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Charles Cornwallis (Military History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Charles Cornwallis, second earl and first marquess Cornwallis, was born on 31 December 1738 and died on 5 October 1805. He was from a prominent Suffolk family and was educated at Eton and at Clare College, Cambridge. His early military career included service as ensign, 1st Foot Guards; captain, 85th Regiment of Foot; brevet lieutenant-colonel, 12th Regiment of Foot; and colonel, 33rd Regiment of Foot. In Parliament, Cornwallis voted against the Stamp Act and advocated addressing colonial grievances. Arriving in the American colonies in 1776, he participated in the failed Charleston offensive and the New York campaign; the battles of Princeton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Fort Mercer in 1777; and Monmouth Court House in 1778. He was appointed Crown commander charged with executing the British Southern Strategy in 1780, intended to destroy enemy regular forces, suppress irregulars, and retake colonies from Georgia northward to reestablish royal authority. Despite a resounding victory at Camden in August 1780, Cornwallis’s force was unable to completely destroy the enemy regulars and to suppress the irregular partisan bands. Defeats of subordinates (Cowpens, January 1781; Kings Mountain, October 1780) stripped away his mounted infantry and dragoons and inhibited Loyalist support. Nevertheless, Cornwallis pressed on and chased the Continental Army under Nathanael Greene across North Carolina in a winter campaign. Cornwallis finally engaged Greene at Guilford Courthouse in March 1781, winning the field but suffering irreplaceable casualties. Cornwallis advanced into Virginia, hoping to isolate Greene and conduct Chesapeake Bay operations. Owing to a breakdown in command strategic coherence between General Henry Clinton in New York, Lord George Germain in London, and Cornwallis, the Virginia campaign evolved into a defensive effort at Yorktown. Seeing the opportunity to trap Cornwallis on the narrow York Peninsula, George Washington and the French allies marched to Virginia and besieged Yorktown. The Royal Navy’s failed efforts to rescue the garrison forced Cornwallis to surrender in October 1781. In Britain, Cornwallis and Clinton engaged in a media battle over the Yorktown debacle. Cornwallis emerged the winner; Clinton received official and public blame. Elevated to Knight Companion of the Garter in 1786, Cornwallis became governor general and commander in chief in India (1786–1793), where he instituted civil and military administrative reforms and defeated Tipu Sultan of Mysore, thus assuring British domination. Elevated to marquess, Cornwallis was appointed lord lieutenant and commander in chief in Ireland (1798–1801), where he defeated the Wolfe Tone Irish rebellion and French invaders at Ballinamuck in 1798. Cornwallis was instrumental in the Act of Union of 1800, leading to the creation of the United Kingdom. He led the British delegation at the Peace of Amiens negotiations with Napoleonic France 1802. In his final service, Cornwallis again took up the governor generalship of India in 1805, but he died of a fever soon after arrival.
  4.  
  5. Biographies
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  7. Although only one biography of Cornwallis as the central subject has been published since the late 20th century, he is one of the primary subjects of several works that address a collection of British military and political notables. Therefore, there is a good deal of secondary biographical material available. George Billias provides a series of biographies (Billias 1994, Billias 1969) of several key officers of both sides. Gleig 1831–1832 is an early Cornwallis biography, written shortly after his death in India. Magill 1987, an edited series, provides a brief biography of Cornwallis. Patterson 2004 compares the generalships of Washington and Cornwallis. Seton-Karr 1890 addresses his early career, North America, and activities after the War for American Independence. The Wickwires published the definitive biography of Cornwallis in two volumes (Wickwire and Wickwire 1970, Wickwire and Wickwire 1980) that cover his early life and military career through the War for American Independence and then his postwar political and military activities.
  8.  
  9. Billias, George A. George Washington’s Generals and Opponents. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 1994.
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  11. Billias provides a series of biographies of the most-critical Continental Army and British commanders, written by prominent historians. Includes chapters on Cornwallis, Greene, and Lafayette.
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  13. Billias, George A., ed. George Washington’s Opponents: British Generals and Admirals in the American Revolution. New York: William Morrow, 1969.
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  15. Billias focused on the British side in this edited volume of short biographies. The value to the Cornwallis researcher is the addition of the Royal Navy commanders, whose failure to break the French hold on the Chesapeake doomed the army besieged at Yorktown.
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  17. Gleig, G. R. Lives of the Most Eminent British Military Commanders. London: Longman, 1831–1832.
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  19. Gleig provides a dated but still-useful biography of Cornwallis, written three decades after the marquess’s death in India.
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  21. Magill, Frank N., ed. Great Lives from History: British and Commonwealth Series. Vol. 2, Cax–Gag. Pasadena, CA: Salem, 1987.
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  23. Magill’s edited series provides a brief biography of Cornwallis (see pp. 690–694), useful as a starting point for building Cornwallis research.
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  25. Patterson, Benton Rain. Washington and Cornwallis: The Battle for America, 1775–1783. Boulder, CO: Taylor, 2004.
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  27. Patterson analyzes both Washington and Cornwallis in a compare-and-contrast methodology. Even though the two rarely confronted each other directly, the analysis of the British strategic planning and operational execution in the South is useful to researchers.
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  29. Seton-Karr, W. S. Rulers of India: The Marquess Cornwallis. Oxford: Clarendon, 1890.
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  31. Seton-Karr produced one of the few works on Cornwallis that addresses his early career, activities in North America, and his post–War for American Independence career, as governor general and commander in chief of India and lord lieutenant of Ireland.
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  33. Wickwire, Franklin, and Mary Wickwire. Cornwallis: The American Adventure. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970.
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  35. The definitive biography of Cornwallis addresses his early life and military career through the War for American Independence from 1776 to Yorktown. Two features are especially helpful to researchers: a general narrative of events, particularly for the Southern Campaign, and references to the letters and correspondence, especially between Cornwallis, Sir Henry Clinton, and Lord George Germain.
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  37. Wickwire, Franklin, and Mary Wickwire. Cornwallis: The Imperial Years. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980.
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  39. The second Wickwire biography continues the career of Cornwallis in the post–War for American Independence period, addressing his appointment as governor general of India (two terms), lord lieutenant of Ireland, master of the ordnance, and chief British negotiator at the Peace of Amiens (1802).
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  41. Journals
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  43. The War for American Independence has always generated great historical interest and debate, particularly over British strategic choices and the actual operational execution of the Southern Campaign of 1778–1781. Articles frequently appear both in American and British journals addressing the nature of the rebellion, the wider context of the war, and the Southern Campaign in particular. Several journals are especially helpful, including the English Historical Review, Historical Journal, Journal of British Studies, Journal of Military History, Journal of American History, The Historian, Journal of the Historical Society, American Historical Review, and Military History Quarterly.
  44.  
  45. American Historical Review.
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  47. Published since 1895 as the official journal of the American Historical Association, American Historical Review (AHR) addresses every aspect of historical inquiry. However, in the early 21st century, the trend has been more toward social and cultural history. Some useful articles on the War for American Independence, Cornwallis, and the Southern Campaign may be found in older editions of AHR.
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  49. English Historical Review.
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  51. Published six times annually by Oxford Journals since the late 19th century, the English Historical Review (EHR) is the oldest English-language historical journal. Entries include scholarly articles, book and historiography reviews, and short essays. EHR now addresses not only British history but also European and world affairs since the classical era, including early American and colonial history.
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  53. The Historian.
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  55. Published for more than seven decades for the Phi Alpha Theta History Honor Society by Wiley-Blackwell, The Historian covers all aspects of the struggle for independence and provides a contextual background against which the actions and events surrounding Lord Cornwallis can be understood. The Historian also contains extensive book reviews.
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  57. Historical Journal.
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  59. Published by Cambridge University Press, the Historical Journal addresses multiple aspects of British, European, and world history dating to the 15th century, aiming at thirty-plus articles per year. Articles, historiographical reviews, and review articles appear. It is traditionally a publishing venue for younger scholars seeking to establish themselves as well as for established historians.
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  61. Journal of American History.
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  63. Published quarterly by the Organization of American Historians, Journal of American History (JAH) covers all aspects of the struggle for independence and provides a contextual background against which the actions and events surrounding Lord Cornwallis can be understood. JAH also contains extensive book reviews.
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  65. Journal of British Studies.
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  67. Journal of British Studies (JBS) concentrates on general British history and culture and presents articles, book reviews, and commentary. Especially strong in political, military, and constitutional history, many entries focus on the American War of Independence and the nature of the colonial revolt. Published quarterly by the University of Chicago Press.
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  69. Journal of Military History.
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  71. Published quarterly for the Society for Military History by the Virginia Military Institute, Journal of Military History (JMH) addresses all aspects of military history both through articles and book reviews. Although JMH is not focused on any particular aspect of military history, articles on Britain and the colonial American period appear frequently. JMH also provides an extensive review of new works.
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  73. Journal of the Historical Society.
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  75. Published quarterly for the Historical Society by Wiley-Blackwell, Journal of the Historical Society (JHS) covers all aspects of the struggle for independence and provides a contextual background against which the actions and events surrounding Lord Cornwallis can be understood. It also contains extensive book reviews.
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  77. Military History Quarterly.
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  79. The Quarterly Journal of Military History, or often simply Military History Quarterly (MHQ), is published four times annually by the Weider History Group. MHQ covers all aspects of military history—policy, strategy, tactics, doctrine, and event history—and is a good starting point for general contextual information on the War for American Independence and the Southern Campaign in particular.
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  81. US Government Open-Source Documents
  82.  
  83. The War for American Independence is a popular and dynamic area of study at the various US service colleges. Several master’s theses and point papers have been generated by students in these programs. The works typically address various aspects of Cornwallis and the Southern Campaign, including logistics, command and control, leadership, strategic planning and execution, and so forth. All are US government open-source documents and are generally available online. Army War College Historical Section 1928 is a work on Kings Mountain and Cowpens derived from participant documents and commentaries. The Army Coast Artillery School produced Arthur 1927 as student reading in the art and science of siegecraft. Bennett 1993 addresses Greene as a commanding officer, as does Hoffer 1988. Mallahan 1985 analyzes the Yorktown Campaign, examining the two primary commanders. Rogers 1988 examines the importance of Francis Marion, the South Carolina patriot and partisan commander. Smith 1982 addresses Cornwallis’s decision to advance into Virginia rather than chase Greene into South Carolina. Smith 2001 analyzes Cornwallis’s strategic decision making, and Wight 1965 addresses the strategic decision making and operational execution of Greene.
