Vietnam Final

#1
	-Anti War Movement begins to gain steam after the LBJ removes Westmoreland’s Enclave Strategy restrictions.

-On Christmas Eve 1965, LBJ stopped the bombing campaign of North Vietnam, asking for a truce. The DRV would not accept a truce, and bombing resumed shortly afterwards in late January 1966. While the truce failed, it’s goal of undermining the domestic Anti-War movement was at least initially successful.

The Anti-War Movement was made up of three groups, that believed that the war was morally, politically, or strategically wrong:
	- The pacifics, led by A.J. Muste, were made up of Quakers among other people and just opposed all war outright.
	-The "new left", made up of students, radical intellectuals, radical members of the civil rights movement. They were a new form of the liberalism found in the 1930s. It was energized by the civil rights student and free speech movements of the 1960s. They were also made up of SDS (Students for a Democratic Society) members. This group would issue a statement in 1962 called the Pt. Huron Statement, which criticized American life, attacking in loco parentis, segregation, anti-communism.
-The third group was called the Liberal Internationalists. These were members of the establishment (ie the government), who were politically liberal, cold warriors, supporters of containment, and initially Vietnam. They would become disillusioned with the war, and would become huge criticizers of the war, especially after the Fulbright accords. They said that if South Vietnam fell, it wouldn't affect us strategically all that much. They argued that the administration was skewing the war, and that the South was basically in a civil war, not a conventional war with the North. They were effective because they were reputable government officials.

	-The anti-war movement transcended the war, with sources and roots that went beyond the war in Vietnam. They used various techniques to destroy public consensus on the war. They protested the draft, (Self mutilation, moving to canada, burning draft cards etc) argued the draft was making african americans into cannon fodder.

	-The Phoenix program and CORDS were strongly opposed by the Anti-War movement, who believed it to be morally wrong. It did prove effective in the end however, killing over 20k Viet Cong.

	-The Anti-War Movement vehemently opposed the Nixon administration’s campaign in neutral Cambodia, who saw it as a violation of their neutrality. Nixon retorted that the operations there had saved countless American and South Vietnamese Lives.

	-During the Nixon Administration, to combat the now mainstream Anti-War Movement, Nixon adopted the strategy of Vietnamization, which basically said that ARVN would do most of the fighting from now on. Nixon’s battle against the Anti-War Movement would continue throughout his presidency, who he said was a vocal minority that was un-American. He claimed to represent the “Great Silent Majority” of Americans, who supported the war, but silently. By this time, the movement had become more centrist, and now included everyday individuals instead of just pacifists and hippies. Lots of religious overtones began to be used.

	-During the 1972 Presidential Election, Nixon beat out George McGovern, who seemed to appeal to the Anti-War Movement. This victory further enforced Nixon’s rhetoric about the Great Silent Majority. Later that year, he would launch the Christmas bombing campaign, in which 360 thousand tons of explosives were dropped on North Vietnam and NVA positions. The Anti-War Movement was disgusted, calling it a violation of human rights, and detrimental to the ongoing Paris Peace Talks.

Essay Form of Question 1- Discuss the anti-Vietnam War movement, including its various components, its tactics, and its impact on the war.

There were many reasons people in the U.S. opposed the Vietnam War, including the Draft, moral beliefs, and how it was portrayed in the media. The opposition to the war coincided with the rise of the free speech and civil rights movements and was most heavily felt in educational institutions. Many young Americans argued that the U.S. had imperialistic goals In Vietnam and were not afraid to voice their opinions. Civilian deaths also had a huge impact on those protesting the war, such as the death of Thuch Quang Duc (self-immolation) on June 11th 1963. It was also the first war of its kind when it came to media coverage. It was televised nightly and pictured of death and destruction were common sight.

When the U.S. began its bombing campaign dubbed Rolling Thunder in 1964, U.S. anti-war sentiment grew. Dissenters in congress began to privately raise questions and sit-ins on college campuses multiplied. Johnson felt he needed to address the growing negative outlook on the war, and on April 5th 1964 addressed the world from Johns Hopkins. He invited Ho Chi Minh to begin negotiations and de-escalate the violence, but neither side was willing to make concessions. It had little to no effect, and shortly afterwards the war became “Americanized”. When Johnson refused to declare a state of emergency and insisted that the U.S. was only responding to Vietnamese aggression, the people began to lose faith the government, something known as the credibility gap.

Many notable people began to speak out against the war, including Martin Luther King and Senator Fulbright. By 1966 Johnson was facing increased criticism on both sides of the war. Those who believed he wasn’t doing enough were deemed hawks (many accepting the Domino Theory), while those who favored an end to the war were known as doves. There were several sub classifications to the doves- Pacifists, The New Left, and Liberal Internationalists. People were protesting the drafts, they would tear up their cards, dodge it completely, or become conscientious objectors. In August of 1967, Johnson instituted a 10% surtax to cover the cost of the war. This had a dramatic impact on sentiments towards the war.

Criticism began growing within Jonson’s own administration. Ball and Bundy left, and McNamara became a dove. This change greatly affected Johnson as McNamara was one of the major influences in Johnson’s escalation, he was even known as an architect of the war. He began speaking out against Westmoreland’s attempts to acquire additional troops. He left his position in 1967 and was replaced with Clark Clifford.

There was a huge backlash in the media over the Tet Offensive. In 1967 Westmoreland said the end to the war was near, but this was obviously false. Many who had doubted the war used the conflict to come out against the war. Many wrote that the war was unwinnable, and at best it would be considered a stale mate. On March 31st 1968, Johnson declared he was ready to negotiate and would not be running for reelection.

During 1968 there were over 200 anti-war protests in the U.S., some of them turning violent (Columbia and Texas). In June Bobby Kennedy was assassinated, a major psychological blow to the country. There were fights in Congress between the anti-war and pro-war factions.  The hard liners won out and called for a continued aggressive stance towards communists in North Vietnam. A huge anti-war protest erupted outside of the convention with attendees threatening to poison the city’s water and confronting police. The Republicans used a platform of cracking down on rioters and protestors to aid in the election of Nixon.

