Multiple Species

Racial Genetics

	[Man] has diverged into distinct races, or as they may be more fitly called, subspecies. Some of these, such as the Negro and the European, are so distinct that, if specimens had been brought to a naturalist without any further information, they would undoubtedly have been considered as good and true species.
	– Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man (1871)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiotropy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistasis

	Not everyone is a geneticist. Please read about these two concepts and ask questions if there is too much foreign terminology for you.
	The results of outbreeding can be disastrous for the descendants of such pairings. Many of the offspring will lack the interactions of genes that should normally result in positive traits in either parent group. The terms introduced here are important to understand. If there is a list of traits in a gene pool that require epistatic interactions to be expressed and a history of natural selection has removed other genes from many of the loci where those genes are found then what happens when pairings are made with individuals who do have other alleles at those loci?
	The interbreeding of different species is not rare in nature. When the environments the parents occupy meet at the borders by a gradual transition the hybrids can even survive as transient groups that have a chance of breeding with the parent populations. Sometimes they can become separate species. Most of the time, especially when the niches the parents occupy change abruptly with little mixed borders, the offspring become genetic dead ends. This can distance the parent populations resulting in less overlap of the gene pools.
	The offspring and all future descendants may lack the necessary genes to express many of the parents' phenotypes thus lacking specialized characteristics. When the two groups of organisms are distant enough there may be too many mismatches to ever come together in significant numbers in the mixed descendants.
	Consider a gene that affects multiple characteristics. Some may be relatively benign while others can be strongly selected for. When the strongly selected phenotypes that the gene affects cannot be expressed due to lacking epistatic genes required for the phenotype then the gene will only persist at random as the individuals with it do not have better survival nor reproductive success. This gene may also express other characteristics that are mildly selected against. It has only become fixed in the parent population due to the benefits that can only be utilized with all the interacting genes also present. It is not true then that an evenly mixed population of hybrids would maintain about 50% of the genes from both parent populations over time. Epistatic relationships would become lost or imbalanced. Some genes would, either by random drift or by selection through the other phenotypes they affect, become less common.
	Allele is a term for any gene in a particular location in your DNA (locus) on a particular chromosome. So in simple terms if there were genes for short medium and tall and they all reside in the same location on a particular chromosome then they are alleles. You could only have two of them one from each parent.
	DNA is a molecule that stores genetic information and is composed of nucleotides. In simple terms these form codons (sets of 3 nucleotides) that code for particular amino acids. Proteins are composed from these which can then construct many other types of molecules in an organisms body.
	Gene is a coding instruction unit of DNA. In simple terms it can be said to encode one product (though there is much more complexity this definition is sufficient for understanding the concepts described here). Genotype refers to the particular set of genes a single organism has and is commonly used to describe a particular subset of a genome being observed (Genome for all sets of genes) Locus (pl. locii) is a term for the location of a gene in a particular chromosome (humans gametes have 23 chromosomes so 46 for a normal human) Phenotype refers to the expressed trait of an organism. (uncommonly used Phenome describes the set of all phenotypes)
	Understand genetics to understand life. Everyone should know some of the basics. Individual traits vary. Groups of individuals can be classified based on common genes that occur in varying proportions compared to other groups. Some genes are unique to some groups occurring at nearly 0% in other groups.

~:~

	Canis lupus is a species that includes all subspecies and variety of wolves, as well as the domesticated dog breeds. All of the subspecies have a wide variety of physical features, behavioral patterns, and intellectual capacity. Added to this is the fact that the within the general genus Canis, interbreeding can produce fertile offspring. Despite this, animals within the Canis genus rarely breed and are openly hostile to each other, have different looks, different behavior, and are categorized differently due to this and genetic testing.
	And yet when it comes to humans, these same criteria are ignored because of political sensitives. There is unending evidence that says human races are different species–and even regional breeds within those species.

~:~

	In biology, races are distinct genetically divergent populations within the same species with relatively small morphological and genetic differences. The populations can be described as ecological races if they arise from adaptation to different local habitats and geographic races when they are geographically isolated. If sufficiently different, two or more races can be identified as subspecies, which is an official biological taxonomy unit subordinate to species.
	Is Homo sapiens polytypic?
	The term race is a traditional synonym for subspecies, however it is frequently asserted that Homo sapiens is monotypic and that what are termed races are nothing more than biological illusions. In this manuscript, a case is made for the hypothesis that H. sapiens is polytypic, and in this way is no different from other species exhibiting similar levels of genetic and morphological diversity. First, it is demonstrated that the four major definitions of race/subspecies can be shown to be synonymous within the context of the framework of race as a correlation structure of traits. Next, the issue of taxonomic classification is considered where it is demonstrated that H. sapiens possesses high level morphological diversity, genetic heterozygosity and differentiation (FST) compared to many species that are acknowledged to be polytypic with respect to subspecies.



