Ancient Egypt

Introduction

Ancient Egypt produced the longest-lived civilization of the ancient world and one of the most stable systems of government in human history. The surviving artifacts and monuments from the Nile Valley continue to exert a powerful fascination. Early accounts of ancient Egypt were dominated by descriptions of its material culture. The decipherment of hieroglyphics in the early 19th century brought ancient texts to the fore, opening up a window into the ancient Egyptian mind. For half a century, philology and history dominated the subject, and Egyptology was regarded as a subdiscipline of Classics or a branch of Oriental studies. The advent of systematic, scientific excavation in the Nile Valley in the late 19th century brought archaeology to the fore. In the second half of the 20th century, the integration of data from texts and artifacts became key to the development of Egyptology as a discipline. Today, the study of ancient Egypt draws on expertise from a wide range of specialist fields, and this multidisciplinarity is increasingly reflected in the literature. At the same time, an earlier focus on the elite experience, as reflected in the tombs of kings and high officials, has been replaced by a greater interest in the lives of ordinary Egyptians, as revealed by archaeology. However, despite these developments within the discipline, Egyptology has remained rather isolated from the other social sciences in terms of its methodologies and stubbornly immune to external perspectives and theoretical approaches. Topics such as gender and identity, ecology and demography, and even economy and politics have been neglected in favor of the more obvious elements of ancient Egyptian culture, such as language and literature and especially art, architecture, and religion. This is only now beginning to change, as a new generation of scholars embraces insights from archaeological, anthropological, and political theory, sociology, linguistics, and the study of literature. The study of ancient Egypt is slowly moving into the academic mainstream.

General Overviews

The study of ancient Egypt has become a multidisciplinary effort, involving archaeologists, historians, philologists, natural scientists, and a range of experts from the sciences and humanities. As a result, authoritative general overviews of the subject are a complex undertaking, and the literature is not as well served as it might be. The multi-author approach is perhaps most effective at combining different areas of expertise in a single volume. Wilkinson 2007 and Wendrich 2010 are both excellent recent examples. Trigger, et al. 1983 was pioneering in its focus on social history; it remains a useful reference for undergraduate students despite its age. Brewer and Teeter 2007 provides a more up-to-date, though far more general, introduction for students and the interested lay reader. Among single-authored works, Kemp 2006 (and its first edition) is without doubt the most original, stimulating, and wide-ranging survey of ancient Egyptian civilization. As an introduction to the subject, and a spur to deeper engagement, it is currently without a serious rival, and is likely to remain so for some time.

Brewer, Douglas J., and Emily Teeter. Egypt and the Egyptians. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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Wide-ranging introduction to ancient Egyptian civilization, intended as a student primer. Combines archaeological and documentary evidence to explore all aspects of Egyptian society. Accessible and clear, with an extensive bibliography and illustrations. Addresses difficulties of interpretation.
Brewer, Douglas J., and Emily Teeter. Egypt and the Egyptians. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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Kemp, Barry J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. 2d ed. London: Routledge, 2006.
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Original, authoritative, and accessible analysis covering the Predynastic to Late Periods, focusing especially on cultural dynamics and the economy. An invaluable resource for students and scholars. Illustrations are a noteworthy feature. First edition (1989) has a chapter on the city of Amarna, now supplemented by Kemp 2012 (cited under Society and Cultures).
Kemp, Barry J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. 2d ed. London: Routledge, 2006.
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Trigger, Bruce G., Barry J. Kemp, David O’Connor, and Alan B. Lloyd. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511607868Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Pioneering volume covering ancient Egyptian history from the Predynastic period to Alexander the Great’s conquest. Marked a new direction in Egyptological scholarship with its focus on social and economic history and its integration of archaeological and historical data. Remains a valuable reference for students, although its bibliography is now out of date.
Trigger, Bruce G., Barry J. Kemp, David O’Connor, and Alan B. Lloyd. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
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Wendrich, Willeke, ed. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
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Collection of fifteen original contributions on diverse aspects of Egyptian civilization, based on archaeological evidence. Topics include theories of state formation, kingship, and the Middle Kingdom as well as neglected subjects such as regionality, gender, foreigners in Egypt, class and society, and identity and personhood. Progressive, insightful, and up-to-date. A rewarding reference work for students.
Wendrich, Willeke, ed. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
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Wilkinson, Toby, ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Collection of thirty-two original contributions by international specialists, drawing on recent fieldwork and analysis. Arranged in seven thematic sections (environments, institutions, economies, societies, ideologies, aesthetics, and interactions). Includes previously unpublished drawings and photographs. Presents a digest of current research trends in Egyptology and as an examination of the Egyptian world.
Wilkinson, Toby, ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Bibliographies

Compared to some disciplines, the study of ancient Egypt has not been particularly well-served by bibliographies. A notable exception is Porter and Moss 1927–1999, which is specifically devoted to hieroglyphic texts, reliefs, and paintings and which remains invaluable for the study of Egypt’s written and visual records. The long-running, international Annual Egyptological Bibliography, its German-language predecessor Bibliographie Altägypten, and the more recent Aigyptos database have now all been subsumed into the Online Egyptological Bibliography; like Porter and Moss 1927–1999, this resource is being maintained, expanded, and updated by the Griffith Institute at the University of Oxford. Among subject-specific bibliographies, one of the most useful is Hendrickx 1995, published to meet a growing scholarly interest in the Prehistoric and Early Dynastic periods of Egyptian history. Like all printed bibliographies, it has been rendered somewhat redundant by searchable online databases. Now, Hendrickx 1995 is also being incorporated in the Online Egyptological Bibliography, which will therefore emerge as the single authoritative source for the discipline.

Hendrickx, Stan. Analytical Bibliography of the Prehistory and the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt and Northern Sudan. Leuven, The Netherlands: Leuven University Press, 1995.
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Specialist bibliography of the prehistory and early history of Egypt and northern Sudan. Excludes reviews, unpublished reports, and dissertations (with the exception of dissertations available through University Microfilms International). Entries listed alphabetically by author. Also author, thematic, and topographical indices and a comprehensive set of loose-leaf maps. Periodic updates published in the journal Archéo-Nil (cited under Journals).
Hendrickx, Stan. Analytical Bibliography of the Prehistory and the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt and Northern Sudan. Leuven, The Netherlands: Leuven University Press, 1995.
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Online Egyptological Bibliography Oxford: Griffith Institute.
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The largest available collection of references in Egyptological literature. Covers Egyptological literature from 1822 to the present. Updated nearly every day. Combines the Annual Egyptological Bibliography (1947–2001), Bibliographie Altägypten (1822–1946), and the Aigyptos database. References from Hendrickx 1995 are being added.
Online Egyptological Bibliography Oxford: Griffith Institute.
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Porter, B., and R. Moss. Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs and Paintings. 8 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1927–1999.
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Comprehensive bibliography of every provenanced hieroglyphic text, relief, and painting, arranged geographically, together with some of the more significant, unprovenanced examples. Older volumes are being steadily updated and reissued by the Griffith Institute, University of Oxford, maintaining the work’s relevance. An essential scholarly resource. Available online.
Porter, B., and R. Moss. Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs and Paintings. 8 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1927–1999.
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Reference Works

The study of ancient Egypt is well-served by reference works. Baines and Malek 2000 is an early example and the first to present ancient Egyptian civilization in atlas form; it is still richly rewarding although now somewhat out-of-date. Manley 1996 adopts a similar approach, presenting the history of ancient Egypt in a series of maps. Dictionaries and encyclopedias of ancient Egypt continue to be published at regular intervals. The monumental Helck, et al. 1972–1986 remains an essential work of reference for scholars, usefully complemented for an Anglophone readership by Redford 2001. Bard 1999 focuses on the archaeological evidence for Egyptian culture and is aimed at students and teachers. Shaw and Nicholson 2008 has a general readership in mind but is still a useful resource for the serious scholar. Among the encyclopedic edited volumes of essays by leading experts, Lloyd 2014 is one of the most reliable, up-to-date, and comprehensive. To an extent, printed dictionaries and encyclopedias are being increasingly supplanted by online resources. Egyptology has yet to develop an online encyclopedia to rival Helck, et al. 1972–1986 or even Redford 2001 in scope, but the UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology looks set to do so in the coming years.

