API tools faq
paste
Advertisement
jonstond2

Nuns, Lives, and Rules (Buddhism)

jonstond2
May 4th, 2018
122
0
Never
Add comment
Not a member of Pastebin yet? Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!
text 106.14 KB | None | 0 0
raw download clone embed print report
  1. Introduction
  2. According to tradition, the order of Buddhist nuns (bhikṣunī sangha) began some five centuries before the common era, just five or six years after the order of Buddhist monks (bhikṣu sangha). Mahaprajapati, the aunt and foster mother of the Buddha, is said to have initiated the bhikṣunī sangha when she asked the Buddha for permission to join the sangha and, after some hesitation, he agreed. The lives of Buddhist nuns are regulated by the bhikṣunī prātimokṣa (Pali: bhikkhuni pāṭimokkha), a summary of the precepts or rules found in the bhikṣunī Vinaya, or monastic code for nuns. Like novice monks, a nun first undertakes the ten training rules of a novice nun (srāmaṇerikā): to abstain from killing, stealing, lying, sexual activity, intoxicants, untimely food, singing and dancing, cosmetics and ornaments, high or luxurious seats and beds, and handling silver or gold. Unlike a bhikṣu (fully ordained monk), the Vinaya stipulates that a nun live for two years as a siksamana, to receive further training and ensure that she is not pregnant, before undergoing the upasampada to become a bhikṣunī (fully ordained nun). The number of precepts for a bhikṣunī varies in the different Vinaya schools: 311 in the Theravada, 348 in the Dharmaguptaka, 364 in the Mūlasarvāstivāda, and so on. The lineage of bhikṣunī ordination was transmitted to China, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam, where it flourished. The lineage died out around the 11th century in India and Sri Lanka, but was revived in Sri Lanka in the late 20th century. The number of bhikṣunīs in the early 21st century was estimated at approximately 60,000.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. Barnes 1987, Barnes 1996, and Findly 2000 provide introductions to the history of the bhikṣunī sangha, the procedures for ordination, the eight gurudharmas (“weighty rules”), the regulations that govern the lives of Buddhist nuns, and how those rules are to be implemented. Wijayaratna 2010 goes into considerably more detail about the practice of the precepts. Harris 1999 and Sponberg 1992 analyze the conflicting images of nuns that are found in the early Buddhist texts, based on the Pali canon. Tsomo 1988 includes articles on the potential of women in Buddhism, the current living conditions of nuns in different countries, and the debate over full ordination.
  6.  
  7. Barnes, Nancy Schuster. “Buddhism.” In Women in World Religions. Edited by Arvind Sharma, 105–133. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987.
  8.  
  9. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  10.  
  11. A very helpful introduction to the history of women in Buddhism that traces the roots of patriarchal domination of the sangha, despite the purportedly egalitarian nature of the Buddha’s teachings.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15.  
  16. Barnes, Nancy Schuster. “Buddhist Women and the Nuns’ Order in Asia.” In Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. Edited by Christopher S. Queen and Sallie B. King, 259–294. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.
  17.  
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19.  
  20. Examines the historical development and current status of Buddhist nuns, focusing on the Thai, Burmese, Sri Lankan, Chinese, and Tibetan traditions, as well as contemporary efforts to revitalize the bhikṣunī sangha.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24.  
  25. Findly, Ellison Banks. “Women Teachers of Women: Early Nuns ‘Worthy of My Confidence.’” In Women’s Buddhism, Buddhism’s Women: Tradition, Revision, Renewal. Edited by Ellison Banks Findly, 133–155. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000.
  26.  
  27. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  28.  
  29. An introduction to the status of nuns in Buddhism, drawing a distinction between the soteriological perspective, in which women are regarded as equally capable of enlightenment, and the sociological perspective, in which nuns face institutional and practical limitations.
  30.  
  31. Find this resource:
  32.  
  33.  
  34. Harris, Elizabeth J. “The Female in Buddhism.” In Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 49–65. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
  35.  
  36. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  37.  
  38. Analyzes contradictory attitudes toward women in Pali Buddhist texts: some are deprecating and others support the spiritual liberation of women.
  39.  
  40. Find this resource:
  41.  
  42.  
  43. Sponberg, Alan. “Attitudes Toward Women and the Feminine in Early Buddhism.” In Buddhism, Sexuality, and Gender. Edited by José Ignacio Cabezón, 3–36. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.
  44.  
  45. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  46.  
  47. Discusses the ambivalence and variety of attitudes toward women in early Buddhist literature, ranging from soteriological inclusiveness and androgyny to institutional androcentrism and misogyny. Establishes that the Buddha acknowledged women’s capability to achieve the highest goal of enlightenment.