	Evolutionary Relationships of Human Populations on a Global Scale
	Nei M, Roychoudhury AK.
	Using gene frequency data for 29 polymorphic loci (121 alleles), we conducted a phylogenetic analysis of 26 representative populations from around the world by using the neighbor-joining (NJ) method. We also conducted a separate analysis of 15 populations by using data for 33 polymorphic loci. These analyses have shown that the first major split of the phylogenetic tree separates Africans from non-Africans and that this split occurs with a 100% bootstrap probability. The second split separates Caucasian populations from all other non-African populations, and this split is also supported by bootstrap tests. The third major split occurs between Native American populations and the Greater Asians that include East Asians (mongoloids), Pacific Islanders, and Australopapuans (native Australians and Papua New Guineans), but Australopapuans are genetically quite different from the rest of the Greater Asians.



	We have analyzed genetic data for 326 microsatellite markers that were typed uniformly in a large multiethnic population-based sample of individuals as part of a study of the genetics of hypertension (Family Blood Pressure Program). Subjects identified themselves as belonging to one of four major racial/ethnic groups (white, African American, East Asian, and Hispanic) and were recruited from 15 different geographic locales within the United States and Taiwan. Genetic cluster analysis of the microsatellite markers produced four major clusters, which showed near-perfect correspondence with the four self-reported race/ethnicity categories. Of 3,636 subjects of varying race/ethnicity, only 5 (0.14%) showed genetic cluster membership different from their self-identified race/ethnicity. On the other hand, we detected only modest genetic differentiation between different current geographic locales within each race/ethnicity group. Thus, ancient geographic ancestry, which is highly correlated with self-identified race/ethnicity--as opposed to current residence--is the major determinant of genetic structure in the US population. Implications of this genetic structure for case-control association studies are discussed.
	A useful way of visualizing biodiversity is with principal component analysis. Principal component analysis (PCA) is a mathematical procedure that uses an orthogonal transformation to convert a set of observations of possibly correlated variables into a set of values of uncorrelated variables called principal components.
Lets take a close look at a few PCA plots with large sampling of SNPs of many individuals across the globe. You will notice an overall clustering pattern by which we can identify individuals and their respective populations and races.



	This clustering is a natural consequence of geographical isolation and differing environmental pressures that these early Homo sapiens encountered since migration out of Africa over Wok years ago resulting in divergent evolution, not taking into account the Neanderthal admixture in non-Africans and archaic Homo admixture in Africans. Therefore there exist identifiable races in the human species.

~:~

	See document Genetic Structure of Europeans for detail on genetic differences among Europeans and confirmation of a wide genetic gap between Europeans, Africans, and Asians.
	See document The Inconvenient Science of Racial DNA Profiling for evidence that race can be determined from DNA alone, implying that it is based on biology
	See document Dog Breed FST Chart for genetic information regard dog breeds–interesting for comparative examinations of inter-population human genetics.