Baines, John, and Jaromir Malek. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Rev. ed. New York: Checkmark, 2000.
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Updated edition of a pioneering volume, first published in 1980, the first to present the civilization of ancient Egypt in the form of an atlas. General maps and entries on individual sites remain valuable for students at all levels, although the most recent archaeological discoveries are not included. A classic.
Baines, John, and Jaromir Malek. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Rev. ed. New York: Checkmark, 2000.
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Bard, Kathryn A., ed. Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge, 1999.
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Comprehensive single-volume reference work focusing on archaeological sites and the archaeological evidence for ancient Egyptian civilization, with longer overview essays on each historical period. Individual entries have cross-references and suggestions for further reading. Many original maps, plans, and photographs. Particular useful for students.
Bard, Kathryn A., ed. Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge, 1999.
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Helck, Wolfgang, Eberhardt Otto, and Wolfhart Westendorf, eds. Lexikon der Ägyptologie. 7 vols. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1972–1986.
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Monumental scholarly encyclopedia of ancient Egypt, primarily in German, with some articles in English and French, and an English index. Comprehensive, extensively footnoted entries on every aspect of ancient Egyptian civilization. Still an invaluable research tool, although the lack of references to studies later than the mid-1980s hampers its usefulness.
Helck, Wolfgang, Eberhardt Otto, and Wolfhart Westendorf, eds. Lexikon der Ägyptologie. 7 vols. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1972–1986.
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Lloyd, Alan B., ed. A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014.
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Comprehensive reference work, comprising forty-nine original contributions by leading international scholars based on the latest research. Thematic essays cover the land of Egypt, the main historical periods, state and economic structures, the social order, language and literature, the visual arts, and the reception of Egyptian culture. Extraordinary breadth and depth. Extensive illustrations and bibliography.
Lloyd, Alan B., ed. A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014.
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Manley, Bill. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1996.
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Compact and accessible volume offering a continuous series of maps detailing the political and economic development of ancient Egypt from Prehistoric to Roman times. Maps include a wealth of detail, supplemented by text and photographs. Primarily aimed at a popular readership but valuable for the student and scholar. May be difficult to obtain.
Manley, Bill. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1996.
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Redford, Donald B., ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 3 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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Comprehensive English-language reference work, covering all aspects of ancient Egyptian civilization from prehistoric times to the Arab conquest. Takes an interdisciplinary approach, drawing on expertise from anthropology, the natural sciences, philology, political science, and sociology as well as historical, art-historical, and religious studies. Extensive illustrations, maps, and annotated bibliographies for each entry.
Redford, Donald B., ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 3 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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Shaw, Ian, and Paul Nicholson. The British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Rev. ed. London: British Museum, 2008.
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Dictionary of ancient Egyptian civilization, lavishly illustrated with maps, plans, and photographs of objects in the British Museum. Coverage is wide, though not comprehensive (e.g., many kings and deities are omitted). A particularly useful feature is the brief bibliography accompanying each entry.
Shaw, Ian, and Paul Nicholson. The British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Rev. ed. London: British Museum, 2008.
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Wendrich, Willeke, ed. UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Los Angeles.
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Growing collection of articles by leading international scholars covering all aspects of Egyptology and Egyptian civilization.
Wendrich, Willeke, ed. UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Los Angeles.
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Journals

The study of ancient Egypt has spawned a plethora of academic and popular journals specific to the subject. Each of the established academic journals, while international in scope, largely reflects and caters to the scholarship of its home country. Besides such journals, which cover all aspects of Egyptology, there are a small number of specialist journals dealing with a specific area of the subject. The Austrian Academy of Sciences publishes Ägypten und Levante; its initial focus on excavations at Tell el-Daba has broadened to encompass all aspects of ancient Egypt’s relations with the Near East and eastern Mediterranean. The mainly French-language Archéo-Nil has a specific focus on Egyptian prehistory, while the Journal of Egyptian History covers the history and historiography of ancient Egypt. Articles on ancient Egypt also appear in a wide range of other academic journals.

Ägypten und Levante. 1990–.
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International journal dedicated to relations between ancient Egypt and the Levant. Particular focus is the ongoing Austrian excavations at Tell el-Daba (ancient Avaris) and their interpretation. Published annually.
Ägypten und Levante. 1990–.
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Archéo-Nil. 1990–.
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International journal, with a preponderance of articles in the French language, devoted to the pre-pharaonic (i.e., Prehistoric and Predynastic) civilization of the Nile Valley. Published annually.
Archéo-Nil. 1990–.
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Journal of Egyptian History. 2008–.
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Journal founded in 2008 focusing on the history of ancient Egypt from the Neolithic to the Coptic periods and its modern reception. Articles in English, German, and French focus on aspects of political, social, economic, and intellectual history, the modern historiography of ancient Egypt, and the history of historiography. Published twice a year.
Journal of Egyptian History. 2008–.
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Historical Background

Authoritative, general histories of ancient Egypt have been published only rarely since the establishment of Egyptology as a discipline. Among multi-authored works, Shaw 2003 stands out for the breadth and depth of its coverage. While its different authorial voices convey the complexity and controversies of ancient Egyptian history, they also give rise to internal contradictions and a certain lack of consistency, both of which are potentially confusing for the student and nonspecialist reader. By contrast, Wilkinson 2010, written by a single author for a more general readership, has greater consistency and stylistic coherence but does not go into equal detail for every period of history. Dodson and Hilton 2004 is a unique work that examines in detail the rulers whose reigns and lives form the skeleton of ancient Egypt’s political history. While it can be read as a general historical introduction, its use lies primarily in its collation of the raw material of history.

Dodson, Aidan, and Dyan Hilton. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2004.
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Groundbreaking study of the kings, queens, princes, and princesses who formed Egypt’s ruling elite from the first dynasty to the end of the Ptolemaic period. Discusses the historical background to each period and illuminates family relationships with twenty-seven genealogical trees. Lavishly illustrated and extensively referenced.
Dodson, Aidan, and Dyan Hilton. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2004.
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Shaw, Ian, ed. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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Authoritative and accessible single-volume work covering the entire prehistory and history of Egypt from the Palaeolithic to the Roman period. Each chapter is written by a leading international expert. Suggestions for further reading are comprehensive. Invaluable reference work for the student and scholar.
Shaw, Ian, ed. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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Wilkinson, Toby. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. London: Bloomsbury, 2010.
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Illustrated, narrative account of ancient Egyptian history from the Predynastic period to the death of Cleopatra, informed by the results of recent excavation and scholarship. Aimed at the general reader, but extensive notes and bibliography make it also a useful introduction for students.
Wilkinson, Toby. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. London: Bloomsbury, 2010.
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Prehistory, Predynastic, and Early Dynastic

Interest in the Prehistoric, Predynastic, and Early Dynastic phases of ancient Egyptian civilization has grown exponentially in recent decades. This interest is reflected in a large number of books, ranging from the specialist academic study to the general introduction, on the subject. For the study of Egyptian prehistory (late Palaeolithic to Neolithic), Tassie 2014 is a notable recent addition to the literature, synthesizing a vast amount of scholarship and supplementing Midant-Reynes 2000 whose scope extends beyond the Prehistoric to the end of the Predynastic. The processes of growing social complexity and ultimately of state formation, which took place during the Predynastic period and culminated in the early dynasties, are explored from different perspectives in a range of books. Brewer 2005 provides a useful student primer; Wenke 2009 brings anthropological and comparative insights; and Wengrow 2006 takes a theoretical approach. Teeter 2011 combines an exhibition catalogue with up-to-date essays by leading scholars, thus enabling readers to visualize the material remains of early Egypt alongside their interpretation. For Early Dynastic Egypt, Wilkinson 2001 synthesizes thirty years of international scholarship and remains the best general introduction. Further insights into early Egypt can be found in the relevant chapters of Lloyd 2014 (cited under Reference Works) and Shaw 2003 (cited under Historical Background).