  48.  
  49. Find this resource:
  50.  
  51.  
  52. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. Sakyadhita: Daughters of the Buddha. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 1988.
  53.  
  54. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  55.  
  56. A collection of articles on women in Buddhism, based on the first Sakyadhita conference in Bodhgaya in 1987, which focused on nuns. Includes sections on ordination, nuns of the Buddhist traditions, nuns in the community, living by the Vinaya in the present day, the bhikṣunī issue, livelihood for sangha, and living as a nun in the West.
  57.  
  58. Find this resource:
  59.  
  60.  
  61. Wijayaratna, Mohan. Buddhist Nuns: The Birth and Development of a Women’s Monastic Order. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 2010.
  62.  
  63. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  64.  
  65. An annotated commentary on the origins and development of the bhikṣuni sangha. Describes key aspects of the life of the community, with English and Pali versions of the Bhikkhuni Pāṭimokkha. Translated from the French.
  66.  
  67. Find this resource:
  68.  
  69.  
  70. Annotated Editions
  71. Roth 1970 is a romanized Sanskrit edition of the bhikṣunī Vinaya of the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravadin school and is one of the few of its kind available. Includes helpful annotations in English.
  72.  
  73. Roth, Gustav, ed. Bhiksuni Vinaya: Manual of Discipline for Buddhist Nuns. Patna, India: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1970.
  74.  
  75. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  76.  
  77. An edited edition of the bhikṣunī Vinaya of the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravadin school, which has certain distinctive features. For example, it includes a gurudharma requiring that bhikṣunīs request donors to offer food to worthy bhikṣus before accepting food themselves, a rule that does not appear in the Vinaya of other schools.
  78.  
  79. Find this resource:
  80.  
  81.  
  82. Translations
  83. Translations of texts about Buddhist nuns have focused primarily on the Therīgāthā, the verses of realization by Buddhist nuns at the time of the Buddha, and on the bhikṣunī prātimokṣa, the monastic precepts for women. Rhys Davids 1909 is a poetic translation of the Therīgāthā, if a bit antiquated. Norman 1966 is a more literal translation. Rhys Davids and Norman 1989 sets the two translations side by side. Horner 1962 and Talim 1965 are translations of the bhikkhuni pāṭimokkha from the Pali. Kabilsingh 1991 places side-by-side translations of the bhikkhuni pāṭimokkha of six schools, including the Pali and five others translated from the Chinese. Bode 1893 includes short accounts of the lives of influential nuns at the time of the Buddha.
  84.  
  85. Bode, Mabel. “The Woman Leaders of the Buddhist Reformation.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 25.3 (1893): 517–566.
  86.  
  87. DOI: 10.1017/S0035869X00143515Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  88.  
  89. The stories of thirteen illustrious bhikkhuni disciples of the Buddha found in the Manorathna Purani, a commentary on the Anguttara Nikaya written by Buddhaghosa; includes both the Pali text and translation. Continued in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 25.4 (1893): 763–798.
  90.  
  91. Find this resource:
  92.  
  93.  
  94. Horner, I. B., trans. The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Pitaka). London: The Pāli Text Society, 1962.
  95.  
  96. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  97.  
  98. A translation of the bhikkhuni precepts as contained in the Pali Vinaya pitaka, with a helpful introduction and index.
  99.  
  100. Find this resource:
  101.  
  102.  
  103. Kabilsingh, Chatsumarn, trans. The Bhikkhuni Patimokkha of the Six Schools. Bangkok: Thammasat University Press, 1991.
  104.  
  105. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  106.  
  107. Lists the precepts of the six traditions of bhikkhuni pāṭimokkha that are recorded in the Chinese sources.
  108.  
  109. Find this resource:
  110.  
  111.  
  112. Norman, K. R., trans. The Elders’ Verses II: Therīgāthā. London: Luzac, 1966.
  113.  
  114. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  115.  
  116. A translation from the Pali of the verses of realization uttered by the earliest Buddhist nuns as recorded in the Therīgāthā, documenting their renunciation, profound awareness, and meditative attainments.
  117.  
  118. Find this resource:
  119.  
  120.  
  121. Rhys Davids, C. A. F., trans. Psalms of the Sisters. London: Oxford University Press, 1909.
  122.  
  123. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  124.  
  125. A translation of the Therīgāthā, the earliest extant collection of verses by women. The verses recount the experiences, both joys and hardships, of seventy pioneering Buddhist nuns in their quest for liberation.
