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- 1 INTRODUCTION: THE NATURE OF
- SCIENCE AND PHYSICS
- Figure 1.1 Galaxies are as immense as atoms are small. Yet the same laws of physics describe both, and all the rest of nature—an indication of the
- underlying unity in the universe. The laws of physics are surprisingly few in number, implying an underlying simplicity to nature's apparent complexity.
- (credit: NASA, JPL-Caltech, P. Barmby, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics)
- Chapter Outline
- 1.1. Physics: An Introduction
- 1.2. Physical Quantities and Units
- 1.3. Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures
- 1.4. Approximation
- Connection for AP® Courses
- What is your first reaction when you hear the word “physics”? Did you imagine working through difficult equations or memorizing
- formulas that seem to have no real use in life outside the physics classroom? Many people come to the subject of physics with a
- bit of fear. But as you begin your exploration of this broad-ranging subject, you may soon come to realize that physics plays a
- much larger role in your life than you first thought, no matter your life goals or career choice.
- For example, take a look at the image above. This image is of the Andromeda Galaxy, which contains billions of individual stars,
- huge clouds of gas, and dust. Two smaller galaxies are also visible as bright blue spots in the background. At a staggering 2.5
- million light years from Earth, this galaxy is the nearest one to our own galaxy (which is called the Milky Way). The stars and
- planets that make up Andromeda might seem to be the furthest thing from most people's regular, everyday lives. But Andromeda
- is a great starting point to think about the forces that hold together the universe. The forces that cause Andromeda to act as it
- does are the same forces we contend with here on Earth, whether we are planning to send a rocket into space or simply raise
- the walls for a new home. The same gravity that causes the stars of Andromeda to rotate and revolve also causes water to flow
- over hydroelectric dams here on Earth. Tonight, take a moment to look up at the stars. The forces out there are the same as the
- ones here on Earth. Through a study of physics, you may gain a greater understanding of the interconnectedness of everything
- we can see and know in this universe.
- Think now about all of the technological devices that you use on a regular basis. Computers, smart phones, GPS systems, MP3
- players, and satellite radio might come to mind. Next, think about the most exciting modern technologies that you have heard
- about in the news, such as trains that levitate above tracks, “invisibility cloaks” that bend light around them, and microscopic
- robots that fight cancer cells in our bodies. All of these groundbreaking advancements, commonplace or unbelievable, rely on the
- principles of physics. Aside from playing a significant role in technology, professionals such as engineers, pilots, physicians,
- physical therapists, electricians, and computer programmers apply physics concepts in their daily work. For example, a pilot must
- understand how wind forces affect a flight path and a physical therapist must understand how the muscles in the body
- experience forces as they move and bend. As you will learn in this text, physics principles are propelling new, exciting
- technologies, and these principles are applied in a wide range of careers.
- In this text, you will begin to explore the history of the formal study of physics, beginning with natural philosophy and the ancient
- Greeks, and leading up through a review of Sir Isaac Newton and the laws of physics that bear his name. You will also be
- introduced to the standards scientists use when they study physical quantities and the interrelated system of measurements
- most of the scientific community uses to communicate in a single mathematical language. Finally, you will study the limits of our
- ability to be accurate and precise, and the reasons scientists go to painstaking lengths to be as clear as possible regarding their
- own limitations.
- Chapter 1 | Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics 7
- Chapter 1 introduces many fundamental skills and understandings needed for success with the AP® Learning Objectives. While
- this chapter does not directly address any Big Ideas, its content will allow for a more meaningful understanding when these Big
- Ideas are addressed in future chapters. For instance, the discussion of models, theories, and laws will assist you in
- understanding the concept of fields as addressed in Big Idea 2, and the section titled ‘The Evolution of Natural Philosophy into
- Modern Physics' will help prepare you for the statistical topics addressed in Big Idea 7.
- This chapter will also prepare you to understand the Science Practices. In explicitly addressing the role of models in representing
- and communicating scientific phenomena, Section 1.1 supports Science Practice 1. Additionally, anecdotes about historical
- investigations and the inset on the scientific method will help you to engage in the scientific questioning referenced in Science
- Practice 3. The appropriate use of mathematics, as called for in Science Practice 2, is a major focus throughout sections 1.2, 1.3,
- and 1.4.
- 1.1 Physics: An Introduction
- Figure 1.2 The flight formations of migratory birds such as Canada geese are governed by the laws of physics. (credit: David Merrett)
- Learning Objectives
- By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- • Explain the difference between a principle and a law.