Brewer, Douglas J. Ancient Egypt: Foundations of a Civilization. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2005.
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Compact, general introduction to the archaeology and culture of Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt, aimed at first-year undergraduate level and below. Focus is on Predynastic developments in material culture. Numerous illustrations, including color plates.
Brewer, Douglas J. Ancient Egypt: Foundations of a Civilization. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2005.
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Midant-Reynes, B. The Prehistory of Egypt. Translated by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
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English translation of Préhistoire de l’Egypte, first published in 1992. Comprehensive and authoritative presentation of the origins and early development of Egyptian civilization, from the Palaeolithic period to the end of the Predynastic period. Focus is on archaeological evidence rather than theoretical approaches.
Midant-Reynes, B. The Prehistory of Egypt. Translated by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
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Tassie, Geoffrey John. Prehistoric Egypt. London: Golden House, 2014.
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Supra-regional study of socioeconomic change in north-east Africa from the late Palaeolithic to the end of the Neolithic. Focuses on animal and plant domestication and ceramic technology. Combines empirical data with a theoretical approach. Reliable synthesis of a century of scholarship. Comprehensive bibliography. Scholarly but accessible.
Tassie, Geoffrey John. Prehistoric Egypt. London: Golden House, 2014.
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Teeter, Emily, ed. Before the Pyramids. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2011.
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Extensively illustrated, up-to-date overview of Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt, published to accompany an exhibition at the Oriental Institute, Chicago. Catalogue entries on individual objects are supplemented by more discursive articles by leading international specialists. Embraces varying interpretations and differences of scholarly opinion.
Teeter, Emily, ed. Before the Pyramids. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2011.
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Wengrow, David. The Archaeology of Early Egypt: Social Transformation in North-East Africa, 10,000 to 2650 BC. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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Original and provocative study, embracing archaeological and anthropological theory to examine social developments in early Egypt. Challenges the theoretical isolation of Egyptian prehistory. Focuses on social identity and ritual. Aimed at scholars of Egyptology and other disciplines.
Wengrow, David. The Archaeology of Early Egypt: Social Transformation in North-East Africa, 10,000 to 2650 BC. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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Wenke, Robert J. The Ancient Egyptian State: The Origins of Egyptian Culture (c 8000–2000 BC). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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Study of Egyptian origins in a broader context of early state formation. Combines Egyptological and anthropological evidence; addresses questions of interpretation. Brings a comparative approach to the subject. Aimed primarily at students of early civilizations and states.
Wenke, Robert J. The Ancient Egyptian State: The Origins of Egyptian Culture (c 8000–2000 BC). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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Wilkinson, Toby. Early Dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge, 2001.
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Comprehensive, scholarly synthesis of the formative period of ancient Egyptian civilization. Chapters examine the rediscovery of early Egypt, the process of state formation, the history of the first to the third dynasties, the establishment of cultural and political authority (including government, kingship, architecture, and religion), and the diversity of local experience.
Wilkinson, Toby. Early Dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge, 2001.
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Old Kingdom to Second Intermediate Period

Despite having produced, respectively, ancient Egypt’s most characteristic monuments (the pyramids) and its greatest works of literature, the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom have not been extensively studied as historical periods in their own right. All the major works of reference include chapters on these two periods of strong, central government (see chapters in Lloyd 2014, cited under Reference Works, and Shaw 2003, cited under Historical Background), but specific studies are still scarce. Málek 1986 remains one of the best analyses of Old Kingdom society, despite its age. For the Middle Kingdom, Grajetski 2006 offers a reliable overview, although it lacks original insights. The First Intermediate Period that separated the Old and Middle Kingdoms has been sorely neglected; the best scholarship is to be found in edited volumes, encyclopedias, and general historical overviews. By contrast, the Second Intermediate Period has recently emerged as a major focus for reevaluation and reinterpretation, largely as the result of Ryholt 1997, a pioneering work of scholarship that demonstrates the possibilities of engaging with neglected periods of Egyptian history.

Grajetski, Wolfram. The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt. London: Duckworth, 2006.
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Reliable synthesis of current scholarship on the Middle Kingdom. Surveys the history of the period, its archaeology, geography, and society. Abundant notes and useful appendices of major officeholders. A relatively brief bibliography. An accessible general introduction for the lay reader and undergraduate student.
Grajetski, Wolfram. The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt. London: Duckworth, 2006.
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Málek, Jaromír. In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Egypt during the Old Kingdom. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986.
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Original and accessible examination of Old Kingdom civilization, now a little out of date but still valuable for its breadth. Themes discussed include politics, economics, social structure, and religion. Some interpretations have been superseded by more recent studies. The 120 color plates by the acclaimed photographer Werner Forman are a notable feature.
Málek, Jaromír. In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Egypt during the Old Kingdom. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986.
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Ryholt, Kim S. B. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1997.
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Groundbreaking, systematic study of the chronology of the Second Intermediate period, based on a wide range of textual sources. Presents a new and comprehensive model for the thirteenth to the seventeenth dynasties, defining the overlapping dynasties and polities. Identification of an ephemeral “Abydos dynasty” remains controversial but is supported by recent discoveries.
Ryholt, Kim S. B. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1997.
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New Kingdom to Roman Period

The later periods of ancient Egyptian history are better attested in the documentary and archaeological records and, consequently, better studied than some earlier eras. The literature on the New Kingdom is particularly extensive, reflecting the unrivalled preservation (and detailed excavation) of the settlements of Amarna and Deir el-Medina. All the major works of reference—notably Lloyd 2014 (cited under Reference Works) and Shaw 2003 (cited under Historical Background)—include chapters on the New Kingdom. Within the New Kingdom, the eighteenth dynasty has been the focus of significant scholarship: Roehrig 2005 (for the reign of Hatshepsut) and Freed, et al. 1999 (for the reigns of Akhenaten and his immediate successors) are notable examples. For the site of Amarna and the social history of Akhenaten’s reign, see Kemp 2012 (cited under Society and Cultures). The Third Intermediate Period has attracted a large amount of interest in recent decades; Kitchen 1996 and Leahy 1990 are invaluable contributions to understanding, respectively, the complex chronology and the social history of the period. The Late Period is less well-served and remains a relatively neglected area of study; the best scholarship is to be found in edited volumes, encyclopedias, and general historical overviews. For the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, both classical scholars and Egyptologists have contributed to the literature. Bowman 1996 provides an excellent introduction, while Hölbl 2001, Roller 2010, and Monson 2012 explore the history and cultural dynamics of the periods in greater depth.

Bowman, Alan K. Egypt after the Pharaohs. London: Oxford University Press, 1996.
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Lavishly illustrated survey of Egypt from 332 BCE to 642 CE. Thematic rather than chronological. Chapters examine the land, ruling powers, state and subject, poverty and prosperity, Greeks and Egyptians, religion, and Alexandria. An essential synthesis, aimed at the general reader and student but also useful as an introduction to the period for scholars.
Bowman, Alan K. Egypt after the Pharaohs. London: Oxford University Press, 1996.
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Freed, Rita A., Yvonne J. Markowitz, and Sue H. D’Auria, eds. Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Tutankhamun. London: Thames and Hudson, 1999.
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Comprehensive, lavishly illustrated study, published to accompany an exhibition at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Alongside catalogue entries on individual objects, essays by leading scholars cover all aspects of the Amarna period, including the city of Amarna, the royal family, religion, art, craftsmanship, administration, and foreign relations. Includes an extensive bibliography.
Freed, Rita A., Yvonne J. Markowitz, and Sue H. D’Auria, eds. Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Tutankhamun. London: Thames and Hudson, 1999.
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Hölbl, Günther. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. Translated by Tina Saavedra. London: Routledge, 2001.
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English translation of Geschichte des Ptolemäerreiches, first published in 1994. Chronological history of Ptolemaic Egypt, focusing on political developments; deals only briefly with economics, administration, and social history. A comprehensive introduction and an essential textbook for students.
Hölbl, Günther. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. Translated by Tina Saavedra. London: Routledge, 2001.
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Kitchen, Kenneth A. The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC). 2d ed. Oxford: Aris & Phillips, 1996.
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First published in 1972, this text remains the most comprehensive study of the complex chronology of the Third Intermediate Period. Aimed primarily at advanced students and scholars, its survey of the ancient sources is unparalleled. However, in the light of new analysis, many scholars would now dispute Kitchen’s interpretations.
Kitchen, Kenneth A. The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC). 2d ed. Oxford: Aris & Phillips, 1996.
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Leahy, Anthony, ed. Libya and Egypt c 1300–750 BC. London: School of Oriental and African Studies/Society for Libyan Studies, 1990.
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Edited volume of essays on aspects of Egypt’s relations with Libya and the Libyans. Chapters cover late Bronze Age settlement, Libyans in late New Kingdom Egypt, excavations at Herakleopolis Magna, and the Theban twenty-third dynasty. Unattractively presented with no illustrations but a useful collection of original research on a neglected topic.
Leahy, Anthony, ed. Libya and Egypt c 1300–750 BC. London: School of Oriental and African Studies/Society for Libyan Studies, 1990.
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Monson, Andrew. From the Ptolemies to the Romans: Political and Economic Change in Egypt. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139028196Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Examines the transition from Ptolemaic to Roman rule through the themes of ecology, land tenure, taxation, administration, and politics. Draws on theoretical perspectives from the social sciences; challenges conventional interpretations. Extensive bibliography. Aimed at students and scholars.
Monson, Andrew. From the Ptolemies to the Romans: Political and Economic Change in Egypt. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
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Roehrig, Catherine H., ed. Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2005.
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Comprehensive, lavishly illustrated study of Hatshepsut and her reign, published to accompany an exhibition in San Francisco, New York, and Fort Worth. Alongside catalogue entries on individual objects, essays by leading scholars cover all aspects of Hatshepsut’s life, government, and artistic production. An extensive bibliography makes this a valuable reference work for eighteenth-dynasty history in general.
Roehrig, Catherine H., ed. Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2005.
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Roller, Duane W. Cleopatra: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
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Narrative biography, based solely on sources from the ancient world (Egyptian, Greek, and Latin texts and archaeological evidence). Examines Cleopatra’s world and her life. Extensive bibliography of ancient and modern sources is particularly valuable for students and scholars.
Roller, Duane W. Cleopatra: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
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Geography

Ancient Egypt produced a culture that was fundamentally shaped by its physical environment, yet studies of the geography of the Nile Valley are rare. Butzer 1976 was groundbreaking and remains one of very few works dedicated to Egypt’s cultural ecology. More recently, Jeffreys 2007 (for the Nile Valley) and Wilson 2007 (for the Delta) have opened up new avenues of scholarship, developed further in the opening chapter of Lloyd 2014 (cited under Reference Works). For a long time, Herodotus’s much-quoted remark that Egypt was “an acquired country . . . the gift of the river” blinded Egyptologists to the importance of Egypt’s deserts in the development of pharaonic civilization. Recent fieldwork in the eastern and western deserts has corrected the Nilo-centric view and is presented and analyzed in Friedman 2002 and Darnell 2007.