Nixon took a hawkish view of the war but promised the people a successful end. He wanted a gradual withdrawal so it would not appear as though the U.S. had been defeated. He wanted to implement “Vietnamization”, which would return the war to the South Vietnamese Army’s hands. In 1969 he gave a speech announcing his plan, and denouncing the anti-war movement. He claimed he spoke for the “silent majority”. On October 15th and November 15th, nationwide moratoriums were held by anti-war candlelight services, memorials, and marches. The tone of the movement had shifted to one of the counter culture, to a religious, quiet, and peaceful protest. It was a shift to the middle.

When Nixon approved a military venture into Cambodia, there was immediate backlash.  The senate voted to repeal the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in 1970, and insisted all troops be withdrawn by 71. The pardoning of William Calley, who was convicted of murdering 20 civilians at My Lai, resulted in a large public outcry. After the Pentagon Papers were released, and the extent of the lies told regarding Vietnam revealed, 71% of Americans now viewed the war as a mistake. The sentiment at home was beginning to affect the troops and caused poor moral. Soldiers began refusing to go on patrols and follow orders. When the end to the war finally came, no one really felt it was a victory. Many who had been involved greatly regretted their actions. Controversies regarding the chances of the U.S. to win and the justifiability of the war continue today.




Essay Form of Question 2- Describe the Forces, events, and personalities involved in France’s conquest of S.E. Asia from the Tayson Rebellion in 1773 to the end of Tu Duc’s reign and the Treaty of 1883.
In the late 1700’s Vietnam was divided. The Trinh family of the North and the Nguyen of the South each held some form of power, and were constantly fighting each other for total control. While they were fighting, and the Mandarins who held governmental power were becoming ever more corrupt, the general population grew angry. Three brothers from the village of Tay Son began a rebellion which quickly gained wide support. They were actually quite successful, and defeated the armies of the Nguyen and then that of the Trinh. The eldest of the Nguyen brothers, Nguyen Nhac, declared himself emperor.

Nguyen Anh, a surviving son of the Nguyen leaders had fled. Pigneaux, a French Catholic, promised to help aid him in his goal to regain control of Vietnam. Pigneaux sailed to France in 1787 to persuade the king Louis XVI to provide military support and to extend his empire into Vietnam. France didn’t possess the money to have a colony in Vietnam, but decided to proceed anyway because of the British threat. Unfortunately the plans fell through due to the French Revolution. Pigneaux did find support from merchants in India, who provided ships and soldiers.

The war between Anh and the Nguyen brothers lasted for ten years, but Anh eventually won when he captured Hanoi. The Nguyen Dynasty was officially established in 1802 (and would last until 1945 with Bao Dai), and Anh declared himself Emperor Gia Long. He tolerated Catholics, and even employed some Europeans in his court as advisors.

Minh Mong replaced Gia Long as emperor in 1817, and reigned until 1840. He was less inclined to accept Catholics and passed a law declaring that they couldn’t practice in Vietnam. His successor Thieu Tri and his son Tu Duc were more isolationist, also pressing the repression of Catholicism, perceiving the Westerners as a threat, following events such as the Lê Văn Khôi revolt when a French missionary, Fr. Joseph Marchand, encouraged local Catholics to revolt in an attempt to install a Catholic emperor. Catholics, both Vietnamese and foreign-born, were persecuted in retaliation. Trade with the West slowed during this period. There were frequent uprisings against the Nguyens and these acts were soon being used as excuses for France to invade Vietnam. However, the French interest in Vietnam changed with their politics. In 1830 the monarchy was replaced by a semi republican government and showed little interest in Vietnam.
When Napoleon the third came to power in 1851, he wished to restore the French empire. In 1857 he authorized a military expedition under General Genouilly in retaliation for the Jesuit persecution. The expedition was a disaster and revealed how little the French knew of South East Asia. He sailed south and captured the city of Gia Dinh, eventually by 1860 expanding their territory into what is known as Cochinchina. Tu Duc signed a treaty with the French in 1859 granting them several cities, but rebels continued to resist. The Prussian War in the1870’s dealt French imperialism a major blow. Interest in Vietnam waned again while nationalism was at its highest.

The native affairs officer Francis Garnier renewed interest in Vietnam. He sought reconciliation of French and Vietnamese culture and in 1866 organized an expedition up the Mekong River, hoping to use it for transportation and trade. The mission was unsuccessful as there were far too many hazards to make it a worthwhile venture. He came to Saigon in 1872, and published the Voyage of Exploration in 1873. He led another expedition up the Red River, but was ambushed and killed by Black Flag pirates. The new governor of Cochin wanted a new armed expedition and sent Henri Riviere. They captured Hanoi (in 1873 and 1882).

The Treaty of Huế, concluded on 25 August 1883 between France and Vietnam, recognized a French protectorate over Annam and Tonkin.The emperor and his ministers were to have no opportunity to discuss the terms of the treaty, or to haggle over individual clauses. They must accept the treaty in full, or the terrible vengeance of France would fall upon them. Terms of the treaty: The Vietnamese recognised the legitimacy of the French occupation of Cochinchina, accepted a French protectorate both for Annam and Tonkin and promised to withdraw their troops from Tonkin. Vietnam, its royal house and its court survived, but under French direction. Large swathes of territory were also transferred from Annam to Cochinchina and Tonkin. The French cancelled the country's debts (Article 26), but required in return the cession of the southern province of Bình Thuận, which was annexed to the French colony of Cochinchina (Article 2). At the same time the northern provinces of Nghệ An, Thanh Hóa and Hà Tĩnh were transferred to Tonkin, where they would come under direct French oversight. In return the French undertook to drive out the Black Flags from Tonkin and to guarantee freedom of commerce on the Red River (Article 23). These were hardly concessions, since they were planning to do both anyway.[2]Considered overly harsh in French diplomatic circles, the treaty was never ratified in France, and was replaced on 6 June 1884 with the slightly milder “Patenotre Treaty” or 'Treaty of Protectorate', which formed the basis for French rule in Vietnam for the next seven decades.


