2021-03-23 BWH

In US aviation, temperatures are Celsius, heights are in feet, and speeds and distances are in knots and nautical miles.
(1 nautical mile is about 1852m and 1 knot is 1 nautical mile per hour)

Celsius	Fahrenheit
40		104
35		95
30		86
25		77
20		68
15		59
10		50
5		41
0		32
-5		23
-10		14
-15		5
-20		-4

In the UK, people measure their own weight in stones
1 stone = 14lb
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We generally only avoid contractions in the most formal writing, such as a business letter written on paper.

“Best” or “Best regards” are pretty good formal or “mid-range” closings for letters.

“Cheers” is more informal, and probably should be used for people you already know somewhat.
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say/tell and speak/talk

“speak” is the word we use with languages (never “talk”)
	I speak English. She can’t speak Arabic.

“speak to” and “speak with” are more formal than “talk to” and “talk with”
	(Because it’s more formal, it can feel more serious.)

You can say something (to someone).
	- “say” must include the content and doesn’t have to include the listener
You can tell someone (something).
	- “tell” must include the listener and doesn’t have to include the content

In addition, “tell” means you give someone information or instructions.
“Say” can be with any word or words that came out of your mouth.
	The baby said, “Mama.”
	How do you say “car” in your language?

“tell a lie”, “tell the truth”, and “tell a story” don’t need to include the listener
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“borrow” and “lend”

borrow = take temporarily
	I borrowed money from my parents.
	Can I borrow your pencil?
	You can borrow my car.
lend = give temporarily
	My parents lent me money.
	Can you lend me your pencil?
	I can lend you my car.
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“remember” and “recall”

In general, these have the same meaning and can usually be used interchangeably.

If a memory comes to your mind “accidentally” (you weren’t trying to think of it), you should use “remember” rather than “recall”, which usually suggests conscious effort.
(“Remember” can also involve conscious effort, but doesn’t need to.)

In addition, “recall” suggests specific facts or information, rather than a memory of an experience.

“remember” is the more general word

(When a product is recalled, the company is “calling” the product back because it has some problems. In this case “remember” would be the wrong word.)
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Modals for Inferences and Conclusions

- about the present
He must be home by now. = I’m pretty sure. I’d be surprised if I were wrong.
He should be home by now. = I think he’s probably home. I expect that he’s at home.
He could/may/might be home by now. = It’s possible that he’s at home.
He may/might not be home yet. = It’s possible that he isn’t at home.
He shouldn’t be home yet. = I expect that he isn’t at home yet. He’s probably not home.
He must not be home yet. = I’m pretty sure he’s not home. I’d be surprised if he were home.
He can’t/couldn’t be home yet. = I think it’s impossible that he’s at home. (I’d think you’re lying if you tell me he’s at home.)

- “should” usually means something is (or isn’t) a good idea or what someone is supposed to do, so it’s a lot less common for inferences and predictions, but is still sometimes used

- about the future
The only grammatical difference between present inferences and future predictions is that we use “will” instead of “must” for the future.
He will be home by 8.
He should…
…
He shouldn’t be home by 8.
He will not be home by 8.
He can’t be home by 8. (“can’t” for the future means ability, so this makes sense when talking about “him” but it wouldn’t make sense when talking about e.g. the weather)

- about the past: use the perfect form for each verb
He must have been home by then. = I’m pretty sure. I’d be surprised if he wasn’t home then.
He should have been home by then. = I expected that he was at home. (But I’m probably saying “should have” because it turns out that he wasn’t home.)
He could/may/might have been home by then. = It’s possible that he was at home.
He may/might not have been home yet. = It’s possible that he wasn’t at home.
He shouldn’t have been home yet. = I expected that he wasn’t home. (But it turns out he was.)
He must not have been home yet. = I’m pretty sure he was not home. I’d be surprised if he were home.
He can’t/couldn’t have been home yet. = I think it’s impossible that he was at home. (I’d think you’re lying if you tell me he was at home.)
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With “might” and “could” (and sometimes “should”), you need context to know if it’s real or unreal.
	I wish I’d bought a lottery ticket. I could have won a million dollars. - unreal
		(I definitely didn’t win. There was a possibility but it didn’t happen.)
	Help me find my lottery ticket. I could have won a million dollars. - real
		(Maybe I won. There’s a real possibility, but I don’t know the answer.)
	If he had more money, he could live in a mansion. - unreal
		(He doesn’t have the money, so he can’t afford a mansion.)
	I think he’s really rich. He could live in a mansion. - real
		(It’s a possibility, but I’m not sure where he lives.)

With “must” and “should” (about the present), you need context to know if it’s speculation or advice.
	He should be at home. Why is he at the bar? - advice; it’s a good idea to be home
	He should be at home. Let me call him there. - speculation; I’m guessing he’s at home
	This is a very difficult class. You must study a lot. - obligation/advice
	You have really good grades. You must study a lot. - conclusion/speculation
(For obligation in the past, we can only use “had to”. “Must have” is always a conclusion.)
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If you want a bit more review/overview of real and unreal conditionals, you can look at the class notes from March 2.
	I wish (that) + sentence - unreal
	I hope (that) + sentence - real
(wish + noun / wish + infinitive - These can be real, like “I wish you luck.”)








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Future topics:

pronunciation (rules?) - especially for communicating with patients and children

Use of borrowed words

say/tell (and other often confused pairs)

tense overview/review (auxiliaries and prepositions, e.g.)

how to form good complex sentences (including punctuation)

American (pop) culture - entertainment
(patriotism - and flag underwear???)