Butzer, Karl. Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: A Study in Cultural Ecology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976.
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Seminal work, the first attempt to understand and synthesize the factors involved in the rise of a riverine, irrigation-based civilization. Surveys the data on environmental change, population density, settlement patterns, land use, and irrigation technology; integrates historical evidence. A fundamental study.
Butzer, Karl. Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: A Study in Cultural Ecology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976.
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Darnell, John C. “The Deserts.” In The Egyptian World. Edited by Toby Wilkinson, 29–48. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Article summarizing the exploitation and cultural significance of the eastern and western deserts of Egypt from prehistory to the Late period, with special reference to cultic activity and religious architecture. A rare overview of the subject, particularly useful for students.
Darnell, John C. “The Deserts.” In The Egyptian World. Edited by Toby Wilkinson, 29–48. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Friedman, Renée, ed. Egypt and Nubia: Gifts of the Desert. London: British Museum, 2002.
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Collection of eighteen essays by international experts, drawing on recent archaeological fieldwork to explore aspects of the Egyptian and Nubian deserts during the Prehistoric and Dynastic periods. Challenges the customary view of Egypt and Nubia as predominantly riverine civilizations. Aimed primarily at a scholarly readership.
Friedman, Renée, ed. Egypt and Nubia: Gifts of the Desert. London: British Museum, 2002.
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Jeffreys, David. “The Nile Valley.” In The Egyptian World. Edited by Toby Wilkinson, 7–14. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Summary article discussing the geography and climate of the Nile Valley, and the effect of its topography and annual flooding regime on the culture and history of Egypt. A rare overview of an important topic, aimed primarily at students.
Jeffreys, David. “The Nile Valley.” In The Egyptian World. Edited by Toby Wilkinson, 7–14. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Wilson, Penelope. “The Nile Delta.” In The Egyptian World. Edited by Toby Wilkinson, 15–28. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Article examining the distinctive geology, geography, culture, resources, history, and archaeology of the Nile Delta, based on the author’s extensive first-hand fieldwork. Provides a counterbalance to the dominance of the Nile Valley in treatments of ancient Egypt. A rare overview of the subject, particularly useful for students.
Wilson, Penelope. “The Nile Delta.” In The Egyptian World. Edited by Toby Wilkinson, 15–28. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Society and Cultures

Studies of ancient Egyptian society and culture have proliferated in recent decades, reflecting an increased focus on settlement (as opposed to cemetery) archaeology and a growing scholarly interest in the lives and livelihoods of the wider population as opposed to the deeds of kings. Before the Greek and Roman periods, most of the evidence for daily life in ancient Egypt comes from New Kingdom contexts, which is reflected in the focus of the primary studies: Meskell 2002, McDowell 1999 (the workers’ village at Deir el-Medina), and Kemp 2012 (the city of Amarna). Szpakowska 2008, based on material from the Middle Kingdom settlement at Lahun, is a notable exception. The subject of cities and urbanism, until recently a relatively neglected topic in Egyptology, is surveyed in Snape 2014. Kemp 2012 also offers significant insights into the experience of urban living in ancient Egypt. The material remains of daily life, on which reconstructions largely depend, take center stage in many accounts but are rarely treated as a topic in their own right. Peck 2013 offers a useful overview for the general reader, while Nicholson and Shaw 2000 provides the definitive work of reference on material culture. Baines 2013 bucks the scholarly trend, refocusing on the elite experience in ancient Egypt, as depicted in high-status art and text. Further insights and interpretations of ancient Egyptian society and culture can be found in Wendrich 2010 and Wilkinson 2007 (cited under General Overviews) and Lloyd 2014 (cited under Reference Works).

Baines, John. High Culture and Experience in Ancient Egypt. Sheffield, UK: Equinox, 2013.
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Collection of five essays arguing for a distinctive elite experience in ancient Egypt. Covers much old ground but with a new methodological rigor and the author’s customary emphasis on the importance of “decorum.” A useful, refreshing counterpart to other recent works (e.g., McDowell 1999, Meskell 2002, Szpakowska 2008) focusing on nonelite culture.
Baines, John. High Culture and Experience in Ancient Egypt. Sheffield, UK: Equinox, 2013.
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Kemp, Barry. The City of Akhenaten and Nefertiti: Amarna and Its People. London: Thames and Hudson, 2012.
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Magisterial analysis of the archaeological site of Amarna, distilling the results of over a century of systematic excavation. (The author has directed excavations at Amarna since 1977.) Goes beyond a description of finds to imagine the society that created them and the dynamics of the ancient city. Excellent original illustrations.
Kemp, Barry. The City of Akhenaten and Nefertiti: Amarna and Its People. London: Thames and Hudson, 2012.
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McDowell, A. G. Village Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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Translations and commentaries of 197 texts (papyri, ostraca, and graffiti) from the New Kingdom workers’ village of Deir el-Medina. Grouped by theme, they illustrate the village and its context, family and friends, daily life, religion, education, law, and the work on the royal tomb. A reliable and accessible anthology.
McDowell, A. G. Village Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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Meskell, Lynn. Private Life in New Kingdom Egypt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.
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Theoretical and scholarly study of life experience and embodied being in the New Kingdom. Uses a range of sources to address the topics of community and identity. Aimed at scholars and advanced students, especially in disciplines outside traditional Egyptology.
Meskell, Lynn. Private Life in New Kingdom Egypt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.
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Nicholson, Paul T., and Ian Shaw, eds. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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Encyclopedic treatment of the subject by leading experts. Comprehensive in scope, covering inorganic materials, organic materials, and food technology. Each chapter has an extensive bibliography. An essential reference work.
Nicholson, Paul T., and Ian Shaw, eds. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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Peck, William H. The Material World of Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139034296Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
General survey of ancient Egyptian material culture, based primarily on objects in museum collections. Each chapter focuses on a different category of material such as dress and personal adornment, hygiene and medicine, faience, and glass. A reliable introduction for the lay reader and a useful primer for students prior to immersion in Nicholson and Shaw 2000.
Peck, William H. The Material World of Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
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Snape, Steven. The Complete Cities of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2014.
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Extensively illustrated survey of Egyptian cities and urbanism. Invaluable synthesis of a vast amount of data, supplemented by the author’s original research. Thematic sections on subjects including urbanization, royal and cult settlements, urban populations, crime, and gender. Unique gazetteer of cities and towns.
Snape, Steven. The Complete Cities of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2014.
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Szpakowska, Kasia. Daily Life in Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell, 2008.
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Reconstruction of daily life in the late Middle Kingdom town of Lahun, based on artifacts and texts from the settlement. Aimed at scholars, students, and the wider public. Thematic approach presents a rich portrait of nonelite Egyptian culture. Scholarly but engaging and accessible.
Szpakowska, Kasia. Daily Life in Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell, 2008.
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Women and Gender

The documentary record from ancient Egypt is skewed, not only toward the tiny literate elite (perhaps never more than ten percent of the population) but also toward the male gender. Women in particular and gender issues in general are not well attested and seldom explicit, so scholars have had to look beyond and behind the immediate evidence to gain a better understanding of these subjects. The dedicated literature is still very sparse. Lesko 1989 offers a valuable collection of essays, and the comparison of ancient Egypt with western Asia provides further stimulating insights. Robins 1993, although more than two decades old, remains the best general introduction to the subject. More up-to-date studies are generally embedded in larger works of reference. The best recent examples are Wilfong 2007, and the essay by the same author in Wendrich 2010 (cited under General Overviews). For the gender dimension of Hatshepsut’s rise to power and kingship, see Roehrig 2005 (cited under New Kingdom to Roman Period).