Question 3 - Discuss the Nixon administration’s efforts to achieve "peace with honor" in Vietnam from 1969 through 1973.

Nixon first promised “victorious peace” during his campaign which he later changed to “honorable peace” right before he took office in 1969.  He vowed not to allow the Viet war to ruin his presidency as it did LBJs.

Kissenger - intelligence in US military, PHD in politics, went to Harvard

*Nix. and Kiss. controlled foreign policy from 69-74 despite being very different people and didn’t trust each other

Their Plan: required peace in Viet, needed gradual withdrawal so as not to appear defeated, wanted to deal with foreign policy and work around bureaucracy, secretive, back channel negotiations, understood peace would take time
	-Wanted to isolate N.V. by befriending China and Russia, increased bombing in N and 	attack Cambodia
	-Combine diplomacy and assault in attempt to negotiate with N.V.

March 1969 - Ordered top secret op. under the code name MENU, bombing campaign (B52s) aimed at N.V. and sanctuaries in Cambodia
	-more than 100,000 tons of bombs dropped
	-not made public until after it was almost over b/c Nix thought Am ppl would perceive it as another escalation of the war, violating his promises to end the war

Nix. sought to undercut anti-war sentiment by “Vietnamization” of the war, ended escalation of the war, goal was to have S.V. self-sufficient in 2 years
	-immediate withdrawal of 25,000 troops

Nov 1969 - Nix. announced “Vietnamization” as official policy to US people
	-”peace with honor”
	-called anti-war protestors unpatriotic

Early 1970 - “Vietnamization” in full swing, ARVN from 500,000 to 1 million (US armed and funded)

Spring 1970 - Nix. withdrew soldiers (while he planned invasion of Camb.)

April 1970 - Nix. announces US invasion of Camb. and attacking Comm sanctuaries; created top secret plan to spy

May 1970 - Senate unanimously voted to repeal Tonkin Resolution
Early 1971 - Nixon withdraws another 100,000 troops
Feb 1971 - Nixon admin authorized invasion of Laos
1971 - Anti-war sentiment at all time high, soldiers refused to go out on night patrol

Nixon decided if he won reelection in 72, he would end the war
	-He authorized Kissenger to propose to Le Duc Tho that if the N.V. called ceasefire, US 	would be out in 7 months (if they released POWs)
	-US had abandoned concept of mutual withdrawal
	-Tho receptive, insisted US abandon Tu gov’t in favor of coalition gov’t
	-Nixon declined because it would not be “peace with honor”

1972 - Easter Offensive; Hanoi had been building up resources since Tet, NVA attacked DMZ through Camb., An Loc and Dak fell to Comm
	-N.V. offensive enraged Nixon; Nix sent Air Force and Marines in B-52s to Hanoi
	-ARVN est. front in Saigon

1972 - Xmas bombing campaign began (operation Linebacker), ended mid Jan., Nix wanted to appease Hawks

Feb 1973 - US and Viet. sign peace agreement, Tu tried to block it (Kiss. threatened to withdraw US support and Tu gave up)
	-War continued for 2 more years w/o the US

1973 - War Powers Act requires Prez. to get approval within 60 days of sending troops anywhere
	-No more undeclared war

*Watergate was happening by now

1974 - Tu gov’t under attack from N.V. and asked for US aid


Essay Form-


Nixon, a child of Quakers, was a poster boy for anti-communism. He was a typical Midwest conservative, he was also a paranoid loner, but he promised the American people a successful conclusion to the war in Vietnam. He and Kissinger dominated foreign policy 69-74 despite being very different people and not trusting each other. They both dreamed of a new world order, and their plan required peace in Vietnam. They needed to gradually withdrawal so there was no appearance of defeat. They understood peace would take time but believed they could isolate North Vietnam by befriending Russia and China. They tried to combine this diplomacy with aggression, and increased the bombing in the north as well as launching an attack on Cambodia.

In March of 1969, a top secret bombing campaign was launched, aimed at the communist sanctuaries in Cambodia. B-52’s flew over 3,000 sorties and dropped more than 100,000 tons of bombs. The mission was not revealed to the public until it was nearly over. This of course led to a significant amount of backlash at home. To undercut the Anti-war feelings, Nixon developed a plan to build up the ARVN, so that they could take over the defense of South Vietnam within two years. The policy became known as "Vietnamization. He ended escalation with an immediate withdrawal of 25,000 troops, which gave Americans hope. His policies towards Russia and China helped to decrease global tensions, although he was disappointed they continued to supply the North Vietnamese.

In November of 1969, Nixon gave a speech informing the U.S. people of Vietnamization and that he was hopeful of declaring peace while retaining honor. He also attacked the anti-war movement as unpatriotic, and claimed that he spoke for the “silent majority”. By early 1970, Vietnamization was in full swing. ARVN had increased from 500,000 to 1 million men (both U.S. armed and funded).

In 1970 a coup in Cambodia overthrew Sihanouk, who championed neutrality. He was replaced by General Lon Nol who allied himself with the U.S. and South Vietnamese. On April 30th, 1970, President Nixon took this opportunity to launch a massive bombing campaign against communist sanctuaries along the Cambodia/Vietnam border. He claimed it was successful because it spoiled planned attacks against the south, and gave more time for negotiation. In reality, it destabilized Cambodia. The Khmer Rouge gained support and eventually defeated the government of Lon Nol. In the spring, he withdrew an additional 150,000 soldiers.

This invasion sparked nationwide U.S. protests as Nixon had promised to deescalate the American involvement. Reacting to the outcry, the Senate voted to repeal the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in May. The Hatfield-McGovern Resolution (withdrawing all troops by 71) failed, and the Cooper-Church amendment (removing all administrators from Cambodia by June) was already enacted by Nixon. Nixon approved the Houston Plan, a top secret spying mission against those in the anti-war movement. The pardoning of William Calley and the release of the Pentagon Papers rose anti-war sentiment to an all-time high. As peace protests spread across the United States, disillusionment and ill-discipline grew in the soldiers, they began fragging and desertion.