  84.  
  85. Army War College Historical Section. Historical Statements Concerning the Battle of Kings Mountain and the Battle of the Cowpens, South Carolina. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1928.
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  87. The Army War College produced a work on Kings Mountain and Cowpens derived from the letters, diaries, and other recollections.
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  89. Arthur, Robert. The Sieges of Yorktown 1781 and 1862. Fort Monroe, VA: Coast Artillery School, 1927.
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  91. The Army Coast Artillery School produced this document to instruct students in siegecraft, using Yorktown as an example of how traditional and conventional European siege operations ultimately forced Cornwallis to surrender.
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  93. Bennett, Thomas B. “Early Operational Art: Nathanael Green’s Carolina Campaign, 1780–1781.” Fort Leavenworth, KS: School of Advanced Military Studies, US Army Command and General Staff College, 1993.
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  95. Bennett addresses Greene in terms of his operational planning and execution, which consistently confounded Cornwallis’s efforts to secure North and South Carolina in 1780–1781.
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  97. Hoffer, Edward E. “Operational Art and Insurgency War: Nathanael Greene’s Campaign in the Carolinas.” Fort Leavenworth, KS: School of Advanced Military Studies, US Army Command and General Staff College, 1988.
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  99. Hoffer addresses Greene in terms of his operational planning and execution, which consistently confounded Cornwallis’s efforts to secure North and South Carolina in 1780–1781.
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  101. Mallahan, Richard A. “The Siege of Yorktown: Washington vs. Cornwallis.” Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University, Air Command and Staff College, 1985.
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  103. Mallahan addresses the dynamics of the Yorktown Campaign in a compare-and-contrast analysis of two of the primary commanders.
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  105. Rogers, Shelly. “Francis Marion: The Swamp Fox; American Military in Low Intensity Conflict.” Quantico, VA: Marine Corps Command and Staff College, 1988.
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  107. Rogers examines the irregular operations of Francis Marion, the South Carolina patriot and partisan commander, whose operations and actions severely hampered and interdicted Cornwallis’s logistical, communications, and Loyalist recruitment efforts. Note that distribution of this document is authorized to US government agencies only.
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  109. Smith, Bradley W. “Decision at Wilmington: Cornwallis Abandons the Carolinas, 1781.” Fort Leavenworth, KA: School of Advanced Military Studies, US Army Command and General Staff College, 1982.
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  111. Smith addresses Cornwallis’s decision making in April 1781 at Wilmington, North Carolina, where after the Pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse that cost 25 percent of his force, he decided to march into Virginia rather than chase Greene into South Carolina. Note that distribution of this document is authorized to US government agencies only.
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  113. Smith, Michael. “Lord Charles Cornwallis: A Study in Strategic Leadership Failure.” Carlisle, PA: US Army War College, 2001.
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  115. Smith analyzes the actions and strategic decision making of Cornwallis and concludes that his strategic leadership and lack of strategic acumen led to his defeat in Virginia.
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  117. Wight, Frank R. “Nathanael Greene, Major General of the American Revolution.” Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University, Air Command and Staff College, 1965.
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  119. Wight addresses Greene in terms of his operational planning and execution, which consistently confounded Cornwallis’s efforts to secure North and South Carolina in 1780–1781.
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  121. Correspondence and Narratives
  122.  
  123. A number of participants in the War for American Independence produced narratives of their actions and activities, which provide useful primary-source material on Cornwallis. In addition, a lively debate in the press ensued immediately after Yorktown as to which officer—Clinton as commander in chief in North America or Cornwallis as the field commander—was most responsible for the Yorktown surrender. Eventually, Cornwallis was absolved of blame in the press and in public and official opinion, and his postwar military and political career thrived, while Clinton, seen as most responsible for the debacle, received the blame. In addition, the Headquarters Papers (see Stevens and Brown 1904), brought back to Britain by Clinton’s successor, Sir Guy Carleton, later Baron Dorchester, provide primary-source documents for the entire British war effort, including the official Clinton-Germain-Cornwallis correspondence. Sir Henry Clinton produced his interpretation of events that occurred during his command tenure in Clinton 1971. Charles Derek Ross annotated and edited a selected collection of the Cornwallis Correspondence held by the British Public Record Office (Cornwallis 2011). George Reese provides a calendar of the Cornwallis Correspondence for documents in the years 1779–1781 (Cornwallis 1970). Lord Rawdon provides a senior officer’s perspective on the events in the Southern Campaign in Bickley 1934. Saberton 2010 contains the letters, orders, documents, and other materials from the Cornwallis Correspondence held in the British National Archives at Kew Gardens.
  124.  
  125. Bickley, Francis, ed. Report on the Manuscripts of the Late Reginald Rawdon Hastings, Esq. of the Manor House, Ashby de la Zouche. Vol. 3. Historical Manuscripts Commission 78. London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1934.
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  127. In letters to the earl of Huntingdon, Major General Lord Rawdon, Cornwallis’s second-in-command and overall Crown commander for South Carolina and Georgia after Cornwallis marched into North Carolina in January 1781, provides a senior officer’s perspective on the events in the Southern Campaign.
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  129. Clinton, Henry. The American Rebellion: Sir Henry Clinton’s Narrative of His Campaigns, 1775–1782, with an Appendix of Original Documents. Edited by William B. Willcox. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1971.
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  131. Sir Henry Clinton provides his perspective on the rebellion and justifies his command actions and decisions. The edited edition by Willcox also includes documents and letters that Clinton hoped would exonerate him for his actions and lay blame for Yorktown on Cornwallis. Originally published in 1954 by Yale University Press.
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  133. Cornwallis, Charles. The Cornwallis Papers, Abstracts of Americana. Edited by George H. Reese. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1970.
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  135. Reese provides a calendar of the Cornwallis Correspondence, especially in the period 1779–1781. The work is helpful in identifying correspondence relating to specific events.
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  137. Cornwallis, Charles. Correspondence of Charles, First Marquis Cornwallis. Edited by Charles Derek Ross. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
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  139. Ross transcribed and edited the Cornwallis Correspondence held by the British Public Record Office, now the National Archives, at Kew Gardens, Surrey. While Ross selectively edited several letters and excluded others, for anyone unable to view the original documents, the collection is a good research start. Originally published in 1859.
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  141. Saberton, Ian, ed. The Cornwallis Papers: The Campaigns of 1780 and 1781 in the Southern Theatre of the American Revolutionary War. 6 vols. Uckfield, UK: Naval and Military Press, 2010.
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  143. Saberton arranged, transcribed, and edited the letters, orders, documents, and other materials from the Cornwallis Correspondence held in the National Archives at Kew Gardens. The collection is valuable for researchers unable to view the original documents at the National Archives.
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  145. Stevens, Benjamin Franklin, and Henry J. Brown, eds. “Headquarters Papers of the British Army in North America.” In Report on American Manuscripts in the Royal Institution of Great Britain (Dorchester Papers). Vol. 1, 1747–July 1779. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1904.
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  147. Collected and brought back to Britain by Sir Guy Carleton, first Baron Dorchester, the Headquarters Papers contain correspondence, dispatches, letters, orders, and so on to and from British military headquarters in the various locations. Correspondence to and from Sir Henry Clinton regarding events in the South is especially helpful to the primary-source researcher. This source contains transcriptions and abstracts of the papers, which might be more readily accessible to the researcher unable to view the originals in the National Archives at Kew Gardens, Surrey, outside London. Vol. 1 is available online.
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  149. Memoirs and Participant Narratives
  150.  
  151. The analysis of Cornwallis in the American War of Independence is aided by many accounts, memoirs, journals, diaries, and postwar narratives of several of the participants. These are mainly from the British and Loyalist side, but some accounts from opponents are also useful. While such publications can be self-serving or agenda driven, they nevertheless provide a useful perspective when one is examining Cornwallis’s actions, decisions, personality, characteristics, and so forth, as well as the primary-source perception of events and narratives. Anthony Allaire, a Loyalist officer at the Battle of Kings Mountain, maintained a diary (Allaire 1968) that illustrates the events from a Loyalist perspective. Carl Leopold Baurmeister’s letters (Baurmeister 1957) provide a picture of the events and actions from the perspective of a senior German officer. Johann Conrad Dohla, a private Hessian soldier, maintained an extensive diary (Dohla 1990) that is most valuable for the Yorktown and Virginia campaigns. Dann 1980 provides the accounts of service of many patriot veterans, based on US pension records. Johann von Ewald, a Hessian officer, maintained a journal (Ewald 1979) that is particularly helpful for the entire Southern Campaign. The Historical Manuscripts Commission report provides an abstract of several Lord Germain documents (Germain 1904). The transcribed and edited papers of Nathanael Greene (Greene 1994–1995) provide valuable insight into Cornwallis’s primary opponent. Roger Lamb, a veteran of the Southern Campaign, published an extensive postwar journal (Lamb 1809). Banastre Tarleton published his own narrative (Tarleton 1999), concentrating on his actions and interpretations of the Southern Campaign.
  152.  
  153. Allaire, Anthony. Diary of Lieut. Anthony Allaire (Eyewitness Accounts of the American Revolution). New York: New York Times Press, 1968.
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  155. Allaire, a Loyalist officer who served at and survived the Battle of Kings Mountain, kept a diary of the war in the South from the Loyalist perspective and is a good source for the events of Kings Mountain. Originally published in 1881.
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  157. Baurmeister, Carl Leopold. Revolution in America: Confidential Letters and Journals 1776–1784 of Adj. Gen. Major Baurmeister of the Hessian Forces. Translated by Bernhard A. Uhlendorf. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1957.
