, during which the production of poetry grew exponentially after regulated verse genres were officially included in the Examination Curriculum. This aspect is most systematically treated in Fu 1986. Lin 2006 provides a similar approach for the Northern Song. In the late imperial period, it was mainly the Eight-Legged Essay that influenced literary production, a good example of which is treated in Chow 1994. As it happens, Modern Historiography has tended to play down the impact that the examination system had on the evolution of traditional Chinese literature. This aspect, along with its consequences for our understanding of late imperial Chinese culture, is treated in Magone 2008.
  1364.  
  1365. Chow, Kai-wing. “Discourse, Examination, and Local Elite: The Invention of the T’ung-ch’eng School in Ch’ing China.” In Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 1600–1900. Edited by Benjamin Elman and Alexander Woodside, 183–220. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
  1366.  
  1367. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1368.  
  1369. Discusses how the 18th century T’ungch’eng school in Anhui was entangled with and hence deeply influenced by the civil service examination discourse in a highly complex manner that included both conservative and vanguardist elements.
  1370.  
  1371. Find this resource:
  1372.  
  1373. Fu Xuancong 傅璇琮. Tangdai keju yu wenxue (唐代科举与文学). Xi’an, China: Shaanxi renmin chubanshe, 1986.
  1374.  
  1375. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1376.  
  1377. While providing a systematic account of the relationship between examination curriculum and the literary field during the Tang, this is also a multifaceted survey of the Tang examination system, discussing, among many other things, the role of schools and the candidates’ behavior at the competitions.
  1378.  
  1379. Find this resource:
  1380.  
  1381. Lin Yan 林岩. Beisong keju kaoshi yu wenxue (北宋科举考试与文学). Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2006.
  1382.  
  1383. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1384.  
  1385. Provides a systematic account of the relationship between the examination curriculum and the literary field during the Northern Song.
  1386.  
  1387. Find this resource:
  1388.  
  1389. Lu, Xun. “Kong Yiji.” In The Real Story of Ah-Q and Other Tales of China: The Complete Fiction of Lu Xun. Translated by Julia Lovell, 32–37. London: Penguin, 2009.
  1390.  
  1391. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1392.  
  1393. This is certainly the most famous story about a failed examination candidate, who, so Lu Xun seemed to imply, did not succeed in passing even the local competitions. In the same volume is also included “The White Light” (pp. 133–139), Lu Xun’s other story featuring the examination system. For a discussion of these two tales, see Magone 2008.
  1394.  
  1395. Find this resource:
  1396.  
  1397. Magone, Rui. “The Silence of the Lanes: Traditional Examination Culture and the Emergence of Modern Chinese Literature.” In Paths toward Modernity: Conference to Mark the Centenary of Jaroslav Průšek. Edited by Olga Lomová, 320–357. Prague: Karolinum 2008.
  1398.  
  1399. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1400.  
  1401. Discusses how modern historiography has succeeded in banishing the examination curriculum, specifically the Eight-Legged Essay, from the canon of traditional Chinese literature, showing the consequences of this negative paradigm for literary hermeneutics.
  1402.  
  1403. Find this resource:
  1404.  
  1405. Pu Songling. Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio. Translated by John Minford. London: Penguin, 2006.
  1406.  
  1407. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1408.  
  1409. Pu Songling 蒲松龄 (b. 1640–d. 1715) encountered only meager success at the civil examinations, but used his experience in many of the stories included in his large collection Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio (Liaozhai zhiyi 聊齋 志異). This English rendition includes the most important stories from Strange Tales. See also Barr 1986 (cited under Examination Life).
  1410.  
  1411. Find this resource:
  1412.  
  1413. Wu Jingzi. The Scholars. Translated by Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. Beijing: Foreign Languages, 1957.
  1414.  
  1415. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1416.  
  1417. Authored by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓 (b. 1701–d. 1754), The Scholars (Rulin waishi 儒林外史) is the most famous “examination novel” of imperial China. There is also a Chinese-English edition published by the same press in 1996. Chen 1994 (cited under Terminological Issues) is the best companion for those who want to do research on this novel.
  1418.  
  1419. Find this resource:
  1420.  
  1421. Ye Chuyan 叶楚炎. Mingdai keju yu Ming zhongqi zhi Qing chu tongsu xiaoshuo yanjiu (明代科举与明中期至清初通俗小说研究). Nanchang, China: Baihua Zhou wenyi chubanshe, 2009.