In early 1971, Nixon announced the withdrawal of an additional 100,000 troops. He also approved an invasion into Laos in 1971. The troops had been sent to attack the Ho Chi Minh Trail and the Plain of Jars. The Northern Vietnamese destroyed the two Southern divisions that were sent.

The war was the central issue of the 1972 U.S. presidential election. Nixon's opponent, George McGovern, campaigned on a platform of withdrawal from Vietnam. Nixon authorized Kissenger to propose to Le Duc Tho that if the N.V. called a ceasefire, the U.S. would be gone in 7 months (if they released POWs). The U.S. had abandoned concept of mutual withdrawal. Tho was receptive, but insisted the U.S. abandon the Thieu government in favor of coalition government. Nixon declined because it would not be “peace with honor”.
Vietnamization was again tested by the Easter Offensive of 1972, a massive conventional NVA invasion of South Vietnam. The NVA and Viet Cong quickly overran the Northern provinces and in coordination with other forces attacked from Cambodia, threatening to cut the country in half. U.S. troop withdrawals continued. But American airpower came to the rescue with Operation Linebacker, and the offensive was halted. However, it became clear that without American airpower South Vietnam could not survive. The last remaining American ground troops were withdrawn by the end of March 1973; U.S. naval and air forces remained in the Gulf of Tonkin

To show his support for South Vietnam and force Hanoi back to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered Operation Linebacker II, a massive bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong 18–29 December 1972. The offensive destroyed much of the remaining economic and industrial capacity of North Vietnam. Simultaneously Nixon pressured Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement, threatening to conclude a bilateral peace deal and cut off American aid.

On 15 January 1973, Nixon announced the suspension of offensive action against North Vietnam. The Paris Peace Accords on "Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam" were signed on 27 January 1973, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. A cease-fire was declared across North and South Vietnam. U.S. prisoners of war were released. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces. The War Powers Act was created, requiring the president to gain approval within 60 days of sending troops in hopes there would be no future conflicts of this magnitude.


4) Describe and evaluate the Kennedy administration's policies toward Vietnam from 1961- 1963.

   JFK elected 1960
-Major architect in 2nd phase of the Indochinese War
-Famous “Call to Arms” speech and “New Frontiers” speech
-Made international affairs a priority instead of domestic policies
-Tripled spending on security and missile research
-Vietnam was “Last Stronghold” against Communism

    JFK and Diem got along really well (anymore on relationship?)
-Both were Catholic
-Personal friend of Diem, made acquaintance in 1950s

    Robert S. McNamara
-American businessman who became secretary of Defense under JFK
-Architect of Vietnam War
-Modernized Pentagon

    JFK and Bobby showed interest in new kind of guerilla warfare/counterinsurgency and nation building.
-by 1962 more than 10,000 green berets
	-1960 CIA began recruiting Huang tribes men
		-staged hit and run raids against the Pathet Lao
-1968 60,000 Huang tribes men under arms

    Kennedy sent Taylor and Roston to Vietnam on a fact finding mission.
-Reported back that the situation was dire.  The Diem regime was out of touch with
the people and interfering in military affairs.
-Recommended military aid.
-Taylor wanted 8,000 man military and engineers, as well as 2 combat brigades.

    (I think) Harriman and Bowles said Diem could never gain favor of the people.
-    Vietnam simply was not strategically worth the effort and they wanted to put    South Vietnam in the Geneva Accords and Neutralize S.E. Asia.
                        	-Kennedy refused for the sake of the allies.

    2 prong strategy 1962
	-Strategic Hamlets (by Sir Robert Thompson) were placed in areas where the VC were   active.  Rounded up peasants into guarded area with motes and search lights. Had support from the CIA and promised higher standard of living.  This in fact was not the case.  The Communist were in not being “imported” like they had thought but indigenous.
-(Can’t find other part of the strategy)


1962 the US stepped up its military program
	-Small arms, soldiers, armor, aircrafts were being sent
	-Scare tactics like helicopters

(Date?) 3 high ranking ARVN officers: Tran Van Don, Duong Van Minh, Nguyen Thanh
	-Wanted to replace Diem and Hnu.
	-Contacted US and asked nicely
	-All 3 were on Nhu’s hit list
	-The news arrived in D.C. while everyone was out.  Everyone is out for vacation in August.  Hislman, Forretal, and Harriman were there.  They said they were not supportive of coup, but that if there was one it would be supported as long as the new govt. is anti-communist.
	-Everyone returned and a meeting was held.  Kennedy waivered but let the decision stay.

1963 Generals arrived and demanded that Diem and Nhu step down.
	-Brothers escaped through tunnels to a Catholic Church.  They were later caught and shot to death in the back of a personal carrier.
	-Celebrations were held in many major cities.

Kennedy was very upset by the news of Diem’s death.  He himself would be assassinated 3 weeks later.

Kennedy and his administration were anti-communist.  They sought to stand strong and fight communism in S.E. Asia and keep it from being a part of the “Domino Effect”.  Their nation building was flawed in many ways because they failed to understand the Vietnamese population and its culture.  The backing of the Diem regime was a major flaw and the policies under it such as the strategic hamlets or anti-buddhist mentality led to many problems and instability in the region.



Essay Version-

In the 1960 U.S. presidential election, Senator John F. Kennedy defeated incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon. He made foreign affairs his priority, and began focused on the events unfolding in Europe and Latin America. In 1961, Kennedy faced a three-part crisis- the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the construction of the Berlin Wall, and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement. These crises made Kennedy believe that another failure on the part of the United States to gain control and stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies and his own reputation. Kennedy was thus determined to prevent a communist victory in Vietnam by any means. During his time in office he tripled spending on security and missile research.