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  159. Hessian troops formed a major element of Cornwallis’s Southern forces, and Baurmeister, a senior German officer, recorded his impressions and engagement histories through his letters and a journal.
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  161. Dann, John C., ed. The Revolution Remembered: Eyewitness Accounts of the War for Independence. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.
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  163. Drawing from the pension application records at the US National Archives, Dann provides the accounts of service of many patriot veterans—a useful primaryresearch tool.
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  165. Dohla, Johann Conrad. A Hessian Diary of the American Revolution. Translated and edited by Bruce E. Burgoyne. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990.
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  167. Dohla, a soldier in a Hessian unit serving with the Crown forces, maintained a diary. His description of events in the Southern Campaign and especially Yorktown are particularly useful.
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  169. Ewald, Johann von. Diary of the American War: A Hessian Journal. Translated and edited by Joseph P. Tustin. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979.
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  171. Ewald, an officer serving in a Hessian unit, maintained a war journal. His descriptions of events are particularly useful for the Southern Campaign.
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  173. Germain, George. Report on the Manuscripts of Mrs. Stopford-Sackville of Drayton House, Northamptonshire. Vol. 1. Historical Manuscripts Commission. London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1904.
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  175. Continued in Vol. 2 (1910). Although these are basically an abstract of several Germain documents, researchers will find them useful in identifying primary-source documents pertaining to Lord Germain, secretary of state for the Americas, and the key supporter of Cornwallis’s strategic plans for the South.
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  177. Greene, Nathanael. The Papers of General Nathanael Greene. Vols. 7 and 8. Edited by Dennis M. Conrad. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994–1995.
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  179. The transcribed and edited papers of Greene cover the period during which he was Cornwallis’s direct Continental Army opponent during the North Carolina portion of the Southern Campaign.
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  181. Lamb, Roger. An Original and Authentic Journal of Occurrences during the Late American War from Its Commencement to the Year 1783. Dublin, Ireland: Wilkinson & Courtney, 1809.
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  183. Lamb, a sergeant in the 23rd Regiment of Foot (Royal Welsh Fusiliers), served in America throughout the conflict and later published an extensive journal. His description of Southern Campaign events is particularly useful.
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  185. Tarleton, Banastre. A History of the Campaigns of 1780 and 1781 in the Southern Provinces of North America. North Stratford, NH: Ayer, 1999.
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  187. Tarleton published his own narrative, which, while useful in understanding the Southern Campaign from the British viewpoint, also is self-serving and somewhat self-aggrandizing. It did help tamp down domestic criticism of his actions and build his heroic image. Originally published in 1787 in Dublin, Ireland.
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  189. The War for American Independence
  190.  
  191. From April 1775 to the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, Britain fought to suppress a rebellion in the North American colonies that erupted over political, constitutional, and economic rights and grievances. By 1778, the rebellion became a global confrontation, with France allied with the rebellious colonists. By 1780, both Spain and Holland had allied with France. To understand the context within which Cornwallis operated in the colonies as a senior subordinate and later independent field commander, a number of general histories of the War for American Independence are available. Black 1991 covers the entire war as a general narrative of events. Fischer 2004 covers the war in New York and New Jersey in the campaign of 1776–1777, where Cornwallis commanded a division and led the chase of George Washington’s retreating forces. Hibbert 1990 examines the Crown’s strategic decision making, while Mackesy 1992 covers British policy, doctrine, governmental functioning, strategic decision making, and other topics, as well as the war’s central events. Middlekauff 2005 provides a contextual narrative, and Pearson 2000 explores British attitudes, using papers and letters of Crown participants. Peckham 1958 provides a narrative context for the actions of Cornwallis. Shy 1990 analyzes irregular warfare, especially in the Southern colonies, and Wood 2003 concentrates on the strategy and tactics of each side.
  192.  
  193. Black, Jeremy. War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775–1783. New York: St. Martin’s, 1991.
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  195. Black addresses several events of the War for American Independence, including the sieges of Charleston (1780) and Yorktown (1781), in which Cornwallis played a seminal role.
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  197. Fischer, David Hackett. Washington’s Crossing. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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  199. Fischer addresses the events and context of the War for American Independence in New York and New Jersey in the campaign of 1776, into early 1777, as a massive British operation attempted to destroy General Washington’s Continental Army. As a major general, Cornwallis played a key role in the campaign, especially at the Battle of Princeton in January 1777.
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  201. Hibbert, Christopher. Redcoats and Rebels. New York: W. W. Norton, 1990.
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  203. From the British point of view, Hibbert examines the Crown’s struggle to develop and implement a cohesive strategy for restoring the rebellious colonies to allegiance. Particular attention is focused on the British strategic problems in the Southern Campaign.
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  205. Mackesy, Piers. The War for America, 1775–1783. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992.
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  207. Perhaps the best available source on British strategic thinking on suppressing the colonial rebellion. Mackesy addresses important aspects of British policy, doctrine, governmental functioning, and other topics, some of which directly affected Cornwallis’s ability to sustain field operations, notably the British war administration and logistical process.
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  209. Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789. Rev. and expanded ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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  211. Middlekauff addresses the context and narrative events of the entire War for American Independence. Cornwallis’s role in the campaigns of 1776–1781 is covered.
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  213. O’Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson. The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire. Lewis Walpole Series in Eighteenth-Century Culture and History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013.
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  215. O’Shaughnessy addresses the primary British civil and military leaders in a series of biographical sketches that examine the decision making and strategic thinking of the men who commanded the forces and the civil authorities who set the priorities and strategies, arguing against the stereotypical perception.
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  217. Pearson, Michael. Those Damned Rebels: The American Revolution as Seen through British Eyes. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 2000.
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  219. Pearson examines British attitudes toward the American rebels through the papers and letters of Crown participants, thus reflecting the frustration that many felt with the inability to crush the rebellion through purely military means.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Peckham, Howard H. The War for Independence: A Military History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958.
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  223. Although this is a traditional battle and engagement narrative, the researcher will find Peckham useful for the context within which Cornwallis operated as a senior commander from 1776 to 1781. In addition, it addresses the nature of the irregular war that so flummoxed British efforts to restore allegiance and defeat patriot forces.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Shy, John. A People Numerous and Armed: Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence. Rev. ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990.
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  227. More a series of essays on the dynamics of the struggle for American independence than a chronological narrative. Shy addresses irregular warfare, especially in the Southern colonies, which severely hampered Cornwallis’s execution of the Southern pacification strategy of 1778–1781.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Wood, W. J. Battles of the Revolutionary War, 1775–1781. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 2003.
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  231. Although a straight narrative of several critical events of the War for American Independence, Wood’s work provides a good analysis of the strategy and tactics of each side. Prominent events addressed wherein Cornwallis participated or was heavily affected by include the battles of Princeton, Brandywine, Kings Mountain, Cowpens, Guilford Courthouse, and the Chesapeake Capes. Originally published in 1990 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press).
  232. Find this resource:
  233. The War in the South
  234.  
  235. With his appointment as Crown commander in the Southern colonies upon the departure of Sir Henry Clinton back to New York in June 1780, Cornwallis embarked on a Southern Campaign to defeat the Continental and patriot forces in the South and to restore allegiance and royal government in the region. The campaign was marked by his naturally aggressive and highly offensive character. The ultimate strategic goal was to secure Georgia and South Carolina first, then North Carolina, and ultimately Virginia, in a classic rollback strategy. While the war in the South was marked by several British battlefield victories—such as at Camden, South Carolina (August 1780), and Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina (March 1781)—the failure to win substantial active participation of the Loyalist population or the allegiance of the neutrals ultimately doomed the endeavor. The success of the patriot militia and irregular partisans such as Francis Marion and Thomas Sumter, combined with the ability of the major protagonist (after December 1780), Major General Nathanael Greene, to suffer battlefield defeats but maintain significant, cohesive forces in the field, forced Cornwallis eventually to abandon the Carolinas and march into Virginia, an action that resulted in the humiliating siege and surrender at Yorktown (October 1781). Yorktown essentially ended military operations to suppress the rebellion and, with the fall of Lord Frederic North’s ministry the following spring, led to the Paris peace negotiations that formally recognized the United States of America by 1783. Alden 1957 concentrates on the Southern Campaign, particularly the post-Yorktown period. Boatner 1974 provides a general narrative history of the war. Edgar 2003 addresses the war in the South primarily as a civil war between patriots supporting independence and Loyalists, who supported the Crown. Fortescue 2001 is the standard root source for all British army history and is highly useful for campaign history, and Lumpkin 1981 provides a narrative military history of the war in the South. Rankin 1976 addresses the war in North Carolina and provides some antecedent introduction with a discussion of Cowpens. Stedman 2010, by a prominent Pennsylvania Loyalist officer, presents the postwar Loyalist view of events, and Swisher 2008 discusses the irregular war features of the war in the South. Wilson 2005 addresses the early war in South Carolina and Georgia through 1780 and the success of British strategy to that point.
  236.  
  237. Alden, John R. The South in the Revolution, 1763–1789. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1957.
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  239. Though dated, Alden’s work is still a good narrative for Southern Campaign events, particularly the post-Yorktown period, when, absent the British regular army in the field (still holding Wilmington, Savannah, and Charleston until 1782) to restrain the Loyalists, the barbarous internecine “Tory War” broke out in the Carolinas.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Boatner, Mark M., III. Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. New York: Crown, 1974.
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  243. Boatner provides a complete one-volume history of the central occurrences of the war, which is useful for setting Cornwallis within the military history context of events, particularly the Southern Campaign.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Edgar, Walter B. Partisans and Redcoats: The Southern Conflict That Turned the Tide of the American Revolution. New York: Harper Perennial, 2003.
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  247. Edgar addresses the war in the Southern colonies from the viewpoint of the conflict between the patriots and Loyalists—essentially a civil war. The work focuses on the various atrocities committed, especially against those in rebellion, and on the negative impact on Cornwallis’s and the Crown’s attempts to restore allegiance and royal governance.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Fortescue, John. The War of Independence: The British Army in North America, 1775–1783. London: Greenhill, 2001.