  1422.  
  1423. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1424.  
  1425. Based on a vast reading of novels from the Ming and Qing periods, this work uses popular fiction in order to provide its readers with a holistic sense of the examination system and its culture. The main part of the text is arranged according to the examination tiers, whereas its final chapters are concerned with the novels themselves, specifically their different categories and main themes.
  1426.  
  1427. Find this resource:
  1428.  
  1429. Examination Life
  1430. Becoming an official in the imperial bureaucracy was the most prestigious of all career options available in imperial China. Since the system also had a meritocratic structure, millions of men aspired to become part of the imperial civil service, spending a considerable amount of time preparing and sitting for the examinations. It is therefore not a complete exaggeration to say that the lives of a substantial number of individuals in imperial China were dominated, oftentimes even consumed, by the examinations. “Examination lives” varied in length depending on how much time one needed to ascend the examination ladder by moving up from the local to the provincial and then from the provincial to the metropolitan-cum-palace level. Since candidates were allowed to take the examinations as often as they needed to reach the next level, it was not uncommon for individuals to spend their entire lives focusing on the examinations, as is brilliantly described in Wu 1957 and Lu 2009 (both cited under Impact on Literature). Even though it is not its main focus, Spence 2007 provides the most vivid account of examination life during the Ming, including some glimpses of the health hazards involved, especially anxiety and depression. By contrast, Spence 2006 shows how examination-related knowledge could reach the empire’s most peripheral regions and be exposed to idiosyncratic interpretations by frustrated individuals. Peterson 1968 focuses on one such partly frustrated individual, Gu Yanwu, who wrote profusely about the examination system without participating in it—successfully so, one may say, as he became one the most famous scholars of late imperial China. Nivison 1966 traces the life of Zhang Xuecheng, an influential Qing scholar who happened to have a quite successful examination career. Durand 1992 is an in-depth account of Dai Mingshi’s tragic life during the Qing, showing, among many other interesting things, how examinees like Dai needed both talent and networking skills in order to succeed at the civil competitions. Barr 1986 provides a valuable historical perspective on famous Qing writer Pu Songling’s traumatic experience at the provincial competitions. Sheang 1985 has as its subject the captivating autobiography of Shang Yanliu 商衍鎏 (Yen-liu Sheang), perhaps the most famous of late Qing examination finalists, taking the reader all the way from Shang’s early years of primary learning to his final success at the 1904 palace examination. Finally, Li 2005 provides a systematic treatment of the various aspects pertaining to examination life.
  1431.  
  1432. Barr, Allan. “Pu Songling and the Qing Examination System.” Late Imperial China 7.1 (1986): 87–111.
  1433.  
  1434. DOI: 10.1353/late.1986.0000Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1435.  
  1436. This is a well-researched article on Pu Songling’s experiences at the Shandong provincial competitions. It also explores the extent to which provincial examinations could differ from each other depending on the provinces where they took place. See also Pu 2006 (cited under Impact on Literature).
  1437.  
  1438. Find this resource:
  1439.  
  1440. Durand, Pierre-Henri. Lettrés et pouvoirs: Un procès littéraire dans la Chine impériale. Paris: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 1992.
  1441.  
  1442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1443.  
  1444. Focused on the biography of Dai Mingshi 戴名世 (b. 1653–d. 1713), who was executed by the Qing court on grounds of treason, this very well-writtten book devotes some of its chapters to Dai’s examination life, which also included several jobs as a writer of model eight-legged essays for commercial publishers.
  1445.  
  1446. Find this resource:
  1447.  
  1448. Li Shiyu 李世愉. Zhongguo lidai keju shenghuo lüeying (中国历代科举生活掠影). Shenyang, China: Shenyang chubanshe, 2005.
  1449.  
  1450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1451.  
  1452. Treats different aspects of examination life, including the reading and studying habits of examinees as well as the impact of the examination situation on provincial and metropolitan candidates.
  1453.  
  1454. Find this resource:
  1455.  
  1456. Nivison, David S. The Life and Thought of Chang Hsüeh-ch’eng (1738–1801). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1966.
  1457.  
  1458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1459.  
  1460. A very accessible biography of one of Qing’s most famous scholars, which shows how the examinations were an integral part of the lives of officials, first as examinees and then, after meeting with success and entering the officialdom, as examiners.
  1461.  
  1462. Find this resource:
  1463.  