GENETIC DISTANCE

	The genetic distance between Whites (British) and Blacks (Bantu) is 0.23. (1) The FST between the common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and the bonobo (Pan paniscus) is 0.103, which is half the white/black difference despite the two being classified as separate species. (2)(5) The FST between two gorilla species, Gorilla gorilla and Gorilla beringei, is 0.04, which is 1/6 the white/black difference. The FST between humans and Neanderthals is less than 0.08, or about 1/3 the white/black difference. (2)(3)(4) The FST between humans and homo erectus is 0.17 which is 3/4 the white/black distance. (2) Thus, whites and blacks are more genetically distant than two different chimpanzee species, two different gorilla species, humans vs. Neanderthals, and humans vs. homo erectus.
	Mixed-race children suffer from more health problems. Miscegenation leads to outbreeding depression and pairings of non-complementary traits. A massively well-funded study of over 100,000 schoolchildren found that “Adolescents who identify themselves as mixed race are at higher health and behavior risk than those of one race.” Indeed, even when controlling for education, socioeconomic status, and other factors, there is an across the board higher rate of health risks amongst mixed race adolescents than mono-racial adolescents. (6) One study found that White-Asian mixes had a 2x higher rate of being “diagnosed with a psychological disorder, such as anxiety, depression or substance abuse.” (7) A study on white/black mixes in agreement found that ”When it comes to engaging in risky/anti-social adolescent behavior, however, mixed race adolescents are stark outliers compared to both blacks and whites.” This holds true despite being raised in similar environments to mono-racial children. (8)
	Often race-deniers and cultural marxists will bring up Haldane’s Rule, arguing that since races can mix and create fertile offspring, the genetic distance is not too great. Haldane’s rule is “when in the offspring of two different animal races one sex is absent, rare, or sterile, that sex is the heterogametic [XY] sex.” (9) Indeed, although white/black mixes are not sterile and males are not absent, males (the heterogametic sex) are more rare than females. (10) See document Origins. The argument regarding Haldane’s Rule is also meaningless because different species in the animal kingdom can breed and still produce fertile offspring. The wolf (Canis lupus) and the dog (Canis lupus familiaris), the coyote (Canis latrans), and the common jackal (Canis aureus) are separate species, yet all can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. (11) Two species of orangutan (Pongo abellii from Sumatra and Pongo pygmaeus from Borneo) can interbreed, despite having different chromosomal numbers. (12) The common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and the bonobo (Pan paniscus), as well as many species of birds–such as the pintail (Anas acuta) and the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)–can interbreed. (13) The gibbon and the siamang can also interbreed to produce a hybrid. (14) Horse species can interbreed. (15) Plant species that aren’t even in the same genus can interbreed. (16)

MISCEGENATION

	Black Americans are a hybrid race of around 22% white ancestry. (17) This 22% ancestry is the cause of multiple negative health effects due to genetic incompatibility. Indeed, consistent with Haldane’s Rule, unmixed blacks from Africa and white Americans do not have the same rate of birth problems that hybrid American blacks have: “In 2005, the mortality rate for black infants was 4.4 times higher than that of white infants… African women who come to the United States and have babies experience the same low rate of infant deaths as white American mothers.” John R. Baker, in his book Race, says, “Indiscriminate interbreeding between distinct forms, whether ‘species’ or markedly different races, is not generally beneficial. The defect may show in a change in the sex-ratio of the offspring, probably caused by the early abortion of members of one sex, generally the male in the case of mammals.” LTA4H, or “leukotriene A4 hydrolase” is found on chromosome 17. An allele of this gene increases the risk of heart attack (the #1 cause of death in America) in blacks by more than 250%, but only 16% in whites. The 30% of whites with this allele have counteracting genes, while the 6% of black Americans who obtained it through miscegenation do not. (18)
	The average rate of success for mixed race couples is around half that of same race couples, 0.127 compared to 0.213. (19) There is evidence that the more similar the two people are, the happier their marriage tends to be. (20) A study in Iceland showed that 3rd cousin marriages are the most fertile and successful. This suggests that mating within one’s ethnic/racial group would be more beneficial than outside of one’s ethnic/racial group. (21) One study showed that people tend to find their own face–morphed into the opposite sex–most attractive, even when he/she doesn’t know it’s his own face. This strongly suggests that people typically prefer those who look like themselves–in other words, their own racial/ethnic group. (22)
	Hybrid vigor (heterosis) does not seem to apply to humans, as we are already very heterozygous, at 0.776. (23) Compared to dogs, for example, at 0.401. (24) Some argue that race mixing “averages out” traits. They claim that since average faces are considered more attractive, mixed race offspring would be more attractive. This, of course, is fallacious, as it assumes we are designed for perfect symmetry. In fact, the magnitude of asymmetry is the correct measurement and this random component fluctuates–also called “fluctuating asymmetry”–so a lower level of asymmetry correlates with increased attractiveness, not symmetry. (25) But does increased heterozygosity cause lower asymmetry? A meta analysis of 118 datasets in 14 studies revealed a very weak inverse correlation between the two, showing that increased heterozygosity has no beneficial effect on symmetry or asymmetry. One study on the craniofacial morphology in white-Indioe mixed race individuals found that over half of the 52 shape variables deviated from the mathematical average, completely shattering the above argument. (27)