- • Explain the difference between a model and a theory.
- The physical universe is enormously complex in its detail. Every day, each of us observes a great variety of objects and
- phenomena. Over the centuries, the curiosity of the human race has led us collectively to explore and catalog a tremendous
- wealth of information. From the flight of birds to the colors of flowers, from lightning to gravity, from quarks to clusters of galaxies,
- from the flow of time to the mystery of the creation of the universe, we have asked questions and assembled huge arrays of
- facts. In the face of all these details, we have discovered that a surprisingly small and unified set of physical laws can explain
- what we observe. As humans, we make generalizations and seek order. We have found that nature is remarkably cooperative—it
- exhibits the underlying order and simplicity we so value.
- It is the underlying order of nature that makes science in general, and physics in particular, so enjoyable to study. For example,
- what do a bag of chips and a car battery have in common? Both contain energy that can be converted to other forms. The law of
- conservation of energy (which says that energy can change form but is never lost) ties together such topics as food calories,
- batteries, heat, light, and watch springs. Understanding this law makes it easier to learn about the various forms energy takes
- and how they relate to one another. Apparently unrelated topics are connected through broadly applicable physical laws,
- permitting an understanding beyond just the memorization of lists of facts.
- The unifying aspect of physical laws and the basic simplicity of nature form the underlying themes of this text. In learning to apply
- these laws, you will, of course, study the most important topics in physics. More importantly, you will gain analytical abilities that
- will enable you to apply these laws far beyond the scope of what can be included in a single book. These analytical skills will help
- you to excel academically, and they will also help you to think critically in any professional career you choose to pursue. This
- module discusses the realm of physics (to define what physics is), some applications of physics (to illustrate its relevance to
- other disciplines), and more precisely what constitutes a physical law (to illuminate the importance of experimentation to theory).
- Science and the Realm of Physics
- Science consists of the theories and laws that are the general truths of nature as well as the body of knowledge they encompass.
- Scientists are continually trying to expand this body of knowledge and to perfect the expression of the laws that describe it.
- Physics is concerned with describing the interactions of energy, matter, space, and time, and it is especially interested in what
- fundamental mechanisms underlie every phenomenon. The concern for describing the basic phenomena in nature essentially
- defines the realm of physics.
- Physics aims to describe the function of everything around us, from the movement of tiny charged particles to the motion of
- people, cars, and spaceships. In fact, almost everything around you can be described quite accurately by the laws of physics.
- Consider a smart phone (Figure 1.3). Physics describes how electricity interacts with the various circuits inside the device. This
- 8 Chapter 1 | Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics
- This content is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11844/1.13
- knowledge helps engineers select the appropriate materials and circuit layout when building the smart phone. Next, consider a
- GPS system. Physics describes the relationship between the speed of an object, the distance over which it travels, and the time
- it takes to travel that distance. When you use a GPS device in a vehicle, it utilizes these physics equations to determine the
- travel time from one location to another.
- Figure 1.3 The Apple “iPhone” is a common smart phone with a GPS function. Physics describes the way that electricity flows through the circuits of
- this device. Engineers use their knowledge of physics to construct an iPhone with features that consumers will enjoy. One specific feature of an iPhone
- is the GPS function. GPS uses physics equations to determine the driving time between two locations on a map. (credit: @gletham GIS, Social, Mobile
- Tech Images)
- Applications of Physics
- You need not be a scientist to use physics. On the contrary, knowledge of physics is useful in everyday situations as well as in
- nonscientific professions. It can help you understand how microwave ovens work, why metals should not be put into them, and
- why they might affect pacemakers. (See Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5.) Physics allows you to understand the hazards of radiation
- and rationally evaluate these hazards more easily. Physics also explains the reason why a black car radiator helps remove heat
- in a car engine, and it explains why a white roof helps keep the inside of a house cool. Similarly, the operation of a car's ignition
- system as well as the transmission of electrical signals through our body's nervous system are much easier to understand when
- you think about them in terms of basic physics.
- Physics is the foundation of many important disciplines and contributes directly to others. Chemistry, for example—since it deals
- with the interactions of atoms and molecules—is rooted in atomic and molecular physics. Most branches of engineering are
- applied physics. In architecture, physics is at the heart of structural stability, and is involved in the acoustics, heating, lighting,
- and cooling of buildings. Parts of geology rely heavily on physics, such as radioactive dating of rocks, earthquake analysis, and
- heat transfer in the Earth. Some disciplines, such as biophysics and geophysics, are hybrids of physics and other disciplines.