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  251. Although dated (originally published in 1911), Fortescue still provides the most comprehensive history of the campaigns, personalities, and events in the history of the British army. Fortescue is the first source that researchers should go to for an overall army narrative.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Lumpkin, Henry. From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1981.
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  255. Lumpkin provides a traditional military history of the Southern Campaign, including commanders, operations, tactics, nature of the forces, and other topics, with a campaign history both of major and minor events—skirmishes to major engagements.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Rankin, Hugh F. Greene and Cornwallis: The Campaign in the Carolinas. Raleigh: North Carolina Office of Archives and History, 1976.
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  259. Though a brief sketch of the North Carolina campaign with some antecedent events such as Cowpens, Rankin’s work is useful as a first-step contextual narrative of Cornwallis’s efforts to defeat Greene and return North Carolina to allegiance.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Stedman, Charles. The History of the Origin, Progress, and Termination of the American War. Charleston, SC: Nabu, 2010.
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  263. Stedman, a prominent Pennsylvania Loyalist officer who served under Howe, Clinton, and Cornwallis and participated in nearly every major engagement of the war, published his interpretation after the struggle from the British side. Descriptions of Southern Campaign events are especially useful. Originally published in 1794.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Swisher, James K. The Revolutionary War in the Southern Backcountry. Gretna, LA: Pelican, 2008.
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  267. Swisher addresses the irregular, partisan, and small-engagement warfare that characterized the backcountry of the Carolinas and Georgia in 1780–1782. While Cornwallis typically succeeded in defeating regular Continental Army forces, losses to the partisans and irregular militia forces severely hampered his logistical situation and degraded potential Loyalist activity and support for his main forces.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Wilson, David K. The Southern Strategy: Britain’s Conquest of South Carolina and Georgia, 1775–1780. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2005.
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  271. Wilson addresses the antecedent events prior to Cornwallis’s taking active command of the Crown forces in the South, but which set in motion the chain of events leading to the disaster at Yorktown in October 1781. The study begins with Great Bridge in Virginia (1775) and ends with the Waxhaws Massacre (1780).
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Journal Articles
  274.  
  275. Many journal articles address various aspects of the war in the South. Researchers will find them useful in terms of the context within which Cornwallis operated. Both sides’ perspectives are well represented in the journal historiography, as is the nature of the forces commanded by Cornwallis. Atkinson 1937 provides statistical details on British force structure. Carpenter 1976 examines British logistical difficulties, particularly in the backcountry. Comtois 1994 addresses the early Virginia campaign, in which Cornwallis enjoyed some initial success. Conway 1986 examines British officers’ viewpoints on the proper strategic direction, and Farley 1975 compares and contrasts the leadership qualities of Daniel Morgan and Banastre Tarleton. Frasche 1977 addresses the problems for Cornwallis created by the backcountry partisan bands and irregulars, particularly in South Carolina. Massey 1989 examines the British occupation of Wilmington, which provided a North Carolina port and secure base of operations. Nelson 1973 examines Horatio Gates’s leadership and command decision making.
  276.  
  277. Atkinson, Christopher T. “British Forces in North America, 1774–1781: Their Distribution and Strength, Part 1.” Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 16 (1937): 3–23.
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  279. Continued in Vols. 19 (Part 2, pp. 163–166) and 20 (Part 3, pp. 190–192), published in 1940 and 1941, respectively. Atkinson provides technical details on the nature and numbers of British forces in the colonies. Researchers will find useful data on the nature of the forces under Cornwallis’s command.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Carpenter, James L. “The Army of Cornwallis: A Study of Logistics Inadequacies.” Logistics Spectrum 10 (Fall 1976): 5–13.
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  283. Carpenter examines the logistical problems encountered by Cornwallis after he moved inland from Charleston (August 1780), and particularly after burning his baggage and equipment at Ramsour’s Mill, North Carolina, prior to chasing Greene in the “Race to the Dan River” (January–February 1781).
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Comtois, Pierre. “Virginia under Threat.” Military History 11.4 (1994): 54–60.
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  287. Comtois addresses the early successes of Cornwallis in Virginia—Richmond, Charlottesville, Green Springs, and others—prior to entrenching the army at Yorktown in late summer of 1781.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Conway, Stephen. “To Subdue America: British Army Officers and the Conduct of the Revolutionary War.” William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser. 43.3 (1986): 381–407.
  290. DOI: 10.2307/1922482Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Conway examines the views of British officers of various ranks on whether to take a conciliatory or hardline approach toward the rebels.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Farley, M. Foster. “The ‘Old Wagoner’ and the ‘Green Dragoon.’” History Today 25.3 (1975): 190–195.
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  295. Farley compares and contrasts the leadership and decision making of Daniel Morgan and Banastre Tarleton leading up to and at Cowpens in January 1781, a British defeat that cost Cornwallis the better part of his light dragoons and mounted infantry elements.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Frasche, Louis D. F. “Problems of Command: Cornwallis, Partisans and Militia, 1780.” Military Review 57 (April 1977): 60–74.
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  299. Frasche examines the difficulties that the Carolina partisans and irregular militias created for Cornwallis and the British regular and Loyalist troops, particularly in terms of interdicting and interrupting logistics, communications, and force movement through the undeveloped Carolina backcountry.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Massey, Gregory De Van. “The British Expedition to Wilmington, January–November, 1781.” North Carolina Historical Review 66.4 (1989): 387–411.
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  303. Massey examines the occupation of Wilmington, North Carolina, by British regular forces under Major James Craig, which provided a sanctuary for Cornwallis’s army following Guilford Courthouse and where he decided on the march to Virginia in April 1781.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Nelson, Paul David. “Horatio Gates in the Southern Department, 1780: Serious Errors and a Costly Defeat.” North Carolina Historical Review 50.3 (1973): 256–272.
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  307. Nelson examines the leadership of Horatio Gates and the many errors in command and decision making that eventually led to the defeat at Camden by Crown forces under Cornwallis in August 1781.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. The Military Instrument
  310.  
  311. A critical aspect of the success or failure of any commander is the nature and quality of the military instrument. In the late 18th century, while much smaller than the Continental power armies of traditional opponents such as France and Spain, the British army was a highly professional and effective force. Unlike the Continental armies, which typically relied on conscripts, the British army was voluntary and long service, with enlistments typically lasting twelve years or more. Although many recruits came from the lower classes, the urban poor, and the generally desperate, the level of training, drill, discipline, and professionalism shaped the units into highly proficient, disciplined, and deadly fighting forces. In addition, the regimental system, typically regionally based, imparted an esprit de corps that transcended one’s humble or troubled background and steeled the troops with high morale, pride in their organization, and a willingness to endure harsh conditions. The particular dynamics of the period’s British army gave Cornwallis an exceptional military instrument that matched well with his aggressive, offensive, and bold nature. The resilience and steadfastness imparted by the British military system allowed Cornwallis to make great physical and psychological demands on his men, who despite the hardships never failed their commander in the field. Bowler 1975 analyzes the logistical and supply problems encountered by Britain in conducting distant military operations. Fortescue 2004, a history of the British army, provides a complete campaign narrative of the war. Edward William Harcourt, an officer in the 16th Light Dragoons, chronicled events in the Southern Campaign (see Harcourt 1884). Lunt 1971 looks at the history of the 33rd Regiment of Foot, one of Cornwallis’s key units. Spring 2010 asserts that the professional British army did adapt tactics and doctrine appropriate to the war’s dynamics and conditions. Stoker, et al. 2010 contains essays addressing strategic issues from all sides, including not only the Crown, Loyalists, and patriots, but allies as well. Urban 2007 chronicles the 23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers, one of Cornwallis’s most stalwart and reliable units throughout the war.
  312.  
  313. Bowler, R. Arthur. Logistics and the Failure of the British Army in America, 1775–1783. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975.
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  315. Bowler analyzes the logistical and supply problems in maintaining field forces three thousand miles distant, particularly when the army moved inland as Cornwallis did in autumn of 1780, thus losing the advantage of direct maritime replenishment and reinforcement.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Fortescue, John. A History of the British Army. 13 vols. East Essex, UK: Naval and Military Press, 2004.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Reprint of the original edition, published between 1899 and 1930 (London: Macmillan). Fortescue’s multivolume history of the British army, while of the traditional “drum and trumpet” school, provides a definitive narrative campaign history for the period. Vol. 3 covers the American War of Independence.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Harcourt, Edward William, ed. The Harcourt Papers. Vol. 11. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1884.
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  323. Lieutenant Colonel Harcourt, in numerous letters to his father, recounts the actions and engagements of the 16th Light Dragoons, one of only two regular cavalry regiments of the British army serving in Cornwallis’s Southern Campaign forces.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Lunt, James. The Duke of Wellington’s Regiment (West Riding). London: Leo Cooper, 1971.
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  327. Lunt provides an excellent regimental history of the 33rd Regiment of Foot, which fought throughout the Southern Campaign under Cornwallis (Cornwallis was the “Colonel of the Regiment,” essentially an honorary position).
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Spring, Matthew. With Zeal and with Bayonets Only: The British Army on Campaign in North America, 1775–1783. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010.
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  331. Spring analyzes the nature of the British forces, arguing that the professional British army did adapt to the dynamics in terms of tactics and doctrine and was frequently successful against the patriot opponents. However, British commanders, including Cornwallis, failed to comprehend the political and social nature of the rebellion.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Stoker, Donald, Kenneth J. Hagan, and Michael T. McMaster, eds. Strategy in the American War of Independence: A Global Approach. London: Routledge, 2010.
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  335. The essay collection addresses strategic issues of the War for American Independence. For Cornwallis and the Southern Campaign, recommended chapters are Jeremy Black’s “British Military Strategy,” John Reeve’s “British Naval Strategy: War on a Global Scale,” and Ricardo A. Herrera’s “The King’s Friends: Loyalists in British Strategy.”
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Urban, Mark. Fusiliers: The Saga of a British Redcoat Regiment in the American Revolution. New York: Walker, 2007.
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  339. Urban chronicles the 23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers, a regiment that fought throughout the Southern Campaign under Cornwallis’s command and a bulwark of his forces throughout the campaign.