In May 1961, U.S. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson visited Saigon and when he returned told Kennedy that Diem was going to be an asset in Vietnam. Kennedy supported him, they were both Catholic and developed a friendly relationship. Kennedy's policy toward South Vietnam rested on the assumption that Diệm and his forces had to ultimately defeat the guerrillas on their own. He was against the deployment of American combat troops and observed that "to introduce U.S. forces in large numbers there today, while it might have an initially favorable military impact, would almost certainly lead to adverse political and, in the long run, adverse military consequences." The quality of the South Vietnamese military, however, remained poor. Poor leadership, corruption, and political promotions all played a part in weakening the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN).

One major issue Kennedy raised was whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the United States. Although Kennedy stressed long-range missile parity with the Soviets, he was also interested in using special forces for counterinsurgency warfare in Third World countries threatened by communist insurgencies. Although they were originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional Soviet invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by special forces such as the Green Berets would be effective. The CIA used similar tactics, arming Mong Tribesmen to strike at the Pathet Lao and Ho Chi Minh Trail.

Kennedy sent Taylor and Rostow to Vietnam on a fact finding mission. They reported back that the situation was dire.  The Diem regime was out of touch with the people and interfering in military affairs. They recommended military aid. Taylor wanted 8,000 man military and engineers, as well as 2 combat brigades. Kennedy refused to send troops, but agreed on sending more advisors. By November 1963, Kennedy had more than doubled the number of advisors present in Vietnam. Harriman and Bowles disapproved of these measures. They claimed Vietnam simply was not strategically worth the effort and they wanted to put South Vietnam in the Geneva Accords and Neutralize S.E. Asia. Kennedy refused for the sake of his credibility with allies.

The Strategic Hamlet Program was implemented in 1962. This joint U.S.-South Vietnamese program attempted to resettle the rural population into fortified camps. It involved some forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantry would be isolated from Communist insurgents. It was hoped these new communities would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them and the central government. The program assumed that communism was being forced upon the peasants, not that the uprising was indigenous.

In 1962, the U.S. stepped up funding and support in S.V. By ’63, the Viet Cong had regained some of its former power, and now controlled some areas of Vietnam outright. In 1962, they had begun to take an offensive stance towards Diem and the Americans. They were victorious at the Battle of Ap Bac in January of ’63. Diem became more aggressive and paranoid. 3 high ranking ARVN officers: Tran Van Don, Duong Van Minh, and Nguyen Khanh wanted to replace Diem and his brother Nhu (they were all being targeted by him). They contacted the U.S. and asked if they would be supported if an attempt was made to overthrow Diem. The news arrived in D.C. while everyone was out for vacation in August.  Hilsman, Forrestal, and Harriman were there.  They said they were not supportive of coup, but that if there was one it would be supported as long as the new government was anti-communist. When everyone returned, they were not happy but let the decision stand.

The coup took place in 1963. When the Generals arrived and demanded that Diem and Nhu step down, the brothers retreated into tunnels underneath the palace. They were later caught and shot to death in the back of a personal carrier.  Kennedy was very upset by the news of Diem’s death.  He himself would be assassinated 3 weeks later.

Kennedy and his administration were anti-communist.  They sought to stand strong and fight communism in S.E. Asia and keep it from being a part of the “Domino Effect”.  Their nation building was flawed in many ways because they failed to understand the Vietnamese population and its culture.  The backing of the Diem regime was a major flaw and the policies under it such as the strategic hamlets or anti-buddhist mentality led to many problems and instability in the region.






#5-
CORDS (Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support) was a pacification program of the governments of South Vietnam and the United States during the Vietnam War. The program was created on 9 May 1967, and included military and civilian components of both governments. The objective of CORDS was to gain support for the government of South Vietnam from its rural population which was largely under the influence or controlled by the insurgent communist forces of the Viet Cong and the People's Army of Vietnam (North Vietnamese Army).

Unlike earlier pacification programs in Vietnam, CORDS is seen by many authorities as a "successful integration of civilian and military efforts" to combat the insurgency. By 1970, 93 percent of the rural population of South Vietnam was believed by the United States to be living in "relatively secure" villages. CORDS had been extended to all 44 provinces of South Vietnam, and the communist insurgency was much reduced.[1] Critics, however, have described the pacification programs and CORDS in terms such as "the illusion of progress".[2] CORDS was, in the estimation of its first leader, Robert W. Komer, "too little, too late."[3]
With the withdrawal of U.S. military forces and many civilian personnel, CORDS was abolished in February 1973. CORD's temporary successes were eroded in the 1970s, as the war became primarily a struggle between the conventional military forces of South and North Vietnam rather than an insurgency.

In February 1966, President Lyndon Johnson at a meeting with South Vietnamese and American leaders in Hawaii promoted the concept of pacification to "get the gospel of pacification carved into the hearts and minds of all concerned."[9] Shortly after that he appointed CIA official and National Security Council member Robert W. Komer ("Blowtorch Bob") as his special assistant for supervising pacification. Komer's challenge was to unite the U.S government agencies—the military, Department of State, CIA, and the Agency for International Development—involved in pacification projects into a unified effort. Komer recommended the responsibility for pacification be vested in MAC/V, headed by General Westmoreland, through a civilian deputy who would head the U.S. pacification effort commanding both U.S. military and civilian personnel. Although his proposal was unpopular in all the agencies, Komer, with the support of Johnson, pressed forward. As a halfway measure, the Office of Civil Operations (OCO) was set up with civilian leadership in November 1966, to coordinate all civilian pacification programs. OCO failed but strengthened Komer and Johnson's view that MAC/V leadership of the pacification program was essential. Komer believed that only the military had sufficient personnel and resources to undertake such an ambitious program

Komer argued that the pacification success desired by President Johnson could only be achieved by integrating three tasks. The first and most basic requirement for pacification had to be security, because the rural population had to be kept isolated from the insurgent forces of the Viet Cong and North Vietnam. If this was achieved, the insurgents’ forces had to be weakened both by destroying their infrastructure among the population and by developing programs to win over the people’s sympathy for the South Vietnamese government and the U.S. forces. The third point emphasized by Komer was that the new strategy had to be applied on a large scale in order to turn around what had been up until then, at best, an indecisive war.[11] organizationally, these goals implicitly required that efforts be concentrated under a single command. In Komer's view, only the U.S. military had the resources and personnel to implement a large-scale pacification plan. After initial reservations, Westmoreland agreed with the plan, but civilian agencies still balked. Johnson overruled them, and on 9 May 1967, CORDS was created. Komer chose a military officer as his deputy and repeated the pattern of having either a civilian in charge of every component of CORDS with a military deputy or, alternatively, a military commander with a civilian deputy. He consolidated all the diverse pacification and civil affairs programs in Vietnam—military and civilian—under the authority of CORDS.