  126.  
  127. Find this resource:
  128.  
  129.  
  130. Rhys Davids, C. A. F., and K. R. Norman, trans. Poems of the Early Buddhist Nuns: (Therigatha). Oxford: The Pāli Text Society, 1989.
  131.  
  132. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  133.  
  134. Rhys Davids’s poetic translation of the Therīgāthā, first published in 1909, appears along with Norman’s more literal prose translation based on a more accurate Pali source and his notes on the Pali commentary to provide context.
  135.  
  136. Find this resource:
  137.  
  138.  
  139. Talim, M. V. “Buddhist Nuns and Disciplinary Rules.” Journal of the University of Bombay 34.2 (1965): 93–137.
  140.  
  141. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  142.  
  143. A description of the Buddhist order of women renunciants in the Indian context. Includes discussions of competing orders of women renunciants, likely causes for women’s decisions to renounce worldly life, the Buddha’s reluctance to admit women to the sangha, and a translation of the bhikkhuni precepts.
  144.  
  145. Find this resource:
  146.  
  147.  
  148. Textual Studies
  149. Numerous textual studies of the lives and rules of Buddhist nuns have appeared in recent years. These include general studies, feminist studies, and textual analysis based on the Pali, Sanskrit, Tamil, Chinese, Tibetan, and other sources.
  150.  
  151. Nuns in Early Buddhist Literature
  152. Nuns are mentioned frequently in early Buddhist texts. Collette 2006 argues that perceptions of Buddhist nuns have been prejudiced by an emphasis on the Pali canon at the expense of other sources. Falk 1974 makes the case that demeaning stereotypes of women appear around the time Buddhist literature is committed to writing. Hüsken 2006 looks at objections raised against women renunciants in the Pali canon, as well as attitudes in Sri Lanka today, while Findly 1999 focuses on the question of renunciant women as arhats. Anālayo 2011 and Tsomo 2009 discuss the story of Mahāpajāpatī and the founding of the order of nuns, incorporating feminist analysis. Anālayo 2010 employs comparative analysis to better understand the beginnings of the bhikkhuni sangha.
  153.  
  154. Anālayo, Ven. “Attitudes Towards Nuns: A Case Study of the Nandakovāda in the Light of Its Parallels.” Journal of Buddhist Ethics 17 (2010): 331–400.
  155.  
  156. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  157.  
  158. A richly annotated comparative study of the Nandakovāda from the Majjhima-nikāya and a parallel version from the Samyukta-āgama to assess attitudes toward nuns, with a translation of the Tibetan parallel text by Giuliana Martini. Focuses on the story of the bhikkhu Nandaka’s reluctance to teach nuns.
  159.  
  160. Find this resource:
  161.  
  162.  
  163. Anālayo, Ven. “Mahāpajāpat’s Going Forth in the Madhyama-āgama.” Journal of Buddhist Ethics 18 (2011): 167–317.
  164.  
  165. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  166.  
  167. Examines negative attitudes toward women evident in the early Buddhist texts, specifically in the account of Mahāpajāpatī Gotam’s admission to the sangha, including a translation of the Pali text and references to parallel texts in Chinese and Tibetan.
  168.  
  169. Find this resource:
  170.  
  171.  
  172. Collette, Alice. “Buddhism and Gender: Reframing and Refocusing the Debate.” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 22.2 (2006): 55–84.
  173.  
  174. DOI: 10.2979/FSR.2006.22.2.55Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175.  
  176. Critiques the “Orientalist bias” in the textual studies of pioneering Buddhist women scholars who relied solely on the Pali literature, calling attention to other texts by or about women in early Indian Buddhism.
  177.  
  178. Find this resource:
  179.  
  180.  
  181. Falk, Nancy Auer. “An Image of Women in Old Buddhist Literature.” In Women and Religion: Edited by Judith Plaskow and Joan Arnold Romero, 105–112. Missoula, MT: Scholars, 1974.
  182.  
  183. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  184.  
  185. Observations on declining perceptions of women in early Buddhist writings and the consequent restrictions placed upon nuns.
  186.  
  187. Find this resource:
  188.  
  189.  
  190. Findly, Ellison Banks. “Women and the Arahant Issue in Early Pāli Literature. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 15.1 (1999): 57–76.
  191.  
  192. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  193.  
  194. A well-annotated investigation of the issues involved in whether and how many women attained the status of liberation as an arahant, focusing especially on renunciant women who lived at the time of the Buddha.
  195.  
  196. Find this resource:
  197.  
  198.  