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  341. Contemporaries
  342.  
  343. An examination of the biographies of Cornwallis’s contemporaries and opponents in the American War of Independence is useful for establishing the context within which he operated. Not only his seniors’ but also his subordinate commanders’ stories can be mined for useful commentary on the earl. In addition, the biographies provide a valuable narrative of the war from a variety of viewpoints and from both sides—Allies (France and United States) and the British. Bass 2003 covers Banastre Tarleton, the highly controversial but talented British cavalry commander. Brown 1963 addresses the policies and attitudes of Lord George Germain, the secretary of state for the Americas responsible for strategic decision making in North America. Golway 2006 provides a comprehensive biography of Nathanael Greene, and Gruber 2011 is the definitive biography of Sir William Howe. The Marquis de Lafayette’s letters (in Mortier 1977–1983) provide the Allied picture of the war in Virginia prior to Yorktown. Nelson 2005 looks at Lord Rawdon, Cornwallis’s second-in-command in South Carolina and Georgia. Nelson 1976 analyzes Horatio Gates as Southern Continental Army commander, and Thayer 1960 addresses the campaign from the strategic viewpoint. William Willcox wrote the definitive biography of Sir Henry Clinton (Willcox 1964).
  344.  
  345. Bass, Robert D. The Green Dragoon: The Lives of Banastre Tarleton and Mary Robinson. Orangeburg, SC: Sandlapper, 2003.
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  347. Bass addresses the career of Lieutenant-Colonel Tarleton, Cornwallis’s primary and highly controversial light dragoon commander, who was defeated at Cowpens in January 1781.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Brown, Gerald S. The American Secretary: The Colonial Policy of Lord George Germain, 1775–1778. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963.
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  351. Although Brown’s work covers only to 1778, it is helpful in understanding the policies and attitudes of Germain as the plans for the Southern Campaign evolved by 1778.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Golway, Terry. Washington’s General: Nathanael Greene and the Triumph of the American Revolution. New York: Holt, 2006.
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  355. Golway provides the most comprehensive biography of Cornwallis’s main nemesis in the Southern Campaign, Major General Greene, appointed to command the Southern Department following the disastrous tenure of Horatio Gates.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Gruber, Ira D. The Howe Brothers and the American Revolution. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
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  359. Gruber produced the definitive biography of Sir William Howe, under whom Cornwallis served as a subordinate commander in the New York and New Jersey campaigns of 1776–1777, as well as of his brother, Admiral Richard Howe, the Royal Navy commander for North America.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Mortier, Gilbert. Lafayette in the Age of the American Revolution: Selected Letters and Papers, 1776–1790. 5 vols. Edited by Stanley J. Idzerda. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977–1983.
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  363. Mortier, the marquis de Lafayette, served as Cornwallis’s major opponent in the Virginia campaign prior to the arrival of Washington and Rochambeau in late summer 1781 and provides a perspective on the Virginia campaign from the Anglo-American Allied side.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Nelson, Paul David. General Horatio Gates: A Biography. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1976.
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  367. Nelson analyzes the career of Gates, commander of the Southern Department after Benjamin Lincoln, whom Cornwallis soundly defeated at the Battle of Camden in August 1780.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Nelson, Paul David. Francis Rawdon-Hastings, Marquess of Hastings: Soldier, Peer of the Realm, Governor-General of India. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2005.
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  371. Nelson examines the career of Lord Rawdon, appointed as major general and charged with the defense of the Crown posts in South Carolina and Georgia following the departure of Cornwallis into North Carolina in January 1781.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Thayer, Theodore. Nathanael Greene: Strategist of the Revolution. New York: Twayne, 1960.
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  375. As in many of his works, Thayer concentrates on the strategic issues of the Southern Campaign. In this biography of Greene, he addresses Cornwallis’s primary opponent in the North Carolina campaign.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Willcox, William B. Portrait of a General: Sir Henry Clinton in the War of Independence. New York: Knopf, 1964.
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  379. Willcox provides the definitive biography of Clinton, who as Crown commander in chief in New York often clashed with Cornwallis over the strategic direction of the Southern Campaign. The work also addresses overall British strategy from 1778 to the conflict’s end.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Campaign in the Carolinas
  382.  
  383. This section covers the British Southern Campaign’s actions in North and South Carolina in subsections devoted to Charleston, Camden, and Kings Mountain and to Cowpens and Guilford Courthouse.
  384.  
  385. Charleston, Camden, and Kings Mountain
  386.  
  387. With the capture of Savannah, Georgia, followed by the siege and surrender of Charleston, South Carolina, the British Southern Campaign’s initial actions started with victories and apparent success. In August 1780, Cornwallis destroyed the second major Continental Army in the South at Camden, South Carolina. Camden, however, was the highpoint of the campaign. By that summer, in the absence of significant Continental Army forces in South Carolina, the partisan bands and patriot militias became active and established a pattern of irregular warfare that chronically harassed and compounded British efforts to pacify the colony. A major factor in the failure of the British Southern Strategy was the overreliance on local Loyalists not only for manpower but also logistical support and stability operations to restore and ensure peace and royal government once the main army had moved into the next more northerly colony in the overall rollback concept. Patriot victories over the North Carolina Loyalists at Ramsour’s Mill (June 1780) and at Kings Mountain (October 1780) over Major Patrick Ferguson’s provincial Loyalist force severely depleted Loyalist numbers and support. In addition, patriot partisan and militia victories in the South Carolina backcountry flummoxed British efforts to subdue the rebels and inspire the Loyalists. Borick 2003 addresses the siege and capture of Charleston in May 1780 by Sir Henry Clinton. Brown 2009 addresses Kings Mountain, as well as Morgan’s victory over Tarleton at Cowpens (see Cowpens and Guilford Courthouse for more information on the British defeat at Cowpens). Dameron 2003; Draper, et al. 2010; and Messick 1976 all cover the events leading up to and culminating at Kings Mountain. Gordon 2007 looks at the military events in South Carolina, Landers 1929 covers the Battle of Camden, and Piecuch 2006 provides a narrative of the Battle of Camden, by using participant narratives.
  388.  
  389. Borick, Carl P. A Gallant Defense: The Siege of Charleston, 1780. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2003.
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  391. Borick provides a narrative of the siege and capture of Charleston in May 1780 by Crown forces under Sir Henry Clinton and Cornwallis from a strategic, operational, and tactical viewpoint, arguing that the siege’s success turned the war in the South into an irregular and partisan struggle.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Brown, Robert W., Jr. Kings Mountain and Cowpens: Our Victory Was Complete. Charleston, SC: History Press, 2009.
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  395. Brown addresses the engagement at Kings Mountain, South Carolina, in October 1780, where the defeat of Major Patrick Ferguson’s Loyalist forces severely undercut any substantive North Carolina Loyalist support as Cornwallis began his advance into North Carolina in the autumn of 1781, complicated by the British loss at Cowpens in January 1781.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Dameron, J. David. Kings Mountain: The Defeat of the Loyalists, October 7, 1780. Battleground America Guides. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 2003.
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  399. Dameron’s work provides a basic narrative of the Battle of Kings Mountain, with a focus on the issue of Loyalist versus patriot. All but one combatant—Major Patrick Ferguson, the inspector of militia—were colonial Americans.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Draper, Lyman C., Anthony Allaire, and Isaac Shelby. King’s Mountain and Its Heroes: History of the Battle of King’s Mountain, October 7th, 1780, and the Events Which Led to It. Charleston, SC: Nabu, 2010.
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  403. Although dated (originally published in 1881 [Cincinnati: P. G. Thomson]), Draper’s is an excellent “drum and trumpet” history of the Battle of Kings Mountain that is based on original sources, memoirs, and other documents. The event cost Cornwallis the bulk of his light and mounted infantry, which greatly hampered his subsequent North Carolina operations.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Gordon, John W. South Carolina and the American Revolution: A Battlefield History. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2007.
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  407. Gordon provides a narrative history of the military events in South Carolina, where approximately one-third of all engagements in the War for American Independence occurred, from the strategic, operational, and tactical perspectives.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Landers, H. L. The Battle of Camden. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1929.
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  411. Landers’s work is one of the few that directly address the Battle of Camden (August 1780), Cornwallis’s greatest achievement and the most complete British victory of the conflict. Camden destroyed a second major Continental Army force in the South and set in motion Cornwallis’s Carolinas campaign.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Messick, Hank. King’s Mountain: The Epic of the Blue Ridge “Mountain Men” in the American Revolution. Boston: Little, Brown, 1976.
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  415. Messick addresses the events and actions at Kings Mountain, the event that resulted in the loss of the light infantry that protected Cornwallis’s left flank in his first movement into North Carolina in October 1780, and the first check for the British in the hitherto successful Southern Campaign.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Piecuch, Jim. The Battle of Camden: A Documentary History. Charleston, SC: History Press, 2006.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Using participants’ accounts, Piecuch provides a narrative of the Battle of Camden.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Cowpens and Guilford Courthouse
  422.  
  423. In January 1781, Cornwallis suffered a major blow when Brigadier General Daniel Morgan defeated Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton at Cowpens, an action that cost Cornwallis many of his valuable light and mounted infantry troops. Despite the losses at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis drove into North Carolina in January 1781 intent on defeating the forces under the new Continental Army commander of the Southern Department, Major General Nathanael Greene. The effort led to the “Race (or sometimes “Chase”) to the Dan River” in Virginia as Greene, a logistical genius, consistently stayed ahead of the rapidly advancing British force. Greene finally gave battle at Guilford Courthouse. Although technically a British triumph, Guilford Courthouse cost Cornwallis a quarter of his army and forced him to retreat to Wilmington, North Carolina. At that point, Cornwallis determined to march into Virginia, thus initiating the terminal aspect of the British Southern Campaign leading up to the Yorktown debacle and surrender. Babits 2000 chronicles Morgan’s victory at Cowpens, while Babits and Howard 2009 covers Guilford Courthouse. Buchanan 1999 addresses the Battle of Guilford Courthouse and the events leading up to it. Davis 2002 addresses key events in early 1781, and Hairr 2002 addresses Guilford Courthouse and its critical consequences for Cornwallis’s strategic decisions. Higginbotham 1979 provides a biography of Brigadier General Morgan, the victor of Cowpens.
