2019-09-17 TOEFL: word roots, common errors

Greg Malivuk
gmalivuk@staffordhouse.com
http://www.pastebin.com/u/gmalivuk - notes from all classes
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https://ed.ted.com/lessons/a-brief-history-of-dogs-david-ian-howe
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re (recycle, rebound, reuse, recline) = again/back
reg (regulation, regent, regime) = rule
retro (retrograde, retroactive, retrospect) = backward
rupt (disrupt, rupture) = break/burst
scend (ascend, descend, transcend) = climb
scope/skep/spec (microscope, skeptic, spectacle) = see/look/watch
scrib/script (transcript, scripture, inscribe) = write/draw
sect/seg (section, bisect, sector, segment) = cut/divide
semi (semicircle, semiannual) = half (This is the Latin root. The Greek root is “hemi”.)
sol (solitude, desolate) = alone
sol (solar, solarium) = Sun
soph (philosophy, sophisticated) = wisdom/knowledge
struct (construct, structure) = build
sub (subterranean, submerge, substandard) = under
super (superstructure, supersonic) = over
tele (telephone, telescope, telepathy) = far
term (determine, terminate) = end/limit
terra/terri (territory, terrain) = land/Earth
therm (thermometer, thermal) = heat
trans (transport, transaction, transverse, transparent) = across
ultra (ultraviolet, ultrasound) = over/high (The opposite is “infra”.)
uni (universe, unique, unilateral) = one
vac (vacuum, vacate, evacuate) = empty
veri (verify, veracity) = truth
viv/vit (vital, vivacious) = life
vol (benevolent, volunteer, volition) = will (the noun, as in “free will” or “goodwill”)
xeno (xenophobia, xenophile) = foreign/strange
zo/zoo (zoology, zooplankton) = animal
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paleozoic era = old animals (the earliest geological era with lots of animal fossils)
mesozoic era = middle animals (dinosaurs)
cenozoic era = recent animals (after dinosaurs, until now)
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Common Mistakes Handout
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Everyone should make their own mistakes. - Very common, especially in speaking. Some think it’s wrong.
Everyone should make his own mistakes. - Old-fashioned, sounds sexist now.
Everyone should make his or her own mistakes. - Correct, but can get awkward if repeated a lot.
All people should make their own mistakes. - When it’s possible, changing to plural is always fine.

“Someone is calling me. I wonder what they want.” - Again, this is extremely common in speaking and in less formal writing, but some people object to using plural forms to refer to a single person.
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exercise A - Fix the mistakes you can find with each sentence.
1 It’s difficult to decide whether it’s better to work with a team or independently.
2 If someone works with a group, they learn many skills. For example, they can learn how to cooperate and how to be tolerant.
  If someone works with a group, they learn many skills such as cooperation and tolerance.
3 Everyone who works in a team should have a chance to say their opinion.
4 It is not always easy to work with a team because there can be a personality problem and it can cause conflicts. This can be very destructive.
  ...because there can be a personality problem which can cause conflicts and be very destructive.
5 Everyone who works in a team has to cooperate with the others.
6 People who work alone only have to think about themselves.
7 You need to have initiative, creativity, and a lot of confidence.
8 I learned that it is important to be on time and have a positive attitude.
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Parallel Structure

When two or more things are listed in one sentence, and often when comparable things are described in multiple sentences, they need to have the same grammatical structure.
(Sometimes failing to do this means a sentence is ungrammatical, and other times it might be correct grammar but still a little awkward to read.)
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Handout practice: identify which item in each list is not parallel to the others. Then, if possible, fix it.
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BREAK
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1 boat rides -> boating
2 They are digging for clams. -> They dig for clams.
3 his eyes -> inside his eyes
4 painting pictures -> pictures/paintings/drawings (noun)
5 sadly -> sadness
6 into the Rolls Royce -> driven in a Rolls Royce (passive construction, with past participle)
7 strong -> strength
8 fly -> flew
9 eating meat pies -> meat pie stands (the rest are places you can get those foods)
10 in the fall -> cheerful in the fall
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Part B - Fix the errors with parallelism in each sentence. Sometimes there are multiple ways to fix it.
1 Tom enjoys swimming and skating. / Tom likes to swim and skate.
2 He wore a green suede jacket, a flowered shirt, and multicolored platform shoes.
3 At 16, I was wild, outspoken, and uncaring. (“rebellious” is the adjective for “rebel”)
4 The work was difficult and dangerous.
5 Like many women, she had several roles: wife, mother, student, and worker.
6 When the teacher left the room, …
	I was talking loudly, fighting with my classmates, throwing paper airplanes, and even climbing…
	I talked loudly, fought with my classmates, threw paper airplanes, and even climbed on the desks.
	I would talk loudly, fight with my classmates, throw paper airplanes, and even climb on the desks.
7 When I disobeyed, my parents punished me:
	no going out, talking on the phone, or having company.
	I couldn’t go out, talk on the phone, or have company.
	I was not allowed to go out, talk on the phone, or have company.
	no going out, no talking on the phone, and no having company.
8 Slowly, easily, and soundlessly, the dancers moved offstage.
9 The drums pounded, throbbed, rose, and fell. (rise - rose - risen)
  The drums were pounding, throbbing, rising, and falling.
10 Good writing must be honest, fresh, and precise.
   Good writing must be honest and fresh and have precise words.
   Good writing must have honesty, freshness, and precision.
11 My son wants to be either a fireman or a pilot. / My son wants to either fight fires or fly planes.
12 The students were more interested in dating girls than in studying math.
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“neither” and “nor” often go together, particularly for two things that are both negative

*He will study neither his lessons nor do his chores.
	not parallel, because “his lessons” is a noun object of “study”, and “do his chores” is a verb phrase.
-> He will neither study his lessons nor do his chores.

According to https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/when-use-nor, if you want to use “nor” for more than two items, you should put it in front of all the items after the first.
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Coordinating Conjunctions (“fanboys”) can connect independent clauses:

for: I didn’t want to go outside, for it was raining.  (fancy “because”)
and: He likes studying(,) and he likes doing his chores.
	She doesn’t like studying, and she doesn’t like doing her chores.
nor: She doesn’t like studying, nor does she like doing her chores. (Both clauses must be negative.)
but: She doesn’t like doing her chores, but she is very good at them.
or: You can (either) take the bus, or you can take the train.
	You have to finish your vegetables, or you can’t have dessert.
yet: It was raining, yet we still went outside. (As a conjunction, basically the same as “but”.)
so: It was raining, so we stayed inside.
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Other conjunctions (and “so” for purpose rather than consequence) are subordinating:
Because it was raining, I brought my umbrella. (Comma if the subordinator is first)
I brought my umbrella because it was raining. (No comma if the subordinator is in the middle)
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“and”, “nor”, “but”, and “or” can connect structures that are smaller than independent clauses.
The structures still must be parallel. (and/or - any number of things; but/nor - two things)

I want A, B, and C. (I want all of them.)
I want A, B, or C. (I want one of them.)
I don’t want A, B, or C. (I want none of them.)