  199. Hüsken, Ute. “‘Gotamī, Do Not Wish to Go from Home to Homelessness!’ Patterns of Objections to Women’s Asceticism in Theravada Buddhism.” In Asceticism and Its Critics: Historical Accounts and Comparative Perspectives. Edited by Oliver Freiberger. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  200.  
  201. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  202.  
  203. Examines criticisms of female asceticism found in the Pali texts and varied contemporary attitudes toward female and male renunciants in contemporary Sri Lanka, using the Vinaya Pitaka as the standard measure of Buddhist renunciation.
  204.  
  205. Find this resource:
  206.  
  207.  
  208. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “Buddhist Feminist Reflections.” In Buddhist Philosophy: Selected Primary Texts. Edited by Jay Garfield and William Edelglass, 437–448. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
  209.  
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211.  
  212. An analysis of the story of Mahāpajābatī’s request to join the sangha, the Buddha’s hesitation to admit her, and his eventual affirmation of women’s potential for liberation, albeit with conditions.
  213.  
  214. Find this resource:
  215.  
  216.  
  217. Bhikkhuni/Bhikṣunī Vinaya
  218. As yet, there is no definitive study of bhikṣunī Vinaya and the ordination of nuns, which encompasses many languages, lineages, and centuries of development. Hüsken 1999 studies the early evolution of the Vinaya rules that nuns were expected to observe once they gained admission to the sangha, while Schopen 1996 argues that additional rules were added for nuns in order to ensure the monks’ dominance. Kusuma 2000 corroborates that argument by giving evidence of historical and logical inconsistencies among the eight weighty rules (gurudharmas) that have been attributed to the Buddha. Shih 2000 attempts a comprehensive study of the Pali recension of the bhikkhuni vibhanga, while Hirakawa 1982 studies the Mahāsāṃghika bhikṣunī Vinaya and de Jong 1974 discusses specific issues in the later Mahāsāṃghika recension. Heirman 2002 provides a complete translation and analysis of the Dharmaguptaka bhikkhuni Vinaya from the Chinese.
  219.  
  220. de Jong, J. W. “Notes on the Bhikṣunī-Vinaya of the Mahasamghikas.” In Buddhist Studies in Honor of I. B. Horner. Edited by L. Cousins, A. Kunst, and K. R. Norman. Boston: D. Reidal, 1974.
  221.  
  222. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-010-2242-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223.  
  224. A philological analysis of fine points of the bhikṣunī Vinaya of the Mahāsāṃghika school, which is regarded as a later recension. A very expensive, poorly printed volume. Difficult to find.
  225.  
  226. Find this resource:
  227.  
  228.  
  229. Heirman, Ann. The Discipline in Four Parts, Rules for Nuns According to the Dharmaguptakavinaya. 3 vols. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2002.
  230.  
  231. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  232.  
  233. A translation of the bhikkhuni vibhanga of the Dharmagupta Vinaya from the Chinese sources, with extensive annotations and explanations of monastic life. A significant contribution, given that the Dharmagupta is the only extant school of bhikkhuni pāṭimokkha.
  234.  
  235. Find this resource:
  236.  
  237.  
  238. Hirakawa, Akira, trans. Monastic Discipline for the Buddhist Nuns: An English Translation of the Chinese Text of the Mahāsāṃghika—Bhikṣunī-Vinaya. Patna, India: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1982.
  239.  
  240. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241.  
  242. A study of the Mahāsāṃghika bhikṣunī prātimokṣa translated from the Chinese translation, with useful explanations, annotations, and cross-references to other Vinaya schools.
  243.  
  244. Find this resource:
  245.  
  246.  
  247. Hüsken, Ute. “Rephrased Rules. The Application of Monks’ Prescriptions to the Nuns’ Discipline in Early Buddhist Law.” Buddhist Studies (Bukkyoo Kenkyuu) 28 (1999): 19–29.
  248.  
  249. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250.  
  251. Discusses the reiteration of rules from the bhikkhu pāṭimokkha that were inherited by, and sometimes adapted to apply to, the early bhikkhunis.
  252.  
  253. Find this resource:
  254.  
  255.  
  256. Kusuma, Bhikkhuni. “Inaccuracies in Buddhist Women’s History.” In Innovative Buddhist Women: Swimming Against the Stream. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 5–12. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 2000.
  257.  
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259.  
  260. Examines logical inconsistencies in the eight special rules (gurudharma/garudhamma) that Mahaprajapati purportedly accepted in order to gain admission to the sangha, and also the claim that ordaining women would shorten the life of the Buddha’s teachings.
  261.  