PAIR BONDING

	The neurotransmitter oxytocin “makes people more cooperative, benevolent, loyal, generous and trusting of others. It is involved in the parent-child bond–new mothers and fathers have raised levels of oxytocin. Production also increases when people hug and when they have sex and, recent research suggests, when they receive psychological warmth.” However, oxytocin has been alleged to “foster racism.” (28) The study found that “intergroup bias that fuels prejudice, xenophobia, and intergroup violence… may be modulated by brain oxytocin.” This suggests that the instinctual desire to pursue the interests of one’s own ethnic group to further ensure the existence of one’s people is linked to racial bias, coinciding with the observation that diversity is a weakness, not a strength. (29) One study found that during the menstrual cycle when women have a higher likelihood of conception, racial bias is increased–especially when the likelihood of sexual intercourse was increased. “Increased conception risk was positively associated with several measures of race bias. This association was particularly strong when perceived vulnerability to sexual coercion was high.” Although egalitarians suggest that only a racist would consider race when it comes to reproduction and mate choice, this study observed a general, innate tendency to prefer one’s own race especially when most likely to be impregnated. (30)

MEDICINE

	In the immune system, how important is race? “If Nick Glasgow were white, he would have a nearly 90 percent chance of finding a matching bone marrow donor who could cure his leukemia.” The reason that mixed-heritage patients are so hard to match can be found in the immune system. Different races have developed certain proteins, or markers, that are part of the body's natural defenses. These markers help the immune system determine which cells are foreign and should be rejected. A match between two people who share more genetically in common significantly reduces the risk of the donor and recipient cells attacking each other. (read: cells from people of two different races will attack each other as though they are a virus) The more people of different backgrounds who produce offspring, the more types that are harder to match. Multiracial patients have uncommon profiles and since there can be many possible racial and ethnic combinations in multiracial societies, finding a match can be extremely difficult. (31)
	As an example, a white mother of a mixed-race child would have more genetically in common with a random white person on the street than with her own child. If such a dramatic and fundamental alienation from your own parents is not horrific enough, every member of the family of a mixed-race child diagnosed with leukemia is an incompatible donor for a bone marrow transplant, and finding a compatible donor is unlikely. “One obstacle to finding a matching donor was her mixed ethnic background. Her father is black, with West Indian and Panamanian roots. Her mother is white, with Russian-Jewish roots. In addition, only 5 percent of registered donors are black.” (32) Compared to organ transplants, bone marrow donations need to be even more genetically similar to their recipients. Since all the immune system’s cells come from bone marrow, a transplant essentially introduces an entirely new new immune system to a person. Without genetic similarity between the donor and the patient, the new white blood cells will attack the host body. (33) Race matters when a patient needs a stem cell or marrow transplant. (34)
	A seasoned cancer researcher would never set up a study in which all the ill patients were, say, Canadian, and all the healthy controls were Japanese. And yet cancer researchers risk making a similar mistake if they overlook genetic information that fleshes out what many of us like to think of as race or ethnicity, some experts say. Fortunately, awareness of how ancestral genetics might contribute to risk of disease and drug response in people has risen over the last several years. Studies that look directly at the problem are on the rapid rise, and this increased interest has biotechnology companies lowering the cost of tests that determine genetic ancestry, thanks to a little competition. However, experts have yet to decide on how to genetically define ancestry, suggesting examining anywhere from a handful to hundreds of gene variants. Not including information on the race or ethnicity of study volunteers could skew disease risks as stronger or weaker than they really are. “Alzheimer’s is the poster child for this problem,” says pharmacogeneticist Esteban Burchard, MD, of the University of California in San Francisco. A variant of the gene ApoE4 is a strong genetic risk factor for early-onset Alzheimer’s, and the characteristic most likely to raise or lower that risk is race. “It occurs in about 20% of the black American population, and it means nothing. It occurs in about 6% of the Japanese, and it makes their risk six times higher [than that for white people],” Burchard said. “Something about being Japanese unleashes the wrath of the gene, and something about being black American attenuates it.” (35)
	The FDA have approved a heart failure drug called Bidil, but only for blacks, as blacks do not benefit from conventional heart failure drugs. (36) Sickle cell anaemia is a condition found almost exclusively in blacks–about 1 in 4 West Africans carry the gene for it while almost no whites do. Any whites who carry the gene most likely have a black ancestor. As a result of population growth in African-Caribbean regions of overseas France and immigration from North and sub-Saharan Africa to mainland France, sickle cell disease has become a major health problem in France. SCD has become the most common genetic disease in this country. (37)