A major priority of CORDS was to destroy the Viet Cong's political and support infrastructure which extended into most villages of the country. The Phoenix Program was CORDS' most controversial activity. Seven hundred American advisers assisted the South Vietnamese government in identifying, capturing, trying, imprisoning, and often executing members of the Viet Cong infrastructure. Between 1968 and 1972, the Phoenix program, according to CORDS statistics, neutralized 81,740 Viet Cong of whom 26,369 were killed. CORDS also placed emphasis on improving South Vietnam's support and implementation of the Chieu Hoi program (encouraging defectors from the Viet Cong), rural development programs, and generating fewer refugees from the war and taking better care of those who had become refugees. Komer's successor as head of CORDS, and the new head of MAC/V, General Creighton Abrams, persuaded the South Vietnamese government to embark on an accelerated pacification program. The casualties suffered by the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese army, during Tet and their subsequent offensives in 1968, enabled CORDS to strengthen its programs in the countryside.[20] With the war coming to rely more on the conventional military forces of South and North Vietnam, pacification under CORDS became less relevant. After the withdrawal from Vietnam of U.S. military forces and many civilian personnel, CORDS was terminated in February 1973.[23]

CORDS was successful in several ways. The program successfully integrated U.S. military and civilian efforts to defeat the insurgency in South Vietnam. Communication and cooperation between the U.S. and South Vietnamese government improved; CORDS revitalized several earlier failed attempts at pacification; CORDS leaders Komer and Colby persuaded South Vietnam to take the offensive in rural areas after Tet to challenge the long primacy of the Viet Cong in many areas of the country; and CORDS had some impact of persuading the South Vietnamese government to replace corrupt and incompetent officials.[24]
However, the CORDS pacification programs "could not overcome the South Vietnamese government's defective execution of plans and programs, its omnipresent corruption, or its inability to develop a sturdy, self-sustaining political base."[25] In light of the outcome of the war, CORDS founder Komer attributed the eventual failure of pacification to “too little, too late”.[26] Richard Hunt concluded similarly in his book Pacification: The American Struggle for Vietnam's Hearts and Minds that "the advocates of pacification hoped it would cause a fundamental transformation of South Vietnam. But even if that transformation had occurred it would most likely have taken too long and would in any case have exhausted the patience of the American people, inevitably eroding political support in the United States."[27]

This is my outline for essay 5.  I pulled from my notes and the essay above as well as a few other sources.  Hopefully it helps!

Essay 5

After failure of ill-fated Strategic Hamlet program in 1962, the US focused on the ‘main force war’ and abandoned the notion pacification until 1966 with CORDS; it was a success this time

Feb 1966 - LBJ at meeting w/ SV and Am leaders in Hawaii promised pacification campaign; appointed CIA official Rob. Komer as supervisor of campaign, he needed to unite gov’t agencies
	-Komer recommended MACV, Westmor. led the unique hybrid milit./ civil. organization

Nov 1966 - Office of Civil Operations (OCO) set up to coordinate civilian pacif. programs, failed
	-Komer believed only the milit. had the ppl and resources to make CORDS work

Komer - Argued pacifi. could only be achieved w/ 3 tasks:
	-Security: rural pop had to be kept isolated from insurgents of VC
	-Insurgents had to be weakened by destroying infrast. and develp. programs to gain 	sympathy for US and SV forces
	-Strategy had to be large scale to undermine notion that was war was indecisive
*required efforts be concentrated under single command (had to be milit.); Westmor. agreed eventually but civilian agencies still balked

CORDS - Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support; pacification program of gov’t of SV and US
	-Created May 9th, 1967; included milit. and civilian components of both govt’s
	-Encompassed previous pacification programs: Rural Development Cadre, State 	Department, AID, USIA, and CIA
	-Objective: gain support for gov’t of SV from rural pop. which was under influence or 	controlled by insurgents of VC and NVA (hearts and minds campaign

Komer chose a military officer as his deputy and repeated the pattern of having either a civilian in charge of every component of CORDS with a military deputy or, alternatively, a military commander with a civilian deputy.

Jan 1968 - Tet Offensive (SV rallied to put down NVA): casualties suffered by the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese army, during Tet and their subsequent offensives in 1968 allowed CORDS to strengthen in countryside

1968 - General Creighton Abrams became commander of war in Viet.; supported counter-insurgency, unconventional warfare (unlike Westmor.); wanted to focus on pacification

Nov. 1968 - Accelerated Pacification Campaign begins; “ clear and hold” strategy, operated by people in villages familiar w/ VC, destroyed VC infrastructure, repaired roads and bridges, built schools

1968 - Phoenix Program: most controversial activity of CORDS, also most successful, destroy VC polit. and support infrastr.
	-700 Am advisors assisted SV gov’t in identifying, capturing, trying, imprisoning, 	executing VC
	-PRUs (Provincial Recon Unit): small paramilit. units, SV guerillas, called in to arrest 	VC
	-PICs (Provincial Interrogation Center): overseen by CIA, run by SV Special Forces, VC 	rounded up and tortured
	-Between 68-72, over 80,000 VC were neutralized and over 25,000 were killed

1969 - Chieu Hoi; initiative of SV to get VC to desert, used propaganda and threats
	-rural development programs, and generating fewer refugees from the war and taking better care of those who had become refugees.