Lesko, Barbara S., ed. Women’s Earliest Records from Ancient Egypt and Western Asia. Atlanta: Scholars, 1989.
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Collection of conference proceedings comprising twenty-two expert papers, ten of them on Egyptian subjects. Topics address women in the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and Late Period and in Egyptian art, law, and business. Aimed at students and scholars.
Lesko, Barbara S., ed. Women’s Earliest Records from Ancient Egypt and Western Asia. Atlanta: Scholars, 1989.
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Robins, Gay. Women in Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum, 1993.
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Highly illustrated, authoritative, and concise introduction, drawing on the collections of the British Museum. Thematic chapters discuss different aspects of women’s roles and experience in Egyptian society. Broad yet detailed; despite its age, remains the best overview of the subject.
Robins, Gay. Women in Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum, 1993.
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Wilfong, T. G. “Gender and Sexuality.” In The Egyptian World. Edited by Toby Wilkinson, 205–217. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Summary article discussing women, men, others’ genders, sexuality, and sexual identity in Egypt. Engages with the paucity of the evidence and difficulties of interpretation and points the way to future avenues for study. A rare overview of an important topic, aimed primarily at students.
Wilfong, T. G. “Gender and Sexuality.” In The Egyptian World. Edited by Toby Wilkinson, 205–217. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Economy

The evidence for the functioning of the ancient Egytpian economy is fragmentary and often contradictory. As a result, reconstructions range from a system dominated by state control and redistribution to a system in which private enterprise played a major role. Kemp 2006 provides the best overview of the available evidence, highlighting the inconsistencies and the probable changes over time. While the economy of the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom seems to have been largely redistributive, private enterprise appears to have been a more prominent feature in the New Kingdom. The best evidence for the latter comes from the workers’ village of Deir el-Medina; it is comprehensively collated and analyzed in Janssen 1975. Further insights and interpretations of the ancient Egyptian economy can be found in the relevant chapters in Wilkinson 2007 (cited under General Overviews) and Lloyd 2014 (cited under Reference Works).

Janssen, J. J. Commodity Prices from the Ramessid Period. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1975.
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Exhaustive and systematic survey of commodity prices based on papyri and ostraca from the New Kingdom workers’ village of Deir el-Medina. Comprehensive corpus of prices (arranged by category of commodity), and studies of wages, transactions, and ancient Egyptian economics. Invaluable collection of primary source material for students and scholars of ancient pre-monetary economies.
Janssen, J. J. Commodity Prices from the Ramessid Period. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1975.
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Kemp, Barry J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. 2d ed. London: Routledge, 2006.
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Several chapters offer fresh and original thinking on the functioning of the ancient Egyptian economy, drawing extensively on archaeological evidence to balance that of surviving texts. Chapters 4 and 5 examine the redistributive economy of the Middle Kingdom, and chapters 6 and 7 argue for a greater role for the private economy in the New Kingdom.
Kemp, Barry J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. 2d ed. London: Routledge, 2006.
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Politics and Government

The ancient Egyptian state was the most enduring and perhaps the most stable in world history, yet its structures remain largely unknown. The evidence for politics and government in ancient Egypt is extremely sparse; reconstructions for pharaonic Egypt often rely on extrapolation from later, better documented periods. Exell and Naunton 2007 acknowledges the gaps in the evidence and employs a particular (but perhaps unrepresentative) case study to shed light on the subject. Wilkinson 2001 (cited under Prehistory, Predynastic, and Early Dynastic) includes a chapter on Early Dynastic administration, reconstructed from contemporary inscriptions. Lloyd 2014 is genuinely groundbreaking in its breadth and scope but is still limited by the available evidence. The institution of divine kingship, which stood at the pinnacle of ancient Egyptian society and colored its politics and government, is better studied and better understood. O’Connor and Silverman 1995 offers a valuable collection of insights by leading scholars. Further studies of kingship can be found in Wilkinson 2007 (cited under General Overviews) and Lloyd 2014 (cited under Reference Works).

Exell, Karen, and Christopher Naunton. “The Administration.” In The Egyptian World. Edited by Toby Wilkinson, 91–104. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Summary article. Notes the paucity of primary evidence for the administration of Egypt, so focuses on the better-attested New Kingdom and Late Period. The workers’ village of Deir el-Medina provides a case study. Far from comprehensive but provides a useful overview of certain key aspects.
Exell, Karen, and Christopher Naunton. “The Administration.” In The Egyptian World. Edited by Toby Wilkinson, 91–104. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Lloyd, Alan B. Ancient Egypt: State and Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199286188.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Authoritative study of the institutional and ideological systems that underpinned and sustained ancient Egyptian civilization over more than three millennia. Examines kingship, state violence, government institutions, the environmental context, and conceptual worlds. Fills an important gap in the literature. Aimed at students and scholars.
Lloyd, Alan B. Ancient Egypt: State and Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
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O’Connor, David, and David Silverman, eds. Ancient Egyptian Kingship. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1995.
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Edited collection of seven essays by leading experts on aspects of kingship. Covers three broad themes: the general characterization of kingship ideology, historical studies of kingship, and the analysis and interpretation of royal architecture. Illuminating and original insights, essential reading for students and scholars.
O’Connor, David, and David Silverman, eds. Ancient Egyptian Kingship. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1995.
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Religion

The religion of ancient Egypt is a vast and complex subject, amenable to description but often defying analysis and interpretation. Works range from the scholarly to the esoteric. Wilkinson 2003 offers an authoritative and accessible introduction to one aspect of the subject (gods and goddesses). For a range of perspectives on various aspects of religion, the edited collections of Allen, et al. 1989 and Shafer 1991 are the best starting point. The Egyptians did not distinguish between religion and magic, nor between religion and myth; Pinch 1994 and Pinch 2004 explore these two important aspects of religious belief and experience, making them accessible to a wide readership. At the other end of the spectrum, Jan Assmann has produced the most profound (if at times somewhat impenetrable) scholarship on Egyptian religion. Assmann 2001 is a fine example of his extraordinary oeuvre. Hornung 1996 occupies something of a middle ground, offering original insights but in a more accessible style. While many Egyptologists would contend that ancient Egyptian culture was steeped in religion, Kemp 1995 offers a refreshing counter view, arguing that Egypt was a largely secular society. Kemp’s meticulously researched and carefully argued analysis illustrates the range of interpretations that can be brought to bear on the fragmentary and contradictory evidence for Egyptian religion.

Allen, James. P., Jan Assmann, Alan B. Lloyd, Robert K. Ritner, and David P. Silverman. Religion and Philosophy in Ancient Egypt. New Haven, CT: Yale Egyptological Seminar, 1989.
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Collection of seven essays by leading experts. Topics include studies of the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts, state and religion in the New Kingdom, religion and magic, mortuary cults, and funerary religion. Stimulating and original scholarship from a wide variety of perspectives.
Allen, James. P., Jan Assmann, Alan B. Lloyd, Robert K. Ritner, and David P. Silverman. Religion and Philosophy in Ancient Egypt. New Haven, CT: Yale Egyptological Seminar, 1989.
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Assmann, Jan. The Search for God in Ancient Egypt. Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001.
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English translation of Ägypten: Theologie und Frömmigkeit einer frühen Hochkultur, first published in 1984. Theoretical analysis of theology and the development of theological discourse in ancient Egypt. Serious and scholarly, goes beyond the usual descriptive treatment of ancient Egyptian religion. Aimed at advanced students and scholars.
Assmann, Jan. The Search for God in Ancient Egypt. Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001.
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Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. Translated by John Baines. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996.
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English translation of Der Eine und die Vielen, first published in 1971. Seminal study of Egyptian religion, examining the Egyptians’ conception of the divine, based on a reappraisal of primary sources. Erudite and deeply researched. A fundamental contribution to the subject, aimed at students and scholars.
Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. Translated by John Baines. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996.
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Kemp, Barry. “How Religious Were the Ancient Egyptians?” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 5.1 (1995): 25–54.
DOI: 10.1017/S0959774300001177Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Stimulating and provocative article, exploring the dislocation between official religion and individual experience. Argues that ancient Egyptian society was basically secular. Refreshing counterbalance to other works on Egyptian religion. Deeply researched, with an extensive bibliography.
Kemp, Barry. “How Religious Were the Ancient Egyptians?” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 5.1 (1995): 25–54.
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Pinch, Geraldine. Magic in Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum, 1994.
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Highly illustrated, authoritative, and concise introduction, drawing on the collections of the British Museum. Thematic chapters cover myth, demons and spirits, magicians, magical texts and techniques, figurines, amulets, fertility, medicine, funerary magic, and the legacy of Egyptian magic. Broad yet detailed, examining the symbiotic relationship between magic and religion.
Pinch, Geraldine. Magic in Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum, 1994.
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Pinch, Geraldine. Egyptian Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
DOI: 10.1093/actrade/9780192803467.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Stimulating, concise introduction to Egyptian religious mythology. Chapters cover the modern reception of Egyptian myth, language and myth, the gods, creation myths, landscapes of myth, myths of nationhood, conflict and reconciliation, pairs and sequences, myths and popular religion, and the mythology of death. Box features on key topics are helpful for quick reference.
Pinch, Geraldine. Egyptian Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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Shafer, Byron E., ed. Religion in Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge, 1991.
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Collection of essays by eminent scholars, addressing the major theoretical questions concerning ancient Egyptian religious belief and practice. Topics comprise divinity and deities in ancient Egypt, Ancient Egyptian cosmogonies and cosmology, and society, morality, and religious practice. Special attention is given to the reign and religious innovations of Akhenaten.
Shafer, Byron E., ed. Religion in Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge, 1991.
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Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2003.
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Richly illustrated, systematic survey of ancient Egyptian deities. Entries on individual gods and goddesses, grouped by attributes, are complemented by sections on the history of Egyptian religion, the nature of the gods, forms of worship, and kingship. Aimed at a general readership but a valuable reference for students and scholars alike.
Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2003.
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Funerary Religion