  1464. Peterson, Willard. “The Life of Ku Yen-wu, 1613–1682.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 28 (1968): 11–156.
  1465.  
  1466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1467.  
  1468. This bipartite biography of Gu Yanwu 顧炎武 (b. 1613–d. 1682), one of late imperial China’s most famous intellectuals, provides glimpses of what it meant to be outside of the pervasive examination circuit in the early Qing period. Continues in Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 29 (1969): 201–247.
  1469.  
  1470. Find this resource:
  1471.  
  1472. Sheang, Yen-liu. “Memories of the Chinese Imperial Civil Service Examination System.” Translated by Ellen Klempner. American Asian Review 3.1 (Spring 1985): 46–83.
  1473.  
  1474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1475.  
  1476. Provides an autobiographical account of Shang Yanliu’s examination life from the local level to the palace examination, including a brief description of the eight-legged essay style. See also Shang 1958 (cited under Overviews by Period: Ming through Qing (1368–1911)).
  1477.  
  1478. Find this resource:
  1479.  
  1480. Spence, Jonathan D. Treason by the Book. London: Penguin, 2006.
  1481.  
  1482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1483.  
  1484. This account of one of the most famous treason cases of the Qing period not only reads like a crime novel, but also makes palpable the impact that examination-related knowledge could have in the remotest areas of the Chinese empire.
  1485.  
  1486. Find this resource:
  1487.  
  1488. Spence, Jonathan D. Return to Dragon Mountain: Memories of a Late Ming Man. New York: Viking, 2007.
  1489.  
  1490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1491.  
  1492. Focused on the life of the famous Ming scholar Zhang Dai 張岱 (b. 1597–d. 1689), this book describes in detail what it meant to prepare and sit for the examinations, including the toll it took on the health of examinees.
  1493.  
  1494. Find this resource:
  1495.  
  1496. Impact on Society
  1497. This section is concerned with one of the best researched aspects of the examination system: its impact on society. The question most fiercely discussed in this context has been the extent to which the system was able to foster upward social mobility (for the rather voluminous literature that was produced on this discussion, see Waltner 1983, cited under Secondary Sources). Ho 1962 (cited under Overviews by Period: Ming through Qing (1368–1911)) contended that late imperial Chinese society, especially during the Ming dynasty, had a meritocratic structure thanks to the examination system, allowing talented candidates to basically rise from rags to riches. But early-21st-century scholarship—most paradigmatically Elman 1991 (cited under Modern Historiography)—has emphasized the degree to which the civil service examinations were used by elite lineages as a device for reproducing themselves over several generations. Beattie 1979 is an important case study, which also serves as a systematic introduction to this complex topic. Esherick and Rankin 1990 provides three examples of local elites using the civil examinations for self-perpetuating purposes. Elman 1990 highlights and discusses extensively the close links between local elites, civil examinations, Confucian scholarship, and the monetarization of late imperial Chinese society. As it happened, not all local elites were equally efficient. Cultural capital was concentrated in the southern regions, especially Jiangnan, resulting in a significantly higher degree of examination success in these areas. Peripheral provinces, on the other hand, tended to be far less successful, which could create political and social tensions, such as in the case discussed in Elman 1993 (cited under Orthodoxy). Dang 2008 provides a history of civil examinations from the perspective of one such province. To control these disparities, regional quotas were introduced, as is systematically discussed in Wang 2009 (cited under Examination Administration). Focused on the top echelon of the examination ladder during the Qing, Bielenstein 1992 analyzes the extent to which these quotas had an impact on the regional distribution of palace examination finalists. Ku 1984 focuses on what became of these graduates after they entered the imperial bureaucracy and especially on the range of upward social mobility among officials. While Wang 2007 provides the best survey of the various ways in which the examination system influenced Chinese society, Brokaw 1991 explores the relationship between morality and examination success, showing the degree to which the civil competitions became an indispensable component of the late imperial mental landscape. For a systematic study of the cultural impact that palace examination finalists and their cohorts had on Qing society, see also Li 2007 (cited under Education).
  1498.  
  1499. Beattie, Hilary J. Land and Lineage in China: A Study of T’ung-ch’eng County, Anhwei, in the Ming and Ch’ing dynasties. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
  1500.  
  1501. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1502.  
  1503. Focused on studying the composition of local elites, this seminal study also highlights the extent to which the examination system affected the structure of family lineages, providing some important statistical data. For a different examination-related approach to the same region, see Chow 1994 (cited under Impact on Literature).