MIGRATION

	It is supposed that the migration rate and the immigrant gene frequency are independent of each other in each generation, and each of them is independently and identically distributed in every generation. The treatment is confined to a single diallelic locus without mutation. If the diploid population is infinite, selection is absent and the immigrant gene frequency is fixed, then the gene frequency on the island converges to the immigrant frequency, and the logarithm of the absolute value of its deviation from it is asymptotically normally distributed. The above implies that if you have two genes in some frequency in the immigrant population, under one way migration that frequency becomes the dominant frequency on the island. We investigated various cases of the island model with stochastic migration. If the population is infinite, the immigrants have a fixed gene frequency and the alleles are neutral, the gene frequency on the island converges to that of the immigrants. What this means is that the genes initially on the model island, in effect, disappeared. (38)
	Migration between local populations plays an important role in evolution–influencing local adaptation, speciation, extinction, and the maintenance of genetic variation. A number of studies have shown that when per capita population growth rate is treated as a random variable, rather than a fixed parameter, then directional evolution is influenced not only by the expected fitness of each phenotype, but also by the variance and other moments. This follows from the fact that, in a closed population, change in mean phenotype is inversely proportional to mean population fitness. (39)
	Nonindigenous species can bring about a form of extinction of native flora and fauna by hybridization and introgression either through purposeful introduction by humans or through habitat modification, bringing previously isolated species into contact. These phenomena can be especially problematic for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones. Increased use of molecular techniques focuses attention on the extent of this underappreciated problem that is not always apparent from morphological observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is a normal, evolutionarily constructive process, and all constellations of genes and genotypes cannot be preserved. However, hybridization with or without introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species’ existence. (40)
	Allopatric speciation or geographic speciation is speciation that occurs when biological populations of the same species become vicariant–isolated from each other to an extent that prevents or interferes with genetic interchange. This can be the result of population dispersal leading to emigration, or by geographical changes such as mountain formation, island formation, or large scale human activities (for example agricultural and civil engineering developments). The vicariant populations then undergo genotypic or phenotypic divergence as: (a) they become subjected to different selective pressures, (b) they independently undergo genetic drift, and (c) different mutations arise in the populations’ gene pools. (41)
	The separate populations over time may evolve distinctly different characteristics. If the geographical barriers are later removed, members of the two populations may be unable to successfully mate with each other, at which point, the genetically isolated groups have emerged as different species. Allopatric isolation is a key factor in speciation and a common process by which new species arise. Adaptive radiation, as observed by Charles Darwin in Galapagos finches, is a consequence of allopatric speciation among island populations. (42)
	Even where there are minimal morphological differences between species, differences in behavior can be enough to prevent mating. For example, Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans which are considered twin species due to their morphological similarity, do not mate even if they are kept together in a laboratory. Drosophila ananassae and D. pallidosa are twin species from Melanesia. In the wild they rarely produce hybrids, although in the laboratory it is possible to produce fertile offspring. Studies of their sexual behavior show that the males court the females of both species but the females show a marked preference for mating with males of their own species. (43)
	“Human races are evolving away from each other,” Harpending says. “Genes are evolving fast in Europe, Asia and Africa, but almost all of these are unique to their continent of origin. We are getting less alike, not merging into a single, mixed humanity.” He says that is happening because humans dispersed 40,000 years ago, “and there has not been much flow of genes between the regions since then.” (44)

NEUROLOGY

	In a combination of 19 studies on black and white brain sizes, every single one shows whites with a significantly larger brain size than blacks. The calculated average White brain is 1398g and 1438cc while the average black brain is 1275g and 1343cc–91% and 93% of the average white brain. The heritability of brain size is extremely strong, at 0.90, and not one study to date has shown larger brain size for blacks, nor has any study shown anywhere close to equal brain size or structure for blacks and whites. (45)




White grams
Black grams
White CC
Black CC
1428
1276
1479
1322
1362

1411

1450

1502


1234

1278
1440

1492

1413

1464



1441
1338


1362
1268


1342
1338


1426
1339


1466
1388


1435
1283
1392
1286
1442
1332
1341
1292
1389
1339
1471
1342
1524
1390
1285
1222
1331
1266