Feb 1973 - With the war coming to rely more on the conventional military forces of South and North Vietnam, pacification under CORDS became less relevant. After the withdrawal from Vietnam of U.S. military forces and many civilian personnel, CORDS was terminated

How CORDS was a success:
	-Integrated milit. and civil. efforts to defeat insurgency in SV
	-US and SV communication and cooperation improved
	-Revitalized several earlier failed pacif. attempts
	-Komer and Colby persuaded South Vietnam to take the offensive in rural areas after Tet 	to challenge the long primacy of the Viet Cong in many areas of the country
	-had some impact of persuading the South Vietnamese government to replace corrupt and 	incompetent officials

CORDS was not a complete success, critics described pacification programs and CORDS in terms such as "the illusion of progress"
	-Not a sustainable program after the US withdrew forces, not a long term solution

CORDS pacification programs "could not overcome the South Vietnamese government's defective execution of plans and programs, its omnipresent corruption, or its inability to develop a sturdy, self-sustaining political base.”

CORDS founder Komer attributed the eventual failure of pacification to “too little, too late”

Richard Hunt: "The advocates of pacification hoped it would cause a fundamental transformation of South Vietnam. But even if that transformation had occurred it would most likely have taken too long and would in any case have exhausted the patience of the American people, inevitably eroding political support in the United States."


Potential Short Answers

Tet Offensive - Jan - Feb 1968; one of the largest military campaigns of the Vietnam War, launched on January 30, 1968 by forces of the V.C. against S.V.  Comm thought Tet would lead to the diplom. talks and help estab. coalition gov’t in S. and removal of US troops.
-Feb 1968 - NVA/ V.C. hit major cities, took US by surprise.  V.C. couldn’t follow up on their successes.  V.C. never recovered from Tet.  ARVN had rallied to put down NVA/V.C.

Khe Sanh - January 21, 1968, PAVN (Viet Minh) surrounded and shelled  US Marine fortress.  For 77 days, U.S. Marines and S.V. fought off an intense siege of the garrison. In response, the U.S. luanched a massive aerial campaign to save the stranded marines.  It was a distraction for Tet.  NLF wanted to disarm US and S.V. Te

Clark Clifford - Secretary of Defense after McNamara left in 1967.
-Lawyer, democrat, more of a hawk on Vietnam than McNamara, did not change the management system McNamara had installed at The Pentagon
-Argued against escalation in 1965 in private counsel with the president, but then provided public support for the president's position once the decision was made.

Earle Wheeler - Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1964, succeeded Taylor.  Wanted US to strike harder at N.V.  Wheeler, with Westmoreland, pushed to raise additional American forces after Tet.  After the election of Nix., Wheeler oversaw the implementation of the "Vietnamization" program. Wheeler was the longest-serving chairman of the Joint Chiefs to date, serving six years.

“Wise Men” - Prestigious leaders who met with Johnson secretly.  Said war was unwinnable.   Decided that the American people should be given more optimistic reports.  Included former Secretary of State and Westmoreland, and Secretary of Defense Clifford.  In early 1968, this decision came back to haunt Johnson and Westmoreland when the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese launched Tet.

Bobby Kennedy - Brother to JFK.  U.S. attorney general that served under JFK and LBJ.  Was assassinated in 1968.

(Probably more important)Eugene McCarthy- Ran as Democrat against LBJ, after New Hamp. voters rallied behind the anti-war democ(received 42% vote for primary)., LBJ said he wouldn’t seek reelection

(Probably not important) Joseph McCarthy -United States senator and leader of the “Red Scare”.  Black listed and alienated many actors, writers, directors, and politicians.  He can also be thought of as a modern day Maximilien Robespierre.  McCarthyism=is the practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper regard for evidence. It also means "the practice of making unfair allegations or using unfair investigative techniques, especially in order to restrict dissent or political criticism

Paris Peace Talks -
Began in May 1968, and would continue on and off until 1973. Ran into a ton of issue throughout its lifetime. Communists used as a distraction to the U.S. often to halt bombing. Usually had no intention of peace, but used peace talks to their advantage to take the U.S. off guard, etc..

CORDS -
Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support (he gave the definition as Civil Operations and Rural Development Service, but google says this is wrong.) was a program begun by the United States and South Vietnam in 1967 to attempt to win the hearts and minds of the Vietnamese people, as well as pacify the countryside of communist forces. It was made up a few previous organizations, including the Rural Development Cadre training center at Vung Tao.

In 1968, CORDS began to become more and more prominent throughout South Vietnam. They placed American civilians and military officials in villages and cities throughout South Vietnam, where they helped build schools, teach, and train the locals how to fight. They began to create Vietnamese paramilitary forces, such as the Rural Development Cadre, Popular Forces, Regional Forces, and Provincial Reconnaissance Units.




PRU -
Provincial Reconnaissance Unit. Counter-Insurgency paramilitary units trained by the CIA that specialized in guerilla warfare. Essentially acted a pro-US Viet Cong throughout the countryside in the South. They existed as part of the Phoenix Program, with their major job being hunting Viet Cong members throughout the countryside, either killing them or turning them over to Provincial Interrogation Centers.


Phoenix Program -
The Phoenix Program was a plan whereby the CIA, US and ARVN intelligence, would gather info on the Vietcong's recruiters and personnel. They created Black Sites called PIC's that interrogated and tortured VC members.They also trained the RDC and PRU forces to seek out and kill or capture Viet Cong throughout South Vietnam. The program was extremely effective, credited with killing/capturing tens of thousands of VC Cadre.

Provincial Interrogation Center -
A CIA black site where captured Viet Cong were sent to be tortured and interrogated.