  424.  
  425. Babits, Lawrence E. A Devil of a Whipping: The Battle of Cowpens. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
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  427. Babits addresses the patriot victory at Cowpens (January 1781), which cost Cornwallis much of his light and mounted infantry and Loyalist British Legion. As a result, Cornwallis suffered from a severe lack of reliable situational awareness and reconnaissance intelligence for the remainder of the Southern Campaign.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Babits, Lawrence E., and Joshua B. Howard. Long, Obstinate, and Bloody: The Battle of Guilford Courthouse. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009.
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  431. Babits and Howard chronicle the events of Guilford Courthouse (March 1781), the battle that convinced Cornwallis to abandon the Carolina campaign and march into Virginia. The battle is told through the experiences of the participants.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Buchanan, John. The Road to Guilford Courthouse: The American Revolution in the Carolinas. New York: Wiley, 1999.
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  435. Buchanan addresses not only the Battle of Guilford Courthouse, but also the events in the South leading up to the engagement in March 1781. Although a popular history, it provides useful contextual narrative to Cornwallis and his struggle to pacify the wild backcountry.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Davis, Burke. The Cowpens-Guilford Courthouse Campaign. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002.
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  439. Davis addresses the key events in the early months of 1781 from the Battle of Cowpens through the Race to the Dan River, culminating in Cornwallis’s Pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse, which ended his efforts in the Carolinas and precipitated the march into Virginia.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Hairr, John. Guilford Courthouse: Nathanael Greene’s Victory in Defeat, March 15, 1781. Battleground America Guides. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 2002.
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  443. Hairr’s work addresses the Battle of Guilford Courthouse and its importance in causing Cornwallis to march into Virginia rather than continue campaigning in the Carolinas.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Higginbotham, Donald. Daniel Morgan: Revolutionary Rifleman. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979.
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  447. Higginbotham addresses the life and character of Brigadier General Morgan, whose riflemen played a key role in the Saratoga event. Morgan commanded the Continental and patriot forces that defeated Lieutenant-Colonel Tarleton at Cowpens (January 1781), thus depriving Cornwallis of much of his light and mounted infantry and dragoons.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. The Yorktown Campaign
  450.  
  451. This section covers different components of the Yorktown Campaign, from the Siege and Surrender of Yorktown to the naval aspects (see Battle of the Virginia Capes and Naval and Maritime Issues). This section also includes Journal Articles that examine various angles of the campaign.
  452.  
  453. Siege and Surrender of Yorktown
  454.  
  455. The siege and surrender of the British post at Yorktown, Virginia, in October 1781 essentially ended major military operations in the North American colonies. Primarily because of the Yorktown debacle, the ministry of Lord Frederic North fell in spring 1783 and a Whig ministry intent on settling the rebellion was installed, leading to the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which formally established and recognized the new United States of America. Following the Pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse, Cornwallis, faced with a choice of strategic options, including retiring to Charleston, decided to march into Virginia. Despite Sir Henry Clinton’s desire for the Southern Army to retire into South Carolina to defend established posts such as Camden and Ninety-Six, Cornwallis opted to advance into Virginia, link up with forces moving down from the north, and cut Nathanael Greene’s link to the North and George Washington’s main Continental Army force outside New York. But once Cornwallis arrived in Virginia, severe strategic incoherence set in. Cornwallis received contradictory orders from Clinton—some demanding troops for a return to New York, others conducting pincer operations in the Chesapeake, and still others establishing a defensive post in the Tidewater region. Cornwallis eventually settled on the village of Yorktown, which though on a peninsula between the York and James Rivers and thus subject to being isolated by siege, did offer an excellent operating station for the Royal Navy. But, faced with a classic conventional siege from the combined Franco-American army under the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington, Cornwallis was forced to surrender his entire command by October 1781. Davis 1989 analyzes the Virginia campaign leading up to Yorktown. Greene 2009 analyzes Yorktown with an emphasis on command and the leadership characteristics of primary officers. Ketchum 2004 addresses Yorktown from a participant’s perspective, and Selby 1976 provides a narrative of Yorktown events. Thayer 1975 examines Yorktown from the strategic perspective, whereas Treacy 1963 examines the Yorktown Campaign from Greene’s perspective as he campaigned in South Carolina.
  456.  
  457. Davis, Burke. The Campaign That Won America: The Story of Yorktown. New York: Eastern Acorn, 1989.
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  459. Davis analyzes the Virginia campaign, the events leading to and including the surrender at Yorktown. Originally published in 1970 (New York: Dial).
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  461. Greene, Jerome A. The Guns of Independence: The Siege of Yorktown, 1781. New York: Savas Beatie, 2009.
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  463. Greene addresses the events of the Yorktown Campaign, with particular attention to the elements of leadership and geography, as well as providing an event narrative.
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  465. Ketchum, Richard M. Victory at Yorktown: The Campaign That Won the Revolution. New York: Holt, 2004.
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  467. Through the vignettes and personal stories of many participants, Ketchum narrates the story of the Yorktown Campaign from a more human perspective than most battle histories.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Selby, John M. The Road to Yorktown. New York: St. Martin’s, 1976.
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  471. Selby provides a narrative of the events leading up to the siege and surrender of Yorktown.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Thayer, Theodore. Yorktown: Campaign of Strategic Options. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1975.
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  475. Thayer examines the Yorktown Campaign through the perspective of the strategic decisions, planning, and alternatives of each side. The strategic decision making of Cornwallis is especially prominent.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Treacy, M. F. Prelude to Yorktown, the Southern Campaign of Nathanael Greene. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1963.
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  479. Treacy examines the Yorktown Campaign from the viewpoint of the actions of Greene, whose efforts, such as Guilford Courthouse, induced Cornwallis to march into Virginia in May 1781.
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  481. Battle of the Virginia Capes and Naval and Maritime Issues
  482.  
  483. The naval dimension of the Yorktown Campaign was fundamental to the outcome. Once Clinton realized the gravity of Cornwallis’s situation, he attempted to relieve his subordinate by sea. The Royal Navy commander in North America, Rear Admiral Thomas Graves, sailed from New York in late summer intent on establishing control of the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. However, upon arrival off Cape Henry, he discovered the French squadron under Admiral François-Joseph Paul, the Comte de Grasse. A running naval engagement ensued down the North Carolina coast for several days until the French turned about and reestablished control over the Chesapeake Bay entrance, thus dooming Cornwallis at Yorktown. Black 2004 addresses the British colonial world, concentrating on trade and economic aspects. Mahan 2004 blames the Royal Navy’s failures in the war on faulty strategic assumptions and execution, and Pengelly 2009 examines the perspectives of Rear Admiral Samuel Hood. Syrett 1989 analyzes the Royal Navy’s role in support of the land battle, while Tilley and Crane 1987 looks at the Royal Navy’s strategic mobility and logistical role in support of the war ashore.
  484.  
  485. Black, Jeremy. The British Seaborne Empire. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004.
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  487. Black addresses the British colonial empire through the lens of economics and trade. To maintain British economic and imperial trade advantages, the Royal Navy dominated the oceans, a factor that gave field forces such as Cornwallis’s a distinct strategic advantage in mobility and potential logistical support.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Mahan, Alfred Thayer. The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783. New York: Barnes & Noble, 2004.
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  491. Rear Admiral Mahan, in his seminal and frequently reprinted work on naval and maritime strategy, was highly critical of the Royal Navy’s efforts in the American War of Independence and blamed the failure, such as the Battle of the Virginia Capes (also called Battle of the Chesapeake), on faulty strategic assumptions and execution.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Pengelly, Colin. Sir Samuel Hood and the Battle of the Chesapeake. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2009.
  494. DOI: 10.5744/florida/9780813033136.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. Pengelly examines the seminal Battle of the Chesapeake from the viewpoint of Rear Admiral Hood, commander of the British van under Rear Admiral Thomas Graves; Hood was highly critical of the failed effort to dislodge the French fleet from the Chesapeake, which ultimately doomed Cornwallis, who was besieged at Yorktown.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Syrett, David. The Royal Navy in American Waters, 1775–1783. Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1989.
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  499. Syrett examines the role of the Royal Navy in North America in support of the land battle in providing strategic mobility and logistical support. He addresses the crucial Battle of the Chesapeake and the Royal Navy’s inability to drive the French Navy out of Chesapeake Bay.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Tilley, George L., and Thomas Crane. The British Navy and the American Revolution. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1987.
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  503. Tilley and Crane explore how the British Royal Navy operated in support of the land battle in providing strategic mobility and logistical support, yet fell short in terms of rescuing Cornwallis’s forces at Yorktown owing to Rear Admiral Graves’s inability to drive the French Navy out of Chesapeake Bay.
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  505. Journal Articles
  506.  
  507. Numerous journal articles examine the Yorktown and British Virginia campaigns from various angles, particularly that of Cornwallis’s leadership and the breakdown in strategic coherence. Other articles approach the event from the naval or Allied viewpoint in terms of how that affected the outcome. Burne 1938 explores Cornwallis’s strategic and operational decision making. Hatch 1940 addresses Gloucester Point and the attempt to evacuate the army to Gloucester, Larrabee 1961 examines the Battle of the Virginia Capes, and Lumpkin 1981 explores the Battle of the Virginia Capes in terms of the effect on Yorktown. Lutnick 1964 analyzes British press reaction to the Yorktown surrender. Selig 1999 examines the strategic leadership of Admiral Comte de Grasse, while Urwin 2003 examines the economic strategy of Cornwallis’s early Virginia campaign. Willcox 1946 analyzes the British lack of unity of effort and command in the Virginia campaign, and Wright 1932 examines Yorktown as a conventional, period siege.
  508.  
  509. Burne, A. H. “Cornwallis at Yorktown.” Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 17 (Summer 1938): 71–76.