  1504.  
  1505. Find this resource:
  1506.  
  1507. Bielenstein, Hans. “The Regional Provenance of Chin-shih during Ch’ing.” Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 64 (1992): 6–178.
  1508.  
  1509. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1510.  
  1511. A detailed demographic study of all palace finalists during the Qing, showing the extent to which regional quotas succeeded in shaping the human resources selected for the imperial bureaucracy.
  1512.  
  1513. Find this resource:
  1514.  
  1515. Brokaw, Cynthia. The Ledgers of Merit and Demerit: Social Change and Moral Order in Late Imperial China. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991.
  1516.  
  1517. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1518.  
  1519. This book is focused on so-called gongguo ge (功過格), commonly rendered as “ledgers of merit and demerit.” Individuals in late imperial China used these ledgers to write down the merits and faults they accumulated over time. Gradually, the accumulation of merits came to be linked with the civil competitions, specifically the predictability of examination success.
  1520.  
  1521. Find this resource:
  1522.  
  1523. Dang Lequn 党乐群. Yunnan gudai jushi (云南古代举士). Kunming, China: Yunnan renmin chubanshe, 2008.
  1524.  
  1525. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1526.  
  1527. Provides perspective through a single province on the examination system from the beginning until the end of the Qing, goes through all the tiers, and has a complete chronological list of all provincial and palace examination finalists from Yunnan.
  1528.  
  1529. Find this resource:
  1530.  
  1531. Elman, Benjamin. Classicism, Politics, and Kinship: The Ch’ang-chou School of New Text Confucianism in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
  1532.  
  1533. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1534.  
  1535. This is a very dense study which approaches late imperial Confucian scholarship from different perspectives, one of which is the systematic domination of the examination system by wealthy lineages that could afford the cultural capital needed to excel at the civil competitions.
  1536.  
  1537. Find this resource:
  1538.  
  1539. Esherick, Joseph, and Mary Rankin, eds. Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance. Papers presented at the Conference on Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance held in Banff, Canada, 20–24 August 1987. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
  1540.  
  1541. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1542.  
  1543. Part 1 features articles by Timothy Brook, William Rowe and Madeleine Zelin, which discuss how late imperial elites used the examinations to both maintain and expand their influence.
  1544.  
  1545. Find this resource:
  1546.  
  1547. Ku, Hung-ting. “Upward Career Mobility Patterns of High-Ranking Officials in Ch’ing China, 1730–1796.” Papers on Far Eastern History 29 (1984): 45–66.
  1548.  
  1549. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1550.  
  1551. A succinct analysis of what happened after the examinations, specifically what career patterns of aspiring officials could and did look like.
  1552.  
  1553. Find this resource:
  1554.  
  1555. Wang Rigen王日根. Zhongguo keju kaoshi yu shehui yingxiang (中国科举考试与社会影响). Changsha, China: Yuelu shushe, 2007.
  1556.  
  1557. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1558.  
  1559. Treats different aspects of how the examination system influenced society, including the financial lives of individuals and their families. Has an interesting chapter on what happened to examinees after the abolition of the system in 1905.
  1560.  
  1561. Find this resource:
  1562.  
  1563. Foreign Perspectives
  1564. This section is focused on the examination system in non-Chinese contexts. The most comprehensive survey of foreign perspectives on the Chinese examination system is provided in Liu 2005 (pp. 360–397; cited under General Overviews). The historically most significant cases are Korea and Vietnam, which both appropriated the Chinese model for recruiting the human resources required for their bureaucracies. Woodside 2006 gives the best overview of this institutional triangle connecting China with two of its neighboring countries. It is more than an overview, though, for it uses these historical examples to reflect on the examination system and the concept of modernity. Kang 1974 is a succint treatment of the Korean case. Woodside 1988 explores what Vietnam’s appropriation of the Chinese bureaucratic model looked like in the first half of the 19th century. Poisson 2004 is focused on the period from the 19th to the early 20th century when the bureaucratic system of Vietnam was exposed to French colonialism and other influences. Starting from the 16th century, knowledge of the examination system circulated in the West, mainly through books authored by Jesuit missionaries. Mungello 1989 discusses one of the most famous Jesuit accounts of the examination system. The Jesuits were aware of the intellectual impact that the examination system had on the Chinese empire and started therefore in the late 17th century an attempt to hijack the civil service examinations in order to replace their curriculum with an Aristotelian syllabus. This formidable scheme is described in Golvers 1999, while Kurtz 2011 provides a grand tour of what was going on intellectually in the China mission at that time and what ultimately led to the hijacking attempt—for accounts of another historical example of a radical change in the examination system, see Overviews by Period: Taiping (1850–1864). In the late 19th century, the Chinese examination system seems to have been exported to the West, albeit on a rather modest scale and somehow clandestinely. Teng 1943 is to date the only substantial account of this transfer of institutional knowledge.