Of all aspects of Egyptian religion, the beliefs and practices associated with death and the afterlife have received most scholarly attention, reflecting the dominance of mortuary remains in the archaeological record. Taylor 2001 and Ikram 2003 provide excellent overviews for the general reader and the student, respectively, and Quirke 2013 offers valuable insights. Assmann 2005 takes the author’s characteristically theoretical approach, seeking to explore and explain the cultural factors underlying ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs. Funerary religion expressed itself through monuments, artifacts, and texts. Forman and Quirke 1996 provides a useful, beautifully illustrated introduction to the subject of funerary texts, while Faulkner 2010 offers an accessible English translation of the most famous of these texts, the so-called Book of the Dead. For the earliest collection of funerary literature, the Pyramid Texts, see Allen 2005 (cited under Literature). The architectural manifestations of funerary religion are surveyed in Dodson and Ikram 2008 (cited under Pyramids, Tombs, and Temples).

Assmann, Jan. Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt. Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005.
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English translation of Tod und Jenseits im alten Ägypten, first published in 2001. Theoretical analysis of ancient Egyptian culture through the lens of death. Argues that death is the origin and center of culture. Highly academic, original, and provocative. Aimed at advanced students and scholars.
Assmann, Jan. Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt. Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005.
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Faulkner, R. O. The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. London: British Museum, 2010.
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New edition of a book first published in 1972. Standard translation of the Book of the Dead, based on the texts of the papyrus of Ani in the British Museum. Illustrated with vignettes from this and other funerary papyri.
Faulkner, R. O. The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. London: British Museum, 2010.
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Forman, Werner, and Stephen Quirke. Hieroglyphs and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum, 1996.
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Lavishly illustrated general introduction to Egyptian funerary texts, aimed at the nonspecialist. Accessible text was written to accompany the photographs, but presents many original insights.
Forman, Werner, and Stephen Quirke. Hieroglyphs and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum, 1996.
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Ikram, Salima. Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge, 2003.
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Comprehensive and reliable source-book of all aspects of death and burial. Examines religious beliefs about death, the afterlife, and resurrection. Detailed analysis of mummification techniques over time. Scholarly yet accessible. Aimed primarily at the general reader and students.
Ikram, Salima. Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge, 2003.
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Quirke, Stephen. Going Out in Daylight—prt m hrw. London: Golden House, 2013.
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Scholarly yet accessible study of the Book of the Dead, focusing on translation, sources, and meaning. Contains a wealth of insights into the texts and textual traditions.
Quirke, Stephen. Going Out in Daylight—prt m hrw. London: Golden House, 2013.
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Taylor, John H. Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum, 2001.
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Highly illustrated, authoritative, and concise introduction to Egyptian mortuary beliefs and practices, drawing on the collections of the British Museum. Embraces new scientific research and interpretations. A reliable general survey of a complex subject.
Taylor, John H. Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum, 2001.
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Language

Since the decipherment of hieroglyphics by Champollion in 1822, understanding of the ancient Egyptian language has progressed in fits and starts. Our knowledge remains imperfect, although Middle Egyptian (the phase of the language in which most of the classical texts and inscriptions were written) is relatively well understood. For the student of ancient Egyptian, Gardiner 1982 was for a long time the standard textbook; it has now been largely supplanted by Allen 2014. There is still no comprehensive dictionary of ancient Egyptian. Erman and Grapow 1926–1950 remains seminal, supplemented (but not entirely superseded) by Hannig 1995; both are in German. In the English language, Faulkner 1991 remains the standard dictionary but is far from comprehensive. Egyptology has remained largely impervious to the application of insights from linguistics, but Loprieno 1995 breaks new ground and opens up new avenues for scholarship.

Allen, James P. Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. 3d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
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Modern, up-to-date, and accessible introduction to Egyptian grammar. Grammatical lessons complemented by cultural essays, setting Egyptian language in its context. Valuable sign list and dictionary. Third edition incorporates new insights and research. Essential textbook for students, supplanting Gardiner 1982.
Allen, James P. Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. 3d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
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Erman, Adolf, and H. Grapow, eds. Wörterbuch des ägyptischen Sprache im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien. 7 vols. Hinrichs, Leipzig: Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1926–1950.
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Monumental, multivolume Egyptian–German dictionary. An unprecedented feat of scholarship, it remains a primary reference work for the serious scholar, despite its age. Supplanted to an extent by Hannig 1995.
Erman, Adolf, and H. Grapow, eds. Wörterbuch des ägyptischen Sprache im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien. 7 vols. Hinrichs, Leipzig: Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1926–1950.
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Faulkner, Raymond O. A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian. Oxford: Griffith Institute, 1991.
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Standard dictionary of the classic, Middle Egyptian phase of ancient Egyptian. First published in 1962. Contains the 5,400 words most likely to be encountered by students and scholars. Entries include variant spellings and references to texts where the word occurs. Essential tool for all students and scholars of ancient Egyptian.
Faulkner, Raymond O. A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian. Oxford: Griffith Institute, 1991.
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Gardiner, Alan. Egyptian Grammar. 3d ed. Oxford: Griffith Institute, 1982.
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Classic, comprehensive introduction to the ancient Egyptian language, first published in 1927. Includes vocabulary lists and exercises in translation and comprehension. Now showing its age and somewhat inaccessible to the nonspecialist but remains an invaluable reference work, especially for its pioneering sign list.
Gardiner, Alan. Egyptian Grammar. 3d ed. Oxford: Griffith Institute, 1982.
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Hannig, Rainer. Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch-Deutsch. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern, 1995.
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Extensive and authoritative Egyptian‑German dictionary, based on texts from the early Old Kingdom to the end of the New Kingdom. The most comprehensive modern dictionary of the ancient Egyptian language. Also includes a sign list; lists of gods’, kings’ and place names; and many maps. An essential reference.
Hannig, Rainer. Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch-Deutsch. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern, 1995.
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Loprieno, Antonio. Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511611865Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Pioneering work, applying the insights of modern linguistics to the study of the ancient Egyptian language. Examines the development of Egyptian, the hieroglyphic writing system, phonology, syntax, and connections with other Afro-Asiatic languages. Academic in style; aimed at scholars of linguistics.
Loprieno, Antonio. Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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Literature

The literary output of ancient Egypt is not well known outside Egyptological circles, yet it merits a wider audience. Surviving texts exhibit a surprisingly wide range of genres, but accessible anthologies of Egyptian literature in translation are few. Difficulties remain in our understanding of the language, and the subject matter of many texts makes it difficult to achieve translations that are both accurate and fluent. Lichtheim 1975–1980 remains the best wide-ranging anthology, despite some inaccuracies and stylistic peculiarities. The Middle Kingdom, seen by most scholars as the golden age of ancient Egyptian literature, is better served: Parkinson 1991, Parkinson 1997, and Allen 2015 bring alive the major works of the period in fresh and up-to-date translations. The Society of Biblical Literature has pioneered the publication of modern translations of specific groups of Egyptian texts: Allen 2005 (the Pyramid Texts), Murnane 1995 (texts from the Amarna period), and Wente 1990 (letters) are all invaluable anthologies in this series. The study of Egyptian literature has been largely impervious to modern developments in the study of literature, but Parkinson 2002 paves the way for an exciting and fruitful new area of Egyptological scholarship.