  262. Find this resource:
  263.  
  264.  
  265. Schopen, Gregory. “The Suppression of Nuns and the Ritual Murder of Their Special Dead in Two Buddhist Monastic Texts.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 24 (1996): 563–592.
  266.  
  267. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  268.  
  269. In this analysis of two texts, Schopen finds evidence that the monk compilers of the monastic codes for nuns created rules aimed to control them, perhaps to limit the competition from the bhikṣunīs.
  270.  
  271. Find this resource:
  272.  
  273.  
  274. Shih, Bhikkhuni Juo-Hsüeh. Controversies over Buddhist Nuns. Oxford: The Pāli Text Society, 2000.
  275.  
  276. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  277.  
  278. An annotated translation of the bhikkhuni vibhanga and the Samantapasadika commentary, with extensive comparative analysis based on the Chinese and Tibetan translations and commentarial literature.
  279.  
  280. Find this resource:
  281.  
  282.  
  283. Poetry
  284. The writings of nuns are rare to come by, whether because historically women have had limited access to literacy or because their writings have not been preserved or both. Fortunately, a few collections of poetry by nuns have survived and are available in English translation. The poems of the Japanese nun Senshi that were translated in Kamens 1990 were written many centuries before the Ming-Qing poems of Chinese nuns selected by Grant 2001 and Grant 2003, not to mention the 20th-century poems of the Japanese abbess Kasanoin Jikun in Ruch and Katsura 2009, yet common Buddhist themes and sentiments link them across time.
  285.  
  286. Grant, Beata. “Through the Empty Gate: The Poetry of Buddhist Nuns in Late Imperial China.” In Cultural Intersections in Later Chinese Buddhism. Edited by Marsha Weidner, 87–114. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001.
  287.  
  288. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  289.  
  290. An introduction to poems by nuns that afford a glimpse of the religious lives and experiences of women who lived in 18th-century China.
  291.  
  292. Find this resource:
  293.  
  294.  
  295. Grant, Beata. Daughters of Emptiness: Poems of Chinese Buddhist Nuns. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2003.
  296.  
  297. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  298.  
  299. A collection of poems composed between the 5th and 20th centuries by Zen nuns, including a number of outstanding teachers. Masterfully translated into English, with biographical vignettes of the poets.
  300.  
  301. Find this resource:
  302.  
  303.  
  304. Kamens, Edward, trans. The Buddhist Poetry of the Great Kamo Priestess: Daisaiin Senshi and Hosshin Wakashu. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Center for Japanese Studies, 1990.
  305.  
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307.  
  308. A study of poems (waka) infused with Buddhist ideas, practices, and aspirations that were written by Senshi (b. 964–d. 1035), a nun of the Heian period who was formerly an imperial princess.
  309.  
  310. Find this resource:
  311.  
  312.  
  313. Ruch, Barbara, and Katsura Michiyo. In Iris Fields: Remembrances and Poetry by Abbess Kasanoin Jikun. Translated by Janine Beichman and Beth Cary. Kyoto: Tankosha, 2009.
  314.  
  315. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  316.  
  317. A bilingual collection of essays and poems by Kasanoin Jikun (b. 1910–d. 2006), a Buddhist abbess of aristocratic background, with lively stories detailing her life experiences.
  318.  
  319. Find this resource:
  320.  
  321.  
  322. Imagining Buddhist Nuns
  323. Ambivalent attitudes toward nuns are evident in Buddhist literature from early times. Willis 1985 introduces the images of women in various accounts, including the formative stage of the order of nuns. Lang 1986 and Richman 1985 consider the images of women as both victims of and victors over sensual desire in early Buddhist literature. Lang 1995 examines constructions of female identity associated with hair (or the lack thereof). Ku 1984 studies the ways in which negative images of women influenced attitudes toward women’s potential for liberation in the Mahīśāsaka school, and Chang 2008 studies correlations between negative attitudes and deprecating language for nuns. Schuster 1985 presents images of independent and accomplished Chinese nuns of the 4th and 5th centuries, while Hsieh 1999 focuses on nuns of the Sung Dynasty, some of whom were accomplished Zen masters.
  324.  
  325. Chang, Christie Yu-Ling. “The Name of the Nun: Towards the Use of Inclusive Language and True Equality in the Buddhist Community.” In Buddhist Women in a Global Multicultural Community. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 260–266. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Sukhi Hotu, 2008.
  326.  
  327. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328.  
  329. Language reflects attitudes, and the language used to designate Buddhist nuns often reflects demeaning attitudes, as documented in terms of address for nuns in a variety of cultures.