Creighton Abrams -

Chieu Hoi - initiative by VC to provide incentive for NV and VC to desert, used threats, means “open arms”, propaganda campaign

My Lai Massacre-
Massacre occurred in March of 1968, in which hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese civilians were shot and killed by US Soldiers led by one William Calley. Initially, 26 soldiers were charged in the massacre, but only Calley was convicted, who spent 3 years under house arrest. The public would not learn about this incident until 1970, and it would spark massive public outrage. It is important to note that Calley came from the so called “Project 100k” which seeked to draft typically non-draft eligible men by making them fit for duty before they eventually served, The program taught basic things like how to read and write, personal hygiene, etc.

Sihanonk -
Cambodian Prince that was the major advocate for Cambodian Neutrality in the War. Overthrown by a military coup in March, 1970 by Lon Nol.

COSVN -
Central Office for South Vietnam. Office of the DRV which administered over NVA and VC units operating throughout South Vietnam. It was based in Cambodia, before being at least partially destroyed during the US invasion in 1970. Not a real place, but an organization.



War Powers Act -
In November 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Act, requiring the Executive branch to seek congressional approval for the deployment of troops for over 60 days.


Huston Plan -
Plan created by the Nixon administration in which US intelligence agencies were allowed to spy on members of the American public, particularly those that participated in the Anti-War Movement.

Lt. Will Caley -
See: My Lai Massacre

Pentagon Papers -
After the My Lai massacre, the New York Times published the "Pentagon Papers", the secret history of the war compiled for the President and  his cabinet. It was fully comprehensive, showing both military and paramilitary operations throughout South Vietnam. A man named Ellsberg stole a copy of them, and turned them over to the New York Times.

Le Duc Tho -
Representative of the DRV at the Paris Peace Talks.

Tu Gov’t -
Military government of South Vietnam. Proved to be largely ineffective at actually administering anything. <xD haha

Peace with Honor -
Nixon’s belief that the War in Vietnam has to be ended with honor. He would not abandon South Vietnam outright, instead choosing to implement Vietnamization, hoping the Vietnamese would be able to defend themselves. This doctrine withdrew US combat troops steadily throughout Nixon’s presidency.

An Loc, Dak To and Kontum - Major points of contest in the Early Days of the North Vietnamese invasion of South Vietnam. They would all eventually fall to NVA forces.

Xmas Bombing Campaign - Bombing Campaign authorized by Nixon in 1972. Dropped 360k tons of bombs on North Vietnam and NVA positions, leveling Hanoi and Hai Fong.

Watergate -1973 Members of Nixon’s Campaign broke into the Democrat’s offices in the Watergate apartment building, eventually resulting in congressional hearing, impeachment, and Nixon’s resignation.

“Vietnamization” -  Transitioning the war in Vietnam back into the hands of the South Vietnamese. This was Nixon's plan to end the war and try and keep a respectable reputation.
Pham Ban Dong - PM of N.V.
Lon Nol - Leader of the military coup that overthrew Prince Sihanouk in Cambodia in 1970. He was pro-US, and abandoned the notion of a neutral Cambodia. His government would eventually be overthrown by the Khmer Rouge.

Ky Thieu -

Rural Development Cadre -

Pathet Lao - Laotian Communist group.  Laos equivalent to Viet Minh and Khmer Rouge.

Taylor and Roston -

Pigneaux- A French Catholic, helped Nguyen Anh gain support for his fight to control vietnam. He was successful in convincing the French they needed an empire in Vietnam, but it was disrupted by the French Revolution. He found support in the merchants of India. Nguyen Anh eventually won the war, due in part to Pigneaux support, and became the emperor Gia Long.

Minh Mong-

Genouilly -

Tu Duc - Dubbed “Last Emperor” of Vietnam.  Tu Duc had alienating anti-French policies which led to the oppression of Christians in Vietnam.  He had wrongfully assumed that was “too involved” in conflicts with its European neighbors.  Tu Duc was defeated by a French expeditionary group and would sign the humiliating Treaty of Saigon 1862 granting concessions to France.

Garnier - The native affairs officer Francis Garnier renewed interest in Vietnam. He sought reconciliation of French and Vietnamese culture and in 1866 organized an expedition up the Mekong River, hoping to use it for transportation and trade. The mission was unsuccessful as there were far too many hazards to make it a worthwhile venture. He came to Saigon in 1872, and published the Voyage of Exploration in 1873. He led another expedition up the Red River, but was ambushed and killed by Black Flag pirates.

Cochinchina - Region encompassing the Southern third of Vietnam.  The name of the French colony which would later be known as South Vietnam.  South Vietnam would also absorb southern Annam.

Riviere -

AJ Muste -

Liberal Intellectuals -

Silent Majority - Nixon claimed to speak for this population in continuing the actions in Vietnam. They are the group of people not speaking out against the war. Nixon claimed only a small portion of society were actually protesting, and the rest were the silent majority.

Diem Family in general- awful people.

Hawks- Southern Dems and Reps.  They were realist cold war warriors.  “We had to win war in SE Asia” or we would be confronted by a giant enemy we couldn’t handle.

Doves- Believed that we shouldn’t be in Vietnam.  Whatever happens there is not a threat to our interests.  The idea of a “big country” beating up on a little country.  Famous people: MLK Jr., Cassius Clay, Jane Fonda.

Henry Kissinger-Served as Secretary of State under Nixon.  Negotiated the cease-fire in Vietnam and received a Nobel Peace prize award in 1973.  Played a prominent role in US foreign policy between 1969-77.
Khmer Rouge- Civil War against Lon Nol which they eventually won.  Brutal and radically ideological.  Followed the Communist Party of Kampuchea in Cambodia.
Yippies(Hippies)-Radical fragment group.  Threw bags of urine at the police.
Project 100,000- Every year 100,000 men were rejected b/c they couldn’t read, had criminal background, etc.
Nguyen Cao Ky- Chief of Revolutionary Council and PM.  Notorious for drinking and gambling.  Severed all ties with France and proved himself a survivor and asset to the US.
Enclave Strategy- Ensured that Westmorland could not move forces away from strategical areas.  Defensive;