Allen, James P. The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005.
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Up-to-date, accessible translations of the complete corpus of Pyramid Texts, aimed at the general reader, students, and teachers. Reliable and authoritative, with notes, glossaries, variants, and concordance.
Allen, James P. The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005.
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Allen, James P. Middle Egyptian Literature: Eight Literary Works of the Middle Kingdom. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781316095881Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Companion volume to Allen 2014 (cited under Language), presenting hieroglyphic transcriptions, transliterations, and annotated translations of eight literary works from the Middle Kingdom. Designed for students of Middle Egyptian. Also valuable as reliable modern editions of key texts.
Allen, James P. Middle Egyptian Literature: Eight Literary Works of the Middle Kingdom. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
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Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature. 3 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975–1980.
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Landmark series with modern English translations of a representative selection of ancient Egyptian texts. Volume 1 covers the Old and Middle Kingdoms; Volume 2, the New Kingdom; and Volume 3, the Late Period. Translations are generally (though not always) accurate, with brief commentaries and notes to assist the reader. An essential student reference. Reprinted in 2006 with new introductions.
Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature. 3 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975–1980.
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Murnane, William J. Texts from the Amarna Period in Egypt. Atlanta: Scholars, 1995.
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Up-to-date, accessible translations of all the principal texts from the Amarna period. An essential sourcebook for the documentary sources for a pivotal and much-studied period of Egyptian history. Aimed at the general reader, students, and teachers. Reliable and authoritative.
Murnane, William J. Texts from the Amarna Period in Egypt. Atlanta: Scholars, 1995.
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Parkinson, Richard B. Voices From Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Middle Kingdom Writings. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
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Accessible anthology of translations, mostly excerpts, of a wide variety of texts from the classic phase of ancient Egyptian writing. Texts are arranged thematically (cosmological, royal, administrative, religious, afterlife). Discussions of the historical context, literacy, and the uses of writing supplement the translations.
Parkinson, Richard B. Voices From Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Middle Kingdom Writings. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
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Parkinson, Richard B. The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems 1940–1640 BC. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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Anthology of thirteen key Middle Kingdom literary works in translation. Not intended as full critical editions, but as accessible modern translations presenting current understanding of the texts. Reliable edition for the general reader and undergraduate student.
Parkinson, Richard B. The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems 1940–1640 BC. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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Parkinson, Richard B. Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A Dark Side to Perfection. London: Continuum, 2002.
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Radical reassessment of the cultural role and legacy of Middle Kingdom literature. Uses techniques and insights from literary criticism to propose new interpretations of key texts, characterizing them as (sometimes subversive) entertainments rather than propaganda. Also includes analysis of intertext, literary style and material context and offers a model for contemporary reader engagement.
Parkinson, Richard B. Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A Dark Side to Perfection. London: Continuum, 2002.
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Wente, Edward F. Letters From Ancient Egypt. Atlanta: Scholars, 1990.
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Up-to-date, accessible translations of a broad range of royal and private letters from the third to the twenty-first dynasties. Provides illuminating insights into the daily concerns of the ancient Egyptians. Aimed at the general reader, students, and teachers. Reliable and authoritative.
Wente, Edward F. Letters From Ancient Egypt. Atlanta: Scholars, 1990.
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Art and Architecture

Ancient Egypt was a highly visual culture. Its artistic and architectural achievements are its most enduring and alluring legacy. Yet incisive, in-depth scholarship on Egyptian art and architecture remains something of a rarity. While many books illustrate and describe Egyptian paintings and monuments, relatively few seek to analyze and understand the underlying principles and methods of production. Smith 1981 is the best overview of the subject, despite its age. Another classic, Schäfer 1974, pioneered a more sophisticated interpretation of Egypt art. Robins 1997 builds on this tradition, looking closely at painting, relief, statuary, and the minor arts from an art-historical perspective. Museum exhibitions often focus on a particular period of Egyptian artistic production, and the resulting catalogues generally offer the best syntheses of up-to-date scholarship. Metropolitan Museum of Art 1999 (for the Old Kingdom) and Bourriau 1988 (for the Middle Kingdom) are excellent examples. Architecture has, if anything, been more neglected than art. Smith 1981 only scratches the surface. Arnold 1991 (for stone architecture) and Arnold 2003, by the leading scholar of ancient Egyptian architecture, fill important gaps in the literature. Rossi 2004 shows the potential of combining difference sources and approaches to achieve a more sophisticated and nuanced understanding of Egyptian architecture.

Arnold, Dieter. Building in Egypt: Pharaonic Stone Masonry. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
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Comprehensive and accessible survey of Egyptian stone architecture. Covers quarrying, dressing, transportation, and construction techniques. Excellent drawings, diagrams, and photographs. An essential sourcebook for the general reader and student.
Arnold, Dieter. Building in Egypt: Pharaonic Stone Masonry. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
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Arnold, Dieter. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. Translated by Sabine H. Gardiner and Helen Strudwick. London: I. B. Tauris, 2003.
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English translation of Lexikon der ägyptischen Baukunst, first published in 1994. Thorough and reliable introduction to Egyptian architecture and monuments, extensively illustrated with diagrams and plans. Each entry has a concise bibliography.
Arnold, Dieter. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. Translated by Sabine H. Gardiner and Helen Strudwick. London: I. B. Tauris, 2003.
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Bourriau, Janine. Pharaohs and Mortals: Egyptian Art in the Middle Kingdom. Cambridge, UK: Fitzwilliam Museum, 1988.
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Groundbreaking catalogue, published to accompany an exhibition at the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. Provides a scholarly introduction to the art of the Middle Kingdom, alongside catalogue entries, many on previously unpublished objects. Illustrations mostly black and white.
Bourriau, Janine. Pharaohs and Mortals: Egyptian Art in the Middle Kingdom. Cambridge, UK: Fitzwilliam Museum, 1988.
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Metropolitan Museum of Art. Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999.
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Monumental, lavishly illustrated survey, published to accompany an exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The most comprehensive treatment of the subject, with fifteen introductory essays on aspects of Old Kingdom art and an extensive bibliography complementing the individual catalogue entries.
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999.
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Robins, Gay. The Art of Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum, 1997.
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Comprehensive, chronological survey of ancient Egyptian art from its Predynastic origins to its final resurgence under the Ptolemies. Takes an art-historical approach, examining changes in proportion, composition, style, and subject matter and emphasizing the importance of context. With abundant color illustrations, it provides a useful companion volume to Smith 1981.
Robins, Gay. The Art of Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum, 1997.
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Rossi, Corinna. Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511550720Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Pioneering and illuminating academic study, exploring the use of numbers and geometry in Egyptian architecture and construction. Focuses on the pyramids. Attempts to synthesize archaeological, architectural, and historical approaches. Extensively illustrated. Aimed at advanced students and scholars.
Rossi, Corinna. Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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Schäfer, Heinrich. Principles of Egyptian Art. Translated and edited by John Baines. Oxford: Clarendon, 1974.
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English translation of Von ägyptischer Kunst, first published in 1919. Seminal work, the first to present a comprehensive and systematic interpretation of ancient Egyptian art and its underlying principles. Scholarly but accessible; many line drawings. Remains a fundamental work of scholarship, essential reading for the student and scholar.
Schäfer, Heinrich. Principles of Egyptian Art. Translated and edited by John Baines. Oxford: Clarendon, 1974.
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Smith, W. Stevenson. The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. 3d. ed. Rev. by William Kelly Simpson. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981.
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Comprehensive survey of the artistic production of ancient Egypt, illustrated with over four hundred black-and-white photographs of artifacts and monuments. Arranged chronologically, from the Predynastic to the Late Period, the work takes an art-historical approach, analyzing the continuities and changes in Egyptian art and architecture.
Smith, W. Stevenson. The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. 3d. ed. Rev. by William Kelly Simpson. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981.
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Pyramids, Tombs, and Temples

Tombs (including pyramids) and temples dominate the monumental record of ancient Egypt and have long been the subject of intense study. Pyramids, as the most visible and famous manifestations of pharaonic civilization, attract particular attention, ranging from the scholarly to the esoteric. Among the scores of books published on the subject, Lehner 1997 and Verner 2002 provide the most comprehensive and reliable surveys; both are written by archaeologists with extensive personal experience of excavating and surveying pyramid sites. Romer 2007 adopts both a more specific focus (the Great Pyramid) and a more general approach, synthesizing vast amounts of recent scholarship in an engaging and accessible study. Given the importance of funerary monuments in general for the study of ancient Egypt, it is surprising that few books have attempted an overview of the subject. Dodson and Ikram 2008 stands out for its systematic and authoritative treatment. The topic of temples in general, as opposed to specific monuments, has also been rather neglected in the Egyptological literature. Wilkinson 2000 fills the gap with an attractive and comprehensive introduction, while Arnold 1999 examines the final phase of temple building in ancient Egypt, attested to by the best-preserved monuments still standing in the Nile Valley. Bell 1985 remains a seminal example of scholarship on the underlying theology of ancient Egyptian temples, a subject that merits further study.