  330.  
  331. Find this resource:
  332.  
  333.  
  334. Hsieh, Ding-hwa. “Images of Women in Ch’an Buddhist Literature of the Sung Period.” In Buddhism in the Sung. Edited by Peter N. Gregory and Daniel A. Getz Jr. 148–187. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999.
  335.  
  336. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  337.  
  338. A discussion of the varied perceptions of women’s capacities as reflected in Chan literature of the Sung Dynasty, including nuns who were acknowledged Chan masters, some who challenged the spiritual authority of monks, and others who aspired to become monks.
  339.  
  340. Find this resource:
  341.  
  342.  
  343. Ku, Cheng-Mei. “The Mahayanic View of Women: A Doctrinal Study.” PhD diss., University of Wisconsin, 1984.
  344.  
  345. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  346.  
  347. An analysis of discriminatory attitudes toward women evident in the Vinaya texts of the Mahīśāsaka school, including the view that women cannot achieve enlightenment due to their impurity. An important study for distinguishing sectarian views toward women, especially in early Mahayana.
  348.  
  349. Find this resource:
  350.  
  351.  
  352. Lang, Karen Christina. “Lord Death’s Snare: Gender Related Imagery in the Theragāthā and the Therīgāthā.” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 2 (1986): 63–79.
  353.  
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355.  
  356. An examination of the attitudes toward women found in early recorded verses of realization and the ways in which standard imagery, such as the temptresses, are employed differently by monks and nuns.
  357.  
  358. Find this resource:
  359.  
  360.  
  361. Lang, Karen Christina. “Shaven Heads and Louse Hair: Buddhist Attitudes Toward Hair and Sexuality.” In Off with Her Head! The Denial of Women’s Identity in Myth, Religion, and Culture. Edited by Howard Eilberg-Schwartz and Wendy Doniger, 32–52. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
  362.  
  363. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  364.  
  365. Interrogates the symbolic significance of shaven heads for Buddhist monastics, long matted hair for Hindu renunciant women, and long loose hair for female Buddhist tantric practitioners, challenging the assumptions that head shaving symbolizes castration or that loosened hair symbolizes sexual licentiousness.
  366.  
  367. Find this resource:
  368.  
  369.  
  370. Richman, Paula. “The Portrayal of a Female Renouncer in a Tamil Buddhist Text.” In Gender and Religion: On the Complexity of Symbols. Edited by Caroline Walker Bynum, Stevan Harrell, and Paula Richman, 143–165. Boston: Beacon, 1985.
  371.  
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373.  
  374. A study of the polysemic representation of female renunciation in the 6th-century Tamil text Manimekalai, the story of a courtesan who becomes a Buddhist nun.
  375.  
  376. Find this resource:
  377.  
  378.  
  379. Schuster, Nancy. “Striking a Balance: Women and Images of Women in Early Chinese Buddhism.” In Women, Religion, and Social Change. Edited by Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Ellison Banks Findly, 87–111. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.
  380.  
  381. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  382.  
  383. Reviews the early history of women in early Chinese Buddhist history and literature, with a focus on portrayals of nuns, many of whom were from prominent families and generously patronized.
  384.  
  385. Find this resource:
  386.  
  387.  
  388. Willis, Janice D. “Nuns and Benefactresses: The Role of Women in the Development of Buddhism.” In Women, Religion, and Social Change. Edited by Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Ellison Banks Findly, 59–85. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.
  389.  
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391.  
  392. Discusses the portrayals of women in Buddhist literature, beginning from the Pali texts through the Mahayana texts, highlighting the contributions of both laywomen and nuns to maintaining Buddhist teachings and institutions.
  393.  
  394. Find this resource:
  395.  
  396.  
  397. Comparative Studies
  398. Chung 1999 compares the precepts for bhikṣunīs and bhikṣus based on the Pali and Chinese prātimokṣa texts, examining the reasons for the bhikṣunī’ additional precepts. Hüsken 1997 presents a comparative study of the precepts for bhikṣunīs in the Pali and Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravadin redactions. Heirman 2007 tells the story of the transmission of Vinaya lineages from India to China, including the Dharmaguptaka bhikkhuni lineage that has continued into the 21st century. Kabilsingh 1984 compares six versions of the bhikkhuni prātimokṣa, while Tsomo 1996 focuses specifically on the Chinese Dharmagupta and the Tibetan Mūlasarvāstivāda.
  399.  
  400. Chung, Inyoung (Sukhdam Sunim). “A Buddhist View of Women: A Comparative Study of the Rules for Bhiksus and Bhiksunis Based on the Chinese Pratimoksa.” Journal of Buddhist Ethics 6 (1999): 29–105.