- Physics has many applications in the biological sciences. On the microscopic level, it helps describe the properties of cell walls
- and cell membranes (Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7). On the macroscopic level, it can explain the heat, work, and power associated
- with the human body. Physics is involved in medical diagnostics, such as x-rays, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and
- ultrasonic blood flow measurements. Medical therapy sometimes directly involves physics; for example, cancer radiotherapy
- uses ionizing radiation. Physics can also explain sensory phenomena, such as how musical instruments make sound, how the
- eye detects color, and how lasers can transmit information.
- It is not necessary to formally study all applications of physics. What is most useful is knowledge of the basic laws of physics and
- a skill in the analytical methods for applying them. The study of physics also can improve your problem-solving skills.
- Furthermore, physics has retained the most basic aspects of science, so it is used by all of the sciences, and the study of
- physics makes other sciences easier to understand.
- Figure 1.4 The laws of physics help us understand how common appliances work. For example, the laws of physics can help explain how microwave
- ovens heat up food, and they also help us understand why it is dangerous to place metal objects in a microwave oven. (credit: MoneyBlogNewz)
- Chapter 1 | Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics 9
- Figure 1.5 These two applications of physics have more in common than meets the eye. Microwave ovens use electromagnetic waves to heat food.
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) also uses electromagnetic waves to yield an image of the brain, from which the exact location of tumors can be
- determined. (credit: Rashmi Chawla, Daniel Smith, and Paul E. Marik)
- Figure 1.6 Physics, chemistry, and biology help describe the properties of cell walls in plant cells, such as the onion cells seen here. (credit: Umberto
- Salvagnin)
- Figure 1.7 An artist's rendition of the the structure of a cell membrane. Membranes form the boundaries of animal cells and are complex in structure
- and function. Many of the most fundamental properties of life, such as the firing of nerve cells, are related to membranes. The disciplines of biology,
- chemistry, and physics all help us understand the membranes of animal cells. (credit: Mariana Ruiz)
- Models, Theories, and Laws; The Role of Experimentation
- The laws of nature are concise descriptions of the universe around us; they are human statements of the underlying laws or rules
- that all natural processes follow. Such laws are intrinsic to the universe; humans did not create them and so cannot change
- them. We can only discover and understand them. Their discovery is a very human endeavor, with all the elements of mystery,
- imagination, struggle, triumph, and disappointment inherent in any creative effort. (See Figure 1.8 and Figure 1.9.) The
- cornerstone of discovering natural laws is observation; science must describe the universe as it is, not as we may imagine it to
- be.
- 10 Chapter 1 | Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics
- This content is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11844/1.13
- Figure 1.8 Isaac Newton (1642–1727) was very reluctant to publish his revolutionary work and had to be convinced to do so. In his later years, he
- stepped down from his academic post and became exchequer of the Royal Mint. He took this post seriously, inventing reeding (or creating ridges) on
- the edge of coins to prevent unscrupulous people from trimming the silver off of them before using them as currency. (credit: Arthur Shuster and Arthur
- E. Shipley: Britain's Heritage of Science. London, 1917.)
- Figure 1.9 Marie Curie (1867–1934) sacrificed monetary assets to help finance her early research and damaged her physical well-being with radiation
- exposure. She is the only person to win Nobel prizes in both physics and chemistry. One of her daughters also won a Nobel Prize. (credit: Wikimedia
- Commons)
- We all are curious to some extent. We look around, make generalizations, and try to understand what we see—for example, we
- look up and wonder whether one type of cloud signals an oncoming storm. As we become serious about exploring nature, we
- become more organized and formal in collecting and analyzing data. We attempt greater precision, perform controlled
- experiments (if we can), and write down ideas about how the data may be organized and unified. We then formulate models,
- theories, and laws based on the data we have collected and analyzed to generalize and communicate the results of these
- experiments.
- A model is a representation of something that is often too difficult (or impossible) to display directly. While a model is justified
- with experimental proof, it is only accurate under limited situations. An example is the planetary model of the atom in which
- electrons are pictured as orbiting the nucleus, analogous to the way planets orbit the Sun. (See Figure 1.10.) We cannot observe
- electron orbits directly, but the mental image helps explain the observations we can make, such as the emission of light from hot
- gases (atomic spectra). Physicists use models for a variety of purposes. For example, models can help physicists analyze a
- scenario and perform a calculation, or they can be used to represent a situation in the form of a computer simulation. A theory is
- an explanation for patterns in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and verified multiple times by various groups of
- researchers. Some theories include models to help visualize phenomena, whereas others do not. Newton's theory of gravity, for
- example, does not require a model or mental image, because we can observe the objects directly with our own senses. The
- kinetic theory of gases, on the other hand, is a model in which a gas is viewed as being composed of atoms and molecules.