1452
1389


1473
1450


1454
1422
1398
1275
1438
1343

	The caucasian brain has a high degree of fissuring (higher complexity) and the negroid brain has a lower degree of fissuring (lower complexity) in the cerebral cortex of their brains, where abstract and conceptual thought is performed. (46)(47)(48) The supragranular layers in the dog are one-half the thickness of those in the ape, and the thickness of the ape's only three-fourths the thickness in man. (49) The supragranular layer is 15% thinner in blacks than in caucasians. (50) The front of the negroid brain is less developed and the back more developed compared to that of caucasian. (46) This corresponds to the sloping forehead of blacks. The frontal lobe (front of the brain) is involved in higher mental functions such as “personality expression and the planning of complex cognitive behaviors” which corresponds to the lower IQ and higher crime rates (impulsivity) of blacks.
	Blacks have much lower slow-wave brain activity during sleep than whites. (51) Due to brain morphology differences between whites and blacks, blacks absorb 30% more nicotine than whites per cigarette; it takes longer for blacks to rid their bodies of the drug. (52) Indeed, “Numerous studies have demonstrated significant racial differences in the metabolism of tobacco-related products.” (53)
	White women generally have wider hips purportedly due to the larger brain size of white babies compared to blacks, and this is also a suggested contribution to the better sprinting performance of blacks compared to whites. (46) Blacks have a higher proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibers, allowing their complete domination in olympic sprinting events. (54)

INTELLIGENCE

	Despite popular assertions, a single factor for intelligence, called g [or “general intelligence”], can be measured with IQ tests and does predict success in life. (55) A public statement signed by 52 internationally known scholars, all professors or experts in intelligence and allied fields, claimed that “Intelligence is a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience… Intelligence, so defined, can be measured, and intelligence tests measure it well. They are among the most accurate (in technical terms, reliable and valid) of all psychological tests and assessments.” (56) The landmark book “The Bell Curve” compared intelligence, education, socioeconomic status, and a variety of other factors to see how positively they correlate with social success. (57) None of the factors correlated as highly as IQ did (positively or negatively) in regards to job success, income, welfare dependency, illegitimacy, and crime. (58)
	High national IQ corresponds strongly to a high average living standard at 0.73. If blacks indeed have a lower IQ than whites, one could easily make the argument that sharing living spaces lowers the quality of life for whites yet raises it for blacks. (59) 30 years of research on race differences in cognitive ability, based on multiple categories of evidence and dozens of research studies with thousands of research subjects, all converge and agree upon the indisputable fact that Whites and Blacks have different average levels of general intelligence. This remains true despite controls for poverty, health, education, and many other possible factors. The average white IQ is roughly 100 while the average black IQ is roughly 85. This gap has been demonstrated repeatedly by every race and inteligence study ever conducted in every state, county, and school board and the same white/black ratio has remained relatively constant since testing first started decades ago to the present. (60)

CHROMOSOMAL DIFFERENCES

	The ASPM gene of Chromosome 1 has been shown to effect brain morphology and defects lead to smaller brains and low IQ. (61) A new ASPM allele arose in Eurasia and has been suspected at increasing intelligence and has been demonstrated to be absent in blacks. (62) The MCPH1 gene of Chromosome 8 with alleles known as “microcephalin” partly determine brain size and morphology. (63) Beneficial alleles are common in Eurasians but rare in blacks. The MCPH1 and ASPM gene correspond with the development of hand-crafts and the development of sophisticated cities which were common in Eurasian populations but unheard of in sub-Saharan Africa. (64) The DCDC2 gene of Chromosome 6 effects brain morphology and the ability to read. The allele frequency of the A allele rs2274305 of the dyslexia-gene DCDC2 is about 0.28 among Eurasians and 0.99 among Yorubas from Nigeria, about 0.80 among black Americans. (65) The DTNBP1 gene has also been linked to intelligence, specifically the rs:760761, rs:2619522 and rs:2619538 alleles. For rs:760761, 18% of whites carry the T allele, which takes off 8 IQ points, compared to 37% of blacks. For rs:2619522 carrying the G allele takes off 7 points, and is found in 18% of whites and 35-36% of blacks. The rs:2619538 T allele increases IQ by 6.5 points and 61% of Europeans carry it vs 67% of blacks. (66)