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  511. Burne examines the actions and decision making of Cornwallis leading up to and through the siege of Yorktown, to the surrender in October 1781.
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  513. Hatch, Charles E., Jr. “Gloucester Point in the Siege of Yorktown, 1781.” William and Mary Quarterly, 2d ser. 20.2 (April 1940): 265–284.
  514. DOI: 10.2307/1922681Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Hatch addresses the key post at Gloucester Point, across the narrow channel of the York River from Yorktown. Cornwallis fortified the post and in a last desperate attempt to escape tried to evacuate the army to Gloucester Point, but foul weather prevented the army’s escape.
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  517. Larrabee, Harold A. “A Near Thing at Yorktown.” American Heritage 12.6 (1961): 56–64, 69–73.
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  519. Larrabee examines the Battle of the Chesapeake on 5 September 1781 for control of the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, the loss of which precluded reinforcement or evacuation and doomed Cornwallis to ultimate surrender by the following month.
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  521. Lumpkin, Henry. “The Battle off the Capes.” Virginia Cavalcade 31.2 (1981): 68–77.
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  523. Lumpkin examines the Battle of the Virginia Capes as the key element in Cornwallis’s eventual defeat. The French maintained control of the mouth of the Chesapeake, thus denying Cornwallis (who was at Yorktown) reinforcements, supply, and an escape route.
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  525. Lutnick, Solomon M. “The Defeat at Yorktown: A View from the British Press.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 72.4 (1964): 471–478.
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  527. Lutnick examines British press commentary and editorials on the Yorktown surrender. The British press eventually took Cornwallis’s side and blamed Clinton for the debacle.
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  529. Selig, Robert. “Francois Joseph Paul Comte de Grasse, the Battle off the Virginia Capes, and the American Victory at Yorktown.” Journal of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation 21.5 (October–November 1999): 26–32.
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  531. Selig discusses French admiral the Comte de Grasse and his effective leadership; his victory over the British Royal Navy squadron under Rear Admiral Thomas off the Virginia Capes on 5 September 1781 sealed off Chesapeake Bay, preventing British supply and reinforcement, which ultimately doomed Cornwallis to surrender the following month.
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  533. Urwin, Gregory J. W. “Cornwallis and the Slaves of Virginia: A New Look at the Yorktown Campaign.” International Commission of Military History Proceedings (2002): 172–192.
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  535. Urwin examines the economic strategy of Cornwallis in Virginia through the summer of 1781, leading up to entrenching the army at Yorktown. Rather than attempting to win over neutrals, the army carried out a policy of property destruction on anyone who outwardly supported the patriot cause, thus tamping down local rebel support.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Urwin, Gregory J. W. “Cornwallis and the Slaves of Virginia: A New Look at the Yorktown Campaign.” In International Commission of Military History: Acta; Coming to the Americas; XXVIIIth Congress, Norfolk, Virginia, 11–17 August 2002. Edited by John A. Lynn, 172–192. Wheaton, IL: Cantigny First Division Foundation, 2003.
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  539. Urwin examines the economic strategy of Cornwallis in Virginia through the summer of 1781, leading up to entrenching the army at Yorktown. Rather than attempting to win over neutrals, the army carried out a policy of property destruction on anyone who outwardly supported the patriot cause, thus tamping down local rebel support.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Willcox, William B. “The British Road to Yorktown: A Study in Divided Command.” American Historical Review 52.1 (October 1946): 1–35.
  542. DOI: 10.2307/1845066Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Willcox analyzes the lack of unity of effort and command exhibited by Clinton and Cornwallis in the Virginia campaign, which led inevitably to the Yorktown debacle.
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  545. Wright, John W. “Notes on the Siege of Yorktown in 1781 with Special Reference to the Conduct of a Siege in the Eighteenth Century.” William and Mary Quarterly, 2d ser. 12.4 (October 1932): 229–250.
  546. DOI: 10.2307/1923261Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Despite American mythology about the impact of patriot irregulars, French artillery and classic European siege tactics forced Cornwallis’s surrender at Yorktown. Wright examines Yorktown within the context of period siegecraft.
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  549. The Southern Strategies
  550.  
  551. Called variously the Southern Strategy or the Loyalist Strategy, the scheme for ending the American rebellion from the South by moving northward one colony at a time, with heavy reliance on Southern Loyalists for troops, security, and logistical support, evolved by mid-1778 based on the frustrating military and political stalemate in the northern and middle colonies and the injection of France into the conflict, allied with the patriots. Many journal articles address various aspects of the British strategic decision making, planning, and execution from a variety of angles, including that of Nathanael Greene, Cornwallis’s main opponent in 1781 prior to the Virginia campaign. Babits 1984 looks at Greene, primarily in terms of his logistical planning and execution, and Berg 1985 examines the British strategic perspective. Gruber 1979 looks at British strategic thinking and planning, while Kyte 1960 proposes that by abandoning the Carolinas, Cornwallis doomed the British war effort. Mackesy 1963 addresses the British strategic perspective, Rhinesmith 1981 addresses Cornwallis’s strategic and tactical decision making, and Shy 1978 addresses British strategic planning and decision making, particularly the Loyalist Strategy.
  552.  
  553. Babits, Lawrence E. “Greene’s Strategy in the Southern Campaign, 1780–1781.” Air Force Journal of Logistics 8.1 (Winter 1984): 10–13.
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  555. Babits addresses Greene in terms of his logistical planning and coordination, which consistently confounded Cornwallis’s efforts to secure North and South Carolina in 1780–1781.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Berg, Richard H. “The Southern Campaigns: The British Effort to Retake the South, 1778–1781.” Strategy & Tactics 104 (1985): 14–23.
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  559. Berg examines the Southern Campaign from the British strategic perspective and also the genius of Nathanael Greene in securing the strategic victory while never winning a major engagement directly.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Gruber, Ira. “Britain’s Southern Strategy.” In The Revolutionary War in the South: Power, Conflict, and Leadership; Essays in Honor of John Richard Alden. Edited by W. Robert Higgins, 205–238. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1979.
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  563. Gruber, the primary biographer of the Howe brothers, analyzes the British Southern Campaign from the perspective of strategic thinking and planning, with an analysis of its failure to restore allegiance in the South.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Kyte, George W. “Strategic Blunder: Lord Cornwallis Abandons the Carolinas, 1781.” The Historian 22.2 (1960): 129–144.
  566. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6563.1960.tb01648.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Kyte argues that even without Yorktown, Cornwallis’s abandonment of the Carolinas by marching into Virginia would have been a disaster for the British cause.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Mackesy, Piers. “British Strategy in the War of American Independence.” Yale Review 52.4 (1963): 539–557.
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  571. Mackesy set the stage for his later monograph (see Mackesy 1992, cited under the War for American Independence) in this journal article, where he discusses the strategic problems encountered by Britain in attempts to restore the allegiance of the colonies by military and economic means.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Rhinesmith, W. Donald. “October 1781: The Southern Campaign Ends at Yorktown.” Virginia Cavalcade 31.2 (1981): 52–67.
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  575. While generally addressing British strategy throughout the war, Rhinesmith focuses on Cornwallis’s strategic and tactical decision making in the Yorktown Campaign.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Shy, John. “British Strategy for Pacifying the Southern Colonies, 1778–1781.” In The Southern Experience in the American Revolution. Edited by Jeffrey J. Crow and Larry E. Tise, 155–173. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978.
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  579. Shy addresses British strategic planning and decision making for the Southern Campaign, with an emphasis on the rationale behind a heavy reliance on the Southern Loyalists to support the Army with troops and supplies, as well as to reestablish Crown government once an area had been pacified.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Loyalists and Allies
  582.  
  583. The British Southern Strategy was constructed on the assumption that there were great numbers of Loyalists in the South simply waiting for the arrival of British regular forces to join the war against the rebellious colonists. Several deposed royal governors and former royal officials argued this point and, on the basis of such intelligence and assumptions, the commanders crafted their strategy for pacification of the South. It relied on the willingness of the Southern Loyalists not only to turn out for combat operations, but also to support the forces with supplies and to establish royal government in pacified areas. Allen 2010 examines the attitudes and actions of American Loyalists, and Carpenter 1995 addresses the June 1780 engagement at Ramsour’s Mill, North Carolina. DeMond 2009 provides a statistical and demographic look at the North Carolina Loyalists. Hanger 2010, by a commander of British and Loyalist light dragoons, provides the author’s perspective on events. Lambert 1987 analyzes the South Carolina Loyalists, Rankin 1996 chronicles the Loyalist defeat at Moores Creek Bridge, and Smith 1964 addresses the relationship between British regular forces and Southern Loyalists.
  584.  
  585. Allen, Thomas B. Tories: Fighting for the King in America’s First Civil War. New York: Harper, 2010.
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  587. Allen uses letters, primary-source documents, and personal diaries to present the attitudes and examine the actions of American Loyalists, arguing that many more colonists than typically thought supported the Crown in some fashion, but, for Cornwallis, Loyalist support in the South proved to be sketchy and unreliable.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Carpenter, William L. The Battle of Ramsour’s Mill. Lincolnton, NC: Lincoln County Historical Association and Lincoln County Museum of History, 1995.
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  591. Carpenter addresses the June 1780 engagement between a large body of western North Carolina Loyalists and patriots, with the Loyalists losing badly. Cornwallis had warned the North Carolinians not to embody until the main force arrival, and the defeat meant a lack of Loyalist support as Cornwallis advanced into North Carolina.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. DeMond, Robert O. The Loyalists in North Carolina during the Revolution. Baltimore: Clearfield, 2009.
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  595. Although this is more a genealogical study of North Carolina Loyalists, DeMond provides valuable insight into the types and numbers of Loyalists who actively participated in support of Cornwallis and the offensive operations in North Carolina.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Hanger, George. The Life, Adventures, and Opinions of Colonel George Hanger. 2 vols. Charleston, SC: Nabu, 2010.
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  599. The autobiography of Lieutenant Colonel Hanger, commander of the light dragoons of Tarleton’s British Legion (composed primarily of middle-colony Loyalists), provides insight into the activities and engagements of Cornwallis’s primary fast strike force throughout the Southern Campaign. First published in 1801 (London: J. Debrett).