  401.  
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403.  
  404. Challenges the widespread view that the additional rules prescribed for nuns in the Vinaya are unfair and examines the rules for bhikṣunīs and bhikṣus in light of the social context, based primarily on the Chinese Dharmagupta version, with frequent reference to the Pali.
  405.  
  406. Find this resource:
  407.  
  408.  
  409. Heirman, Ann. “Vinaya: From India to China.” In The Spread of Buddhism. Edited by Ann Heirman and Stephen Peter Bunbacher, 167–202. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007.
  410.  
  411. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004158306.i-474.44Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  412.  
  413. Traces the transmission of the rules of discipline (Vinaya), including the literature of the Dharmaguptaka school, the texts of the only lineage of fully ordained nuns (bhikkhuni) to survive until modern times.
  414.  
  415. Find this resource:
  416.  
  417.  
  418. Hüsken, Ute. “A Stock of Bowls Requires a Stock of Robes. Relations of the Rules for Nuns in the Theravada Vinaya and the Bhiksuni-Vinaya of the Mahasamghika-Lokottaravadin.” In Untersuchungen zur buddhistischen Literatur II, Gustav Roth zum 80. Geburtstag gewidmet. Edited by Heinz Bechert, S. Bretfeld, and P. Kieffer-Pülz, 201–238. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1997.
  419.  
  420. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  421.  
  422. A comparative study of the bhikṣunī precepts pertaining to requisites, as prescribed in the Pali and Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādin recensions of the Vinaya.
  423.  
  424. Find this resource:
  425.  
  426.  
  427. Kabilsingh, Chatsumarn. A Comparative Study of Bhikkhuni Patimokkha. Varanasi, India: Chaukhambha Orientalia, 1984.
  428.  
  429. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  430.  
  431. A comparative study of six renditions of the bhikkhuni pāṭimokkhas, as preserved in the Chinese canon, with a discussion of these schools and the history of the bhikkhuni sangha.
  432.  
  433. Find this resource:
  434.  
  435.  
  436. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. Sisters in Solitude: Two Traditions of Buddhist Monastic Ethics for Women: A Comparative Analysis of the Chinese Dharmagupta and the Tibetan Mulasarvastivada Bhikṣunī Pratimokṣa Sūtra. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.
  437.  
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439.  
  440. Translations of the Bhikṣunī Pratimokṣa Sūtra from the Chinese and Tibetan with brief comparative analysis, from a variety of perspectives.
  441.  
  442. Find this resource:
  443.  
  444.  
  445. Historical Studies
  446. Until recently, the experiences of women have been inadequately represented in historical studies of Buddhism. An exception is Horner 1990, whose groundbreaking survey of women in early Buddhism remains one of the best available sources. Falk 1980 investigates traces of the early generations of Buddhist nuns and offers conjectures as to where, when, and why the trail grows cold. The founding of the bhikkhuni sangha is recounted in Skilling 1994, while its development subsequent to the Buddha’s passing is chronicled in Skilling 1993–1994. Skilling 2001 traces gender parallels in Buddhist literature and inscriptions.
  447.  
  448. Falk, Nancy Auer. “The Case of the Vanishing Nuns: The Fruits of Ambivalence in Ancient Buddhism.” In Unspoken Worlds: Women’s Religious Lives in Non-Western Cultures. Edited by Nancy Auer Falk and Rita Gross, 206–224. New York: Harper and Row, 1980.
  449.  
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451.  
  452. A classic article, based on original sources, that addresses the question of why the bhikkhuni lineage died out in ancient India and why there was little or no interest in reviving it.
  453.  
  454. Find this resource:
  455.  
  456.  
  457. Horner, I. B. Women Under Primitive Buddhism: Laywomen and Almswomen. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990.
  458.  
  459. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  460.  
  461. An extensive description of the lives of both laywomen and Buddhist nuns at the time of the Buddha, with an examination of why women went forth into religious life. Originally published in 1930.
  462.  
  463. Find this resource:
  464.  
  465.  
  466. Skilling, Peter. “A Note on the History of the Bhikkhuni-sangha (II): The Order of Nuns After the Parinirvana.” W.F.B. Review 30–31.4–1 (1993–1994): 29–49.
  467.  
  468. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  469.  
  470. The second part of the author’s historical account of the order of Buddhist nuns, continuing after the Buddha’s death.
  471.  
  472. Find this resource:
  473.  
  474.  