1: Estimation of the Coancestry Coefficient
2: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0018442X04700335
3: http://www.pnas.org/content/100/11/6593.abstract
4: http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/8/1359.full
5: The Bonobo Genome Compared With The Chimpanzee & Human Genomes
6: Health & Behavior Risks of Adolescents with Mixed-Race Identity
7: http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-08/uoc--baa081108.php
8: Patterns of Situational Identity Among Biracial & Multiracial College Students
9: http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/haldane-s-rule-the-heterogametic-sex-1144
10: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1537084?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
11: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3671304?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
12: http://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/28/science/orangutan-hybrid-bred-to-save-species-now-seen-as-pollutant.html
13: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070420104723.htm
14: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/451603
15: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1060807
16: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/74/2/111.full.pdf
17: Characterizing the Admixed African Ancestry of African Americans
18: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16282974
19: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4145377
20: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/019188699190057I
21: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/319/5864/813.abstract
22: Computer Graphic Studies of the Role of Facial Similarity in Judgements of Attractiveness
23: Comparative Nuclear & Mitochondrial Genome Diversity in Humans & Chimpanzees
24: Relationships & Genetic Purity of the Mexican Wolf
25: Human Preferences for Facial Symmetry
26: http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v83/n2/full/6885550a.html
27: Human Craniofacial Morphology After Admixture
28: http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2011/jan/30/bright-ideas-oxytocin-hormone-racism
29: http://www.pnas.org/content/108/4/1262.abstract
30: Race Bias Tracks Conception Risk Across the Menstrual Cycle
31: http://phys.org/news/2009-05-mixed-race-patients-struggle-marrow-donors.html
32: http://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/18/sports/baseball-rod-carew-s-daughter-dies.html
33: http://content.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1993074,00.html
34: https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/race-matters-when-a-patient-needs-a-stem-cell-or-marrow-transplant/2013/08/05/51abdf04-f2d9-11e2-ae43-b31dc363c3bf_story.html
35: http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/98/18/1270.full
36: http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB116096445875393515
37: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sickle_cell_anemia
38: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1213928/pdf/163.pdf
39: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0007130
40: http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83
41: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allopatric_speciation
42: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speciation
43: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproductive_isolation
44: http://discovermagazine.com/2009/mar/09-they-dont-make-homo-sapiens-like-they-used-to
45: http://hsmt.history.ox.ac.uk/courses_reading/undergraduate/authority_of_nature/week_8/lynn_1991.pdf
46: Race, Evolution, & Behavior
47: Some Racial Peculiarities of the Negro Brain
48: Cornelius Joseph Connolly, External Morphology of the Primate Brain, 1950
49: The Brain In Health & Disease
50: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1248982/
51: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/06/070612074944.htm
52: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/newsroom/06/NR1-20.html
53: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/03/050309144253.htm
54: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180686/
55: http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1998generalintelligencefactor.pdf
56: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289697900118
57: https://books.google.com/books?id=s4CKqxi6yWIC
58: http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1701353.Terman_s_Kids
59: Richard Lynn, IQ & the Wealth of Nations, 2002
60: https://00a6514b-a-62cb3a1a-s-sites.googlegroups.com/site/philoclubksu/club-info/topics/oct25thethicaleugenics/Rushton-Jensen30years.pdf
61: http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/content/13/5/489.abstract
62: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/26/10944
63: http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/content/13/11/1131.short
64: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/309/5741/1717.abstract
65: http://www.v-weiss.de/majgenes-full.html
66: http://behavioralandbrainfunctions.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1744-9081-3-19

~:~

Genetics & Genealogy: Is Out-of-Africa Going Out The Door?
http://www.ramsdale.org/dna4.htm

Short Sharp Science: Did early humans evolve in Europe, not Africa?
http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2009/09/did-early-humans-evolve-in-eur.html

Out-of-Africa Theory of ancient human migration being challenged by discovery of 1.8 million-year-old hand axe in Malaysia
http://arkeologis.wordpress.com/2009/02/26/out-of-africa-theory-of-ancient-human-migration-being-challenged/

BBC NEWS | Tools unlock secrets of early man. New research shows early humans were living in Britain around 700,000 years ago, substantially earlier than had previously been thought
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4526264.stm

Reuters: Bones show humans in Europe 1.2 mln years ago
http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/03/26/us-humans-fossil-spain-idUSL2692730020080326

The Independent: A skull that rewrites the history of man
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/a-skull-that-rewrites-the-history-of-man-1783861.html

New Scientist: Were our earliest hominid ancestors European?
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17225-were-our-earliest-hominid-ancestors-european.html?DCMP=OTC-rss

New Scientist: Chinese challenge to ‘out of Africa’ theory
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18093-chinese-challenge-to-out-of-africa-theory.html

China’s earliest human puts ‘out of Africa’ theory to test
http://news.wustl.edu/news/Pages/9186.aspx

Georgian skeletons challenge ‘out of Africa’ theory
http://www.tgdaily.com/general-sciences-features/43912-georgian-skeletons-challenge-out-of-africa-theory