- Atoms and molecules are too small to be observed directly with our senses—thus, we picture them mentally to understand what
- our instruments tell us about the behavior of gases.
- A law uses concise language to describe a generalized pattern in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and repeated
- experiments. Often, a law can be expressed in the form of a single mathematical equation. Laws and theories are similar in that
- they are both scientific statements that result from a tested hypothesis and are supported by scientific evidence. However, the
- designation law is reserved for a concise and very general statement that describes phenomena in nature, such as the law that
- Chapter 1 | Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics 11
- energy is conserved during any process, or Newton's second law of motion, which relates force, mass, and acceleration by the
- simple equation F = ma . A theory, in contrast, is a less concise statement of observed phenomena. For example, the Theory of
- Evolution and the Theory of Relativity cannot be expressed concisely enough to be considered a law. The biggest difference
- between a law and a theory is that a theory is much more complex and dynamic. A law describes a single action, whereas a
- theory explains an entire group of related phenomena. And, whereas a law is a postulate that forms the foundation of the
- scientific method, a theory is the end result of that process.
- Less broadly applicable statements are usually called principles (such as Pascal's principle, which is applicable only in fluids),
- but the distinction between laws and principles often is not carefully made.
- Figure 1.10 What is a model? This planetary model of the atom shows electrons orbiting the nucleus. It is a drawing that we use to form a mental
- image of the atom that we cannot see directly with our eyes because it is too small.
- Models, Theories, and Laws
- Models, theories, and laws are used to help scientists analyze the data they have already collected. However, often after a
- model, theory, or law has been developed, it points scientists toward new discoveries they would not otherwise have made.
- The models, theories, and laws we devise sometimes imply the existence of objects or phenomena as yet unobserved. These
- predictions are remarkable triumphs and tributes to the power of science. It is the underlying order in the universe that enables
- scientists to make such spectacular predictions. However, if experiment does not verify our predictions, then the theory or law is
- wrong, no matter how elegant or convenient it is. Laws can never be known with absolute certainty because it is impossible to
- perform every imaginable experiment in order to confirm a law in every possible scenario. Physicists operate under the
- assumption that all scientific laws and theories are valid until a counterexample is observed. If a good-quality, verifiable
- experiment contradicts a well-established law, then the law must be modified or overthrown completely.
- The study of science in general and physics in particular is an adventure much like the exploration of uncharted ocean.
- Discoveries are made; models, theories, and laws are formulated; and the beauty of the physical universe is made more sublime
- for the insights gained.
- The Scientific Method
- As scientists inquire and gather information about the world, they follow a process called the scientific method. This
- process typically begins with an observation and question that the scientist will research. Next, the scientist typically
- performs some research about the topic and then devises a hypothesis. Then, the scientist will test the hypothesis by
- performing an experiment. Finally, the scientist analyzes the results of the experiment and draws a conclusion. Note that the
- scientific method can be applied to many situations that are not limited to science, and this method can be modified to suit
- the situation.
- Consider an example. Let us say that you try to turn on your car, but it will not start. You undoubtedly wonder: Why will the
- car not start? You can follow a scientific method to answer this question. First off, you may perform some research to
- determine a variety of reasons why the car will not start. Next, you will state a hypothesis. For example, you may believe that
- the car is not starting because it has no engine oil. To test this, you open the hood of the car and examine the oil level. You
- observe that the oil is at an acceptable level, and you thus conclude that the oil level is not contributing to your car issue. To
- troubleshoot the issue further, you may devise a new hypothesis to test and then repeat the process again.
- The Evolution of Natural Philosophy into Modern Physics
- Physics was not always a separate and distinct discipline. It remains connected to other sciences to this day. The word physics
- comes from Greek, meaning nature. The study of nature came to be called “natural philosophy.” From ancient times through the
- Renaissance, natural philosophy encompassed many fields, including astronomy, biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, and
- medicine. Over the last few centuries, the growth of knowledge has resulted in ever-increasing specialization and branching of
- natural philosophy into separate fields, with physics retaining the most basic facets. (See Figure 1.11, Figure 1.12, and Figure
- 1.13.) Physics as it developed from the Renaissance to the end of the 19th century is called classical physics. It was
- transformed into modern physics by revolutionary discoveries made starting at the beginning of the 20th century.