  1565.  
  1566. Golvers, Nöels. “Verbiest’s Introduction of Aristoteles Latinus (Coimbra) in China: New Western Evidence.” In The Christian Mission in China in the Verbiest Era: Some Aspects of the Missionary Approach. Edited by Nöels Golvers, 33–53. Louvain Chinese Studies 6. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 1999.
  1567.  
  1568. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1569.  
  1570. Describes the Jesuit attempt to hijack the Chinese examination system in 1683 and infiltrate its curriculum with a Chinese rendition of an Aristotelian textbook. See also Kurtz 2011.
  1571.  
  1572. Find this resource:
  1573.  
  1574. Kang, H. W. “Institutional Borrowing: The Case of the Chinese Civil Service Examination System in Early Koryŏ.” Journal of Asian Studies 34.1 (1974): 109–125.
  1575.  
  1576. DOI: 10.2307/2052412Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1577.  
  1578. This is a concise account of how the Chinese examination system was appropriated in the early decades of the Koryǒ dynasty (918–1392 CE), taking a special interest in the role played by Chinese advisors in this transfer of bureaucratic knowledge.
  1579.  
  1580. Find this resource:
  1581.  
  1582. Kurtz, Joachim. The Discovery of Chinese Logic. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
  1583.  
  1584. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1585.  
  1586. Chapter 1 of this book provides a grand tour of the epistemic environment in which the Jesuits concocted the idea of hijacking the Chinese examination system in the late 17th century. See also Golvers 1999.
  1587.  
  1588. Find this resource:
  1589.  
  1590. Mungello, David. Curious Land: Jesuit Accommodation and the Origins of Sinology. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1989.
  1591.  
  1592. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1593.  
  1594. Focused on the circulation of China-related knowledge by Jesuit authors in early modern Europe, this book also contains on pp. 81–86 a discussion of how the examination system was described in Álvaro Semedo’s Imperio de la China (Madrid: Impresso por Iuan Sanchez a costa de Pedro Coello, 1642).
  1595.  
  1596. Find this resource:
  1597.  
  1598. Poisson, Emmanuel Poisson. Mandarins et subalterns au nord du Viêt Nam: Une bureaucratie à l’épreuve (1820–1918). Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose, 2004.
  1599.  
  1600. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1601.  
  1602. This is a detailed study of how the Vietnamese bureaucracy changed in the 19th century, especially after its exposure to French colonialism. Relying on a vast number of official curricula, this book is particularly interested in the ways that bureaucrats reacted to the new challenges. See also Woodside 1988.
  1603.  
  1604. Find this resource:
  1605.  
  1606. Teng, Ssu-yü. “Chinese Influence on the Western Examination System.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 7.4 (September 1943): 267–312.
  1607.  
  1608. DOI: 10.2307/2717830Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1609.  
  1610. Mainly concerned with the question of whether or not the Chinese system was appropriated by the West, it has also a rather detailed bibliography of books and articles describing the Chinese examination system.
  1611.  
  1612. Find this resource:
  1613.  
  1614. Woodside, Alexander. Vietnam and the Chinese Model: A Comparative Study of Vietnamese and Chinese Government in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century. Harvard East Asian Monographs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988.
  1615.  
  1616. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1617.  
  1618. This book is a systematic analysis of the Chinese bureaucratic model as it was adopted in Vietnam. Chapter 4 (pp. 169–233) deals with the Nguyen examination system, including its structure and curriculum.
  1619.  
  1620. Find this resource:
  1621.  
  1622. Woodside, Alexander. Lost Modernities: China, Vietnam, Korea, and the Hazards of World History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006.
  1623.  
  1624. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1625.  
  1626. Originally a series of lectures, this slim volume introduced readers to the bureaucratic systems of preindustrial China, Vietnam, and Korea. While having a special focus on the civil examinations, it is in fact a historiographical essay revolving around the concept of modernity and its possible constructions.
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