Chinese Scientists Launch New Challenge to ‘Out of Africa’ Theory : Multiregional bones discovered
http://www.arthurkemp.com/?p=443

10,000-year-old Chinese Fossil Poses Challenge to ‘Out of Africa’ Theory
http://heritage-key.com/blogs/michael-kan/110000-year-old-chinese-fossil-poses-challenge-out-africa-theory

BBC News | SCI/TECH | Fossil challenge to Africa theory Australian Fossil challenge to Africa theory
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1108413.stm

Early Human Remains Challenge ‘Out of Africa’ Theory
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/201503/early_human_remains_challenge_out_of.html

Scientists Challenge Evolution Theory DNA Shows Modern Humans Not Just From Africa, Say Scientists
http://www.lauralee.com/news/evolutionchallenged.htm

Mungo Man Mungo man disproves out of Africa
http://www.donsmaps.com/mungo.html

Dmanisi Man and the Out of Africa fairytale
http://rokus01.wordpress.com/2009/12/08/dmanisi-man-and-the-out-of-africa-fairytale/

Not Out of Africa | Human Evolution | DISCOVER Magazine Not out of Africa says scientist
http://discovermagazine.com/2002/aug/featafrica

Anthropologists Dispute Latest ‘Out of Africa’ Claims
http://anthropology.net/2007/07/21/anthropologists-dispute-latest-out-of-africa-claims/

Scientists forced to re-write evolution of modern man
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1341973/Did-humans-come-Middle-East-Africa-Scientists-forced-write-evolution-modern-man.html

Did first humans come out of Middle East and not Africa?
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/8227204/Did-the-first-humans-come-out-of-Middle-East.html

The History of Man is being rewritten in Georgia
http://www.caucaz.com/home_eng/breve_contenu.php?id=129

A skull that rewrites the history of man - Science, News
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/a-skull-that-rewrites-the-history-of-man-1783861.html

Did Early Man Take His First Steps In Asia?
http://meta-religion.com/Archaeology/Asia/Other/first_step_asia.htm

Chinese skull discovery may cause human origins rethink
http://en.rian.ru/science/20080124/97644883.html

Blacks, Whites and Asians have different ancestors ? and did not come from Africa, claims scientist
http://www.articlesafari.com/2010/09/whites-asians-did-not-come-from-africa/

A critique of the African-origin theory
http://www.articlesafari.com/2010/09/critique-of-the-african-origin-theory/

Humans Not As Genetically Identical As We Thought
http://www.articlesafari.com/2010/09/humans-not-genetically-identical/

New Race/Species of Human Discovered
http://www.articlesafari.com/2010/12/new-race-species-of-human-discovered116/

Studies contradict view that race doesn’t exist
http://www.articlesafari.com/2010/12/different-races/

400,000 year-old teeth may ‘change picture of evolution’
http://www.stuff.co.nz/world/middle-east/4497784/Ancient-teeth-find-may-change-picture-of-evolution

Ancient skeletons discovered in Georgia threaten to overturn the theory of human evolution
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1212060/Ancient-skeletons-discovered-Georgia-threaten-overturn-theory-human-evolution.html

Out of Asia: New Origin Proposed for Humans, Monkeys, Apes
http://www.livescience.com/8843-asia-origin-proposed-humans-monkeys-apes.html

"Out of Africa" View of Early Human Origins Disputed
http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2007/07/river-out-of-ed.html

Study stirs up debate over human origins - Technology & science
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19832535/ns/technology_and_science-science/

Humanities African Origins Theory Challenged by New Findings
http://www.thetruthseeker.co.uk/?p=50044

Chinese challenge Out of Africa Theory
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18093-chinese-challenge-to-out-of-africa-theory.html

New finding challenge Out of Africa Theory
http://www.muscatdaily.com/Archive/Oman/Dhofar-findings-challenge-Out-of-Africa-hypothesis

Skull Fossil Challenges Out-of-Africa Theory
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/07/0703_020704_georgianskull_2.html

DNA Turning Human Story Into a Tell-All
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/31/science/gains-in-dna-are-speeding-research-into-human-origins.html?_r=3&

Out of Africa Debunked
http://www.news24.com/MyNews24/Out-of-Africa-Theorydebunked-20130926

Rethinking Out of Africa
http://edge.org/conversation/rethinking-out-of-africa

Out of Africa theory called into question by originator
http://science-beta.slashdot.org/story/12/09/17/2020230/out-of-africa-theory-called-into-question-by-originator