Arnold, Dieter. Temples of the Last Pharaohs. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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In-depth study of the last 1,300 years of temple-building in Egypt. Examines the development and characteristics of temple architecture from the late New Kingdom to the end of the Roman period. Scholarly but accessible. Excellent illustrations, many in color. Surprisingly small bibliography.
Arnold, Dieter. Temples of the Last Pharaohs. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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Bell, Lanny. “Luxor Temple and the Cult of the Royal ka.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 44 (1985): 251–294.
DOI: 10.1086/373148Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Seminal article, reassessing the cultic significance of Luxor Temple. Proposes the interpretation, now widely accepted, that the temple was dedicated to the royal ka, a key tenet of the doctrine of divine kingship. An authoritative and compelling example of religious and cultural scholarship.
Bell, Lanny. “Luxor Temple and the Cult of the Royal ka.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 44 (1985): 251–294.
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Dodson, Aidan, and Salima Ikram. The Tomb in Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2008.
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_8901Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Richly illustrated overview of royal and private funerary monuments from the first dynasty to the Roman period. First modern work to attempt a systematic coverage of the subject. Thematic chapters on mortuary beliefs, tomb construction, and decoration are followed by a comprehensive chronological survey of tombs and cemeteries. Extensive bibliography. An authoritative resource for the general reader, student, and scholar.
Dodson, Aidan, and Salima Ikram. The Tomb in Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2008.
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Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
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Richly illustrated, systematic survey of Egyptian pyramids, including their architecture, discovery, purpose, and methods of construction. Focus is on the Old Kingdom monuments but includes all later pyramids in Egypt and Sudan. Comprehensive bibliography is particularly valuable.
Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
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Romer, John. The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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Synthesis of current scholarship on the Great Pyramid, its conception, builders, materials, antecedents, planning, and construction. No new insights but a reliable general survey of the subject for the general reader. Bibliography is not comprehensive.
Romer, John. The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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Verner, Miroslav. The Pyramids. Translated by Steven Rendall. London: Atlantic, 2002.
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English translation of Pyramidy, tajemstvi minulosti, first published in 1997. Reliable and accessible overview of pyramids, their origins, construction, and associated funerary cults. Chronological survey includes every significant pyramid from the third dynasty to the Second Intermediate Period. Descriptive rather than interpretative but a useful sourcebook.
Verner, Miroslav. The Pyramids. Translated by Steven Rendall. London: Atlantic, 2002.
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Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2000.
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Attractively presented and richly illustrated overview of Egyptian temples. Synthesizes a huge amount of material in a single volume. Chapters cover temple origins and development, construction, meaning, religious functions, and a site-by-site guide to every major monument. Extensive list of further reading. Informative and accessible, aimed at the general reader and undergraduate student.
Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2000.
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Nubia

Throughout the pharaonic period, ancient Egyptians regarded much of the Nubian Upper Nile (in modern Sudan) as a natural extension of their own realm; Egyptology has followed suit, traditionally approaching Nubian studies as a subdiscipline. Many general works on ancient Egypt include Nubia, implicitly or explicitly, in their scope. Examples include Bard 1999, Redford 2001, and Shaw and Nicholson 2008 (all cited under Reference Works). O’Connor 1993 offers a spirited and radical overview of Nubian history, though still written by an Egyptologist. In recent years, Nubian studies has emerged as a discipline in its own right and has started to break free from an Egypto-centric approach. Edwards 2004 is a good example of this new tendency and an excellent, unbiased introduction to the subject. Welsby and Anderson 2004 combines an exhibition catalogue with up-to-date essays by leading scholars, thus enabling readers to visualize the material remains of ancient Nubia and Sudan alongside their interpretation.

Edwards, David N. The Nubian Past. London: Routledge, 2004.
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Chronological synthesis of the archaeology of Nubia and the Sudan from prehistory to the 19th century. The first major work on the subject for over three decades. Draws on the results of the latest research and fieldwork and new interpretative frameworks. Eschews an Egyptocentric approach. An essential reference for the student and scholar.
Edwards, David N. The Nubian Past. London: Routledge, 2004.
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O’Connor, David. Ancient Nubia: Egypt’s Rival in Africa. Philadelphia: University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 1993.
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Illustrated study, published to accompany an exhibition at the University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia. Takes an explicitly Nubian perspective, moving away from the usual Egypto-centric view of Nubian civilization. Includes controversial ideas and interpretations at variance with received scholarly opinion.
O’Connor, David. Ancient Nubia: Egypt’s Rival in Africa. Philadelphia: University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 1993.
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Welsby, Derek A., and Julie R. Anderson, eds. Sudan: Ancient Treasures. London: British Museum, 2004.
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Extensively illustrated, up-to-date overview of the archaeology of Sudan from the Palaeolithic to the early Islamic period, published to accompany an exhibition at the British Museum, London. Catalogue entries on individual objects are supplemented by essays by over fifty leading scholars covering all aspects of Sudanese and Nubian civilization.
Welsby, Derek A., and Julie R. Anderson, eds. Sudan: Ancient Treasures. London: British Museum, 2004.
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Egyptology

In recent decades, the discipline of Egyptology—for a long time relatively isolated from other social sciences—has become both more self-critical and more open to external perspectives and theoretical approaches. Davies and Friedman 1998 (and the television series it accompanied) opened up the methods of Egyptology to a general audience, and Wilkinson 2008 builds on the same multidisciplinary approach. Montserrat 2000 and MacDonald and Rice 2003 address an increasingly popular subject, namely the reception and impact of ancient Egypt on 20th-century Western and contemporary global culture. Shaw 2004 encapsulates Egyptology’s increasingly self-reflective tendency, while Bierbrier 2012 provides much of the raw material for writing the history of the discipline and its practitioners.

Bierbrier, Morris L., ed. Who Was Who in Egyptology. 4th rev. ed. London: Egypt Exploration Society, 2012.
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Definitive biographical index of the men and women who have shaped the subject of Egyptology from 1500 CE to the present day. Includes entries on Egyptologists, travelers, explorers, excavators, antiquities collectors and dealers, authors, and benefactors. Updated and expanded fourth edition includes numerous illustrations.
Bierbrier, Morris L., ed. Who Was Who in Egyptology. 4th rev. ed. London: Egypt Exploration Society, 2012.
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Davies, W. Vivian, and Renée Friedman. Egypt. London: British Museum, 1998.
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Lavishly illustrated review of the discipline of Egyptology at the end of the 20th century, written to accompany a television series. Focuses on key archaeological sites in Egypt and Sudan and on landmark scientific projects to explore Egyptological techniques and priorities. Useful general introduction for the lay reader.
Davies, W. Vivian, and Renée Friedman. Egypt. London: British Museum, 1998.
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MacDonald, Sally, and Michael Rice, eds. Consuming Ancient Egypt. London: UCL, 2003.
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Stimulating and insightful study of how ancient Egypt interacts with the living world and influences everyday lives. Fourteen essays by leading specialists cover the relationship between ancient Egypt and tourism, films, opera, books, architecture, museum-going, and advertising. One of the groundbreaking Encounters with Ancient Egypt series, examining the interaction of Egyptology with other disciplines and external perspectives.
MacDonald, Sally, and Michael Rice, eds. Consuming Ancient Egypt. London: UCL, 2003.
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Montserrat, Dominic. Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge, 2000.
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Original and provocative study of the controversial pharaoh Akhenaten and his reception by subsequent generations. A landmark analysis of the appropriation of history for cultural, political, and literary ends and the continuing fascination with ancient Egypt.
Montserrat, Dominic. Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge, 2000.
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Shaw, Ian. Ancient Egypt: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
DOI: 10.1093/actrade/9780192854193.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Stimulating, concise introduction to Egyptology, focusing on the archaeological and historical study of ancient Egypt and its reception and impact on Western society and thought. Takes a single, iconic artifact (the Narmer Palette) as the basis for discussions of key factors in Egyptology. The book’s compact size belies its illuminating approach to the subject.
Shaw, Ian. Ancient Egypt: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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Wilkinson, Richard H., ed. Egyptology Today. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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Edited collection of twelve essays by archaeologists, curators, scholars, and conservators, examining aspects of contemporary Egyptology, including how monuments are discovered, excavated, recorded, and preserved, and the study of Egyptian history, art, artifacts, and texts. Authoritative and accessible. Good bibliography. Useful overview of the discipline for students and the general reader.
Wilkinson, Richard H., ed. Egyptology Today. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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