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Lambert, Robert Stansbury. South Carolina Loyalists in the American Revolution. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1987.
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  603. Lambert analyzes the action and attitudes of the South Carolina Loyalists, a cornerstone of the British Southern Strategy and key Cornwallis allies in the struggle to secure South Carolina and tamp down the backcountry rebel partisans.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Rankin, Hugh F. The Moores Creek Bridge Campaign, 1776. Currie, NC: Eastern National Park and Monument Association, 1996.
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  607. Rankin examines the patriot victory over the Scottish Highland Loyalists at Moores Creek Bridge in February 1776, an event that nullified significant Loyalist support in North Carolina early in the conflict and had ripple effects for Cornwallis’s 1780–1781 North Carolina offensive.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Smith, Paul H. Loyalists and Redcoats: A Study in British Revolutionary Policy. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1964.
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  611. Smith addresses the relationship between the Crown forces and the Southern Loyalists upon whom the British Southern Strategy was based and who, ultimately, disappointed and frustrated Cornwallis’s efforts to tamp down patriot activity.
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  613. Clinton-Cornwallis Controversy
  614.  
  615. Following the Yorktown surrender and Cornwallis’s and Sir Henry Clinton’s return to Britain, a media war broke out between the two officers over the issue of who was more responsible for the failure of the Southern Campaign and Yorktown. Clinton produced his Narrative (see Clinton 2010b), blaming Cornwallis for disobeying orders. Cornwallis responded, thus setting off the debate in the press, particularly through the medium of pamphlets, a common period practice. Eventually, Cornwallis won the argument and Clinton was blamed in the public and official arenas for the debacle. Clinton’s narrative sought to justify and exonerate his actions and decisions and to shift blame for the Yorktown disaster on to Cornwallis. Cornwallis responded in his defense with a series of answers (such as Cornwallis 2010) to Clinton’s publications (see Clinton 2010a and Clinton 2010c). Mackenzie 2010 reacts to Tarleton’s self-serving narrative published in 1787 that had inadvertently contributed to the laying of blame on Clinton. Stevens 2010 addresses the command decisions that led to Yorktown by publishing the Clinton-Cornwallis correspondence. Themistocles 2010 was most likely written by Cornwallis, a common device for 18th-century publishing that allowed the author to speak as an unbiased, remote narrator.
  616.  
  617. Clinton, Sir Henry. Observations on Mr. Stedman’s History of the American War. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale ECCO, 2010a.
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  619. Clinton’s pamphlet is another in his publications in defense of his actions and decisions as Crown commander in chief for North America. First published in 1794 (London: John Debrett).
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  621. Clinton, Sir Henry. The Narrative of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Clinton, K.B., Relative to His Conduct during Part of His Command of the King’s Troops in North America: Particularly to That Which Respects the Campaign Issue of 1781. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale ECCO, 2010b.
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  623. Clinton’s narrative, published just after his return to Britain, sought to justify and exonerate his actions and decisions and to shift blame for the Yorktown disaster on to Cornwallis. Originally published in 1786 (London: John Debrett).
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Clinton, Sir Henry. Observations on Some Parts of the Answer of Earl Cornwallis to Sir Henry Clinton’s Narrative. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale ECCO, 2010c.
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  627. Clinton’s pamphlet is one of a series of publications in defense of his actions and decisions leading up to the Yorktown surrender, primarily to dispute or counter Cornwallis’s accusations and interpretation of events. First published in 1783 (London: John Debrett).
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Cornwallis, Charles. An Answer to that Part of the Narrative of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Clinton, K.B., Which Relates to the Conduct of Lieutenant-General Earl Cornwallis, during the Campaign in North America, in the Year 1781. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale ECCO, 2010.
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  631. A pamphlet in the lively debate between Cornwallis and Clinton; the earl responded to Clinton’s attempts to shift blame for the failure of the Virginia campaign. First published in 1783 (London: John Debrett).
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Mackenzie, Roderick. Strictures on Lt. Col. Tarleton’s History “of the Campaigns of 1780 and 1781, in the Southern Provinces of North America.” Farmington Hills, MI: Gale ECCO, 2010.
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  635. In his defense of his actions in the Southern Campaign, Tarleton inadvertently contributed to the controversy generated by the two senior commanders postwar as to who was to blame for the Yorktown disaster. Mackenzie reacted to Tarleton’s self-serving narrative published in 1787. First published in 1787 (London: R. Faulder).
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Stevens, Benjamin Franklin. The Campaign in Virginia 1781: Clinton-Cornwallis Controversy. 2 vols. Charleston, SC: Nabu, 2010.
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  639. Stevens addressed the issue of the blame for the failure of the Virginia campaign and the command decisions that led to the disaster at Yorktown. The volumes contain period pamphlets; previously unpublished Clinton manuscript notes; extracts from the House of Lords Journals; and transcriptions of the letters, documents, orders, reports, and other material contained in the Cornwallis Correspondence. First published in London in 1888.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Themistocles. A Reply to Sir Henry Clinton’s Narrative: His Numerous Errors Are Pointed Out, Conduct of Lord Cornwallis Vindicated from Aspersion; Includes the Public and Secret Correspondence. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale ECCO, 2010.
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  643. Using a pen name from classical Antiquity for pamphleteering was common in the 18th century. The pamphlet by Themistocles (probably Cornwallis) continued the back-and-forth public debate over who was at fault for the Yorktown debacle. Originally published in 1783 (London: John Debrett).
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Ireland, India, and Amiens
  646.  
  647. Despite the Yorktown affair, Cornwallis thrived after the war. Appointed as governor general and commander in chief in India for two terms (1786–1793 and 1805), as lord lieutenant of Ireland, and as the chief negotiator in the Peace of Amiens negotiations with Napoleonic France, he enjoyed a highly successful follow-on political and military career. While few books address his tenure directly, especially in Ireland, there is a great deal of research material available through works that address the dynamics of the establishment of the British Empire in India, the Irish rebellion of 1798, and the struggle with Napoleonic France. Aspinall 1987 examines Cornwallis’s India tenure in terms of administrative and judicial reforms, and Elliott 1989 examines the Irish rebel Wolfe Tone, whose 1798 rebellion Cornwallis squelched. Lady Jackson published her husband’s Peace of Amiens negotiation letters and diaries (see Jackson 2009). Pakenham 1969 examines the Irish rebellion of 1798. Travers 2007 explores the early years of British rule in India, and Wilbur 1945 looks at the role of the East India Company in the establishment of British India.
  648.  
  649. Aspinall, Arthur. Cornwallis in Bengal. New Delhi: Uppal, 1987.
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  651. Aspinall examines the administrative and judicial reforms in India, including the expansion of the East India Company and the foundation of Penang during Cornwallis’s tenure as governor general and commander in chief of British India.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Elliott, Marianne. Wolfe Tone: Prophet of Irish Independence. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989.
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  655. Elliott addresses the career of the Irish rebel Wolfe Tone, who raised a revolt against British rule in 1798 that was squelched by forces under Cornwallis, as the lord lieutenant and commander in chief in Ireland.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Jackson, Catherine H. C. The Diaries and Letters of Sir George Jackson from the Peace of Amiens to the Battle of Talavera. Bel Air, CA: BiblioBazaar, 2009.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. The reproduction reprint of the diary and letters of Sir George Jackson, as originally published by his wife, chronicle the 1802 Peace of Amiens negotiations with Napoleonic France at which Cornwallis served as the British chief negotiator.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Pakenham, Thomas. History of the Great Irish Rebellion of 1798. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1969.
  662. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663. Pakenham examines the Irish rebellion of 1798, which Cornwallis, as lord lieutenant and commander in chief of Ireland, suppressed. An abridged but no less useful edition was published in 1998 to commemorate the bicentennial of the Wolfe Tone Irish Rebellion.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Travers, Robert. Ideology and Empire in Eighteenth-Century India: The British in Bengal. Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  666. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497438Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. Travers addresses the foundations of British India in the late 18th century, when Cornwallis served as governor general and commander in chief, arguing that the British authorities attempted to form a government based on the older Mughal Empire polity.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Wilbur, Marguerite E. East India Company and the British Empire in the Far East Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1945.
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  671. Wilbur addresses the role of the East India Company in the establishment of British India, in which Cornwallis played a major role both as governor general and commander in chief.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Journal Articles
  674.  
  675. As well as monographs (see Ireland, India, and Amiens), there are journal articles that are helpful in understanding Cornwallis’s tenure in India and Ireland. Primarily focused on the military aspect, they also provide commentary on significant political and economic aspects of his terms of office. Cornwallis attempted to reorganize the East India Company army but had little success owing to the officer corps’s opposition. Ambika 1981 chronicles the Third Anglo-Mysore War, Callaghan 1970 explores Cornwallis’s military reform efforts, and Wickwire 1986 chronicles Cornwallis as governor general and commander in chief in India.
  676.  
  677. Ambika, P. “The Events Leading to the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the Treaty of Seringapatam.” Journal of Indian History 59.1–3 (1981): 259–280.
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  679. Ambika chronicles Cornwallis’s military operations in the Third Anglo-Mysore War, in which he defeated (as the governor general and commander in chief in India) Tipu Sultan of Mysore and established firm British control over Bengal and Mysore.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Callaghan, Raymond A. “Cornwallis and the Indian Army, 1786–1797.” Military Affairs 34.3 (1970): 93–97.
  682. DOI: 10.2307/1983482Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. As governor general and commander in chief in India (1786–1793), Cornwallis attempted to reorganize the East India Company army but had little success owing to the officer corps’s opposition. Callaghan examines Cornwallis’s efforts to reform and reorganize the company’s forces.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Wickwire, Franklin B. “Cornwallis in India and the American Experience.” American Neptune 46.1 (1986): 18–24.
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. Wickwire chronicles Cornwallis as governor general and commander in chief in India during 1786–1793, where he applied many of the lessons learned on irregular warfare in the Southern Campaign to the suppression of Tipu Sultan of Mysore in 1791.
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