- 12 Chapter 1 | Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics
- This content is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11844/1.13
- Figure 1.11 Over the centuries, natural philosophy has evolved into more specialized disciplines, as illustrated by the contributions of some of the
- greatest minds in history. The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) wrote on a broad range of topics including physics, animals, the soul,
- politics, and poetry. (credit: Jastrow (2006)/Ludovisi Collection)
- Figure 1.12 Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) laid the foundation of modern experimentation and made contributions in mathematics, physics, and
- astronomy. (credit: Domenico Tintoretto)
- Figure 1.13 Niels Bohr (1885–1962) made fundamental contributions to the development of quantum mechanics, one part of modern physics. (credit:
- United States Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)
- Classical physics is not an exact description of the universe, but it is an excellent approximation under the following conditions:
- Matter must be moving at speeds less than about 1% of the speed of light, the objects dealt with must be large enough to be
- seen with a microscope, and only weak gravitational fields, such as the field generated by the Earth, can be involved. Because
- humans live under such circumstances, classical physics seems intuitively reasonable, while many aspects of modern physics
- seem bizarre. This is why models are so useful in modern physics—they let us conceptualize phenomena we do not ordinarily
- experience. We can relate to models in human terms and visualize what happens when objects move at high speeds or imagine
- what objects too small to observe with our senses might be like. For example, we can understand an atom's properties because
- we can picture it in our minds, although we have never seen an atom with our eyes. New tools, of course, allow us to better
- picture phenomena we cannot see. In fact, new instrumentation has allowed us in recent years to actually “picture” the atom.
- Chapter 1 | Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics 13
- Limits on the Laws of Classical Physics
- For the laws of classical physics to apply, the following criteria must be met: Matter must be moving at speeds less than
- about 1% of the speed of light, the objects dealt with must be large enough to be seen with a microscope, and only weak
- gravitational fields (such as the field generated by the Earth) can be involved.
- Figure 1.14 Using a scanning tunneling microscope (STM), scientists can see the individual atoms that compose this sheet of gold. (credit:
- Erwinrossen)
- Some of the most spectacular advances in science have been made in modern physics. Many of the laws of classical physics
- have been modified or rejected, and revolutionary changes in technology, society, and our view of the universe have resulted.
- Like science fiction, modern physics is filled with fascinating objects beyond our normal experiences, but it has the advantage
- over science fiction of being very real. Why, then, is the majority of this text devoted to topics of classical physics? There are two
- main reasons: Classical physics gives an extremely accurate description of the universe under a wide range of everyday
- circumstances, and knowledge of classical physics is necessary to understand modern physics.
- Modern physics itself consists of the two revolutionary theories, relativity and quantum mechanics. These theories deal with the
- very fast and the very small, respectively. Relativity must be used whenever an object is traveling at greater than about 1% of
- the speed of light or experiences a strong gravitational field such as that near the Sun. Quantum mechanics must be used for
- objects smaller than can be seen with a microscope. The combination of these two theories is relativistic quantum mechanics,
- and it describes the behavior of small objects traveling at high speeds or experiencing a strong gravitational field. Relativistic
- quantum mechanics is the best universally applicable theory we have. Because of its mathematical complexity, it is used only
- when necessary, and the other theories are used whenever they will produce sufficiently accurate results. We will find, however,
- that we can do a great deal of modern physics with the algebra and trigonometry used in this text.
- Check Your Understanding
- A friend tells you he has learned about a new law of nature. What can you know about the information even before your
- friend describes the law? How would the information be different if your friend told you he had learned about a scientific
- theory rather than a law?
- Solution
- Without knowing the details of the law, you can still infer that the information your friend has learned conforms to the
- requirements of all laws of nature: it will be a concise description of the universe around us; a statement of the underlying
- rules that all natural processes follow. If the information had been a theory, you would be able to infer that the information will
- be a large-scale, broadly applicable generalization.
- PhET Explorations: Equation Grapher
- Learn about graphing polynomials. The shape of the curve changes as the constants are adjusted. View the curves for the
- individual terms (e.g. y = bx ) to see how they add to generate the polynomial curve.
- Figure 1.15 Equation Grapher (http://cnx.org/content/m54764/1.2/equation-grapher_en.jar)
- 14 Chapter 1 | Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics
- This content is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11844/1.13
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