  475. Skilling, Peter. “A Note on the History of the Bhikkhuni-Sangha (I): Nuns at the Time of the Buddha.” W.F.B. Review 31.2–3 (1994): 47–55.
  476.  
  477. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  478.  
  479. A well-documented account of the founding and early historical development of the order of Buddhist nuns.
  480.  
  481. Find this resource:
  482.  
  483.  
  484. Skilling, Peter. “Nuns, Laywomen, Donors, Goddesses: Female Roles in Early Indian Buddhism.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 24.2 (2001): 241–274.
  485.  
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487.  
  488. Examines the roles of women in Buddhism in the early period (BCE) by the device of “gender pairing,” evident in parallel monastic orders, inscriptions, the Thera- and Therīgāthās, and so forth.
  489.  
  490. Find this resource:
  491.  
  492.  
  493. South Asian Traditions
  494. In addition to being the place of origin and cultural heartland of Buddhism overall, South Asia has been the site of many momentous events for Buddhist nuns. Devaraja 1999 discusses the historical significance of establishing a monastic order for women in India, while Gunawardena 1988 makes an argument for nuns as intellectuals and historians. Sharma 1977 takes a sociological approach to understanding the appeal of renunciation for women, looking at psychological and economic factors as well. Richman 1992 takes up the same question, approaching it through the eyes of a 6th-century Tamil courtesan’s daughter who, after many twists and turns, becomes a Buddhist nun. Schopen 1988 discusses the historical role of nuns and monks as donors.
  495.  
  496. Devaraja, Lorna. “Buddhist Women in India and Pre-Colonial Sri Lanka.” In Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 67–77. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
  497.  
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499.  
  500. A brief survey of the position of women in early India and the influences of Buddhist ideals of social equality in Sri Lanka, especially as they affected the order of nuns.
  501.  
  502. Find this resource:
  503.  
  504.  
  505. Gunawardena, R. A. L. H. “Subtle Silks of Ferreous Firmness: Buddhist Nuns in Ancient and Early Medieval Sri Lanka and Their Role in the Propagation of Buddhism.” The Sri Lankan Journal of the Humanities 14.1/2 (1988): 1–59.
  506.  
  507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508.  
  509. Examines evidence in the Sri Lankan histories to argue that scholarly, intellectually accomplished nuns were most likely the authors of the Dipavamsa.
  510.  
  511. Find this resource:
  512.  
  513.  
  514. Richman, Paula. “Gender and Persuasion: The Portrayal of Beauty, Anguish, and Nurturance in an Account of a Tamil Nun.” In Buddhism, Sexuality, and Gender. Edited by José Ignacio Cabezón, 111–136. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.
  515.  
  516. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  517.  
  518. Investigates the concept of gender in Buddhism, using a 6th-century Tamil text titled Manimekalai, and the role of gender in relation to renunciation and religious discipline.
  519.  
  520. Find this resource:
  521.  
  522.  
  523. Schopen, Gregory. “On Monks, Nuns and ‘Vulgar’ Practices: The Introduction of the Image Cult into Indian Buddhism.” Artibus Asiae 49 (1988): 153–168.
  524.  
  525. DOI: 10.2307/3250049Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  526.  
  527. Discusses the ethnicity, gender, and social status of donors to Buddhist institutions in India, based on epigraphic evidence, noting that the donors were largely monks and nuns.
  528.  
  529. Find this resource:
  530.  
  531.  
  532. Sharma, Arvind. “How and Why Did the Women in Ancient India Become Buddhist Nuns?” Sociological Analysis 38 (1977): 239–251.
  533.  
  534. DOI: 10.2307/3709804Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535.  
  536. A sociological study to evaluate materials that apply the “relative deprivation” hypothesis for understanding what motivates women to enter monastic life, based on the Therīgāthā.
  537.  
  538. Find this resource:
  539.  
  540.  
  541. Southeast Asian Traditions
  542. A comprehensive history of Buddhist women in Southeast Asia has yet to be written. All we have are snippets gleaned from brief mentions in scattered texts. Momentum for taking up this task is growing, and a new generation that understands the importance of recovering Buddhist women’s history is emerging. Anh 2004 is evidence of this new generation.
  543.  
  544. Anh, Thich Nu Dong. “A Survey of the Bhikkhuni Sangha in Vietnam.” In Bridging Worlds: Buddhist Women’s Voices Across Generations. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 51–54. Taipei: Yuan Chuan, 2004.
  545.  
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. A brief account of the history and development of Buddhist nuns in Vietnam, beginning with Dieu Nhan, a woman of the royal family during the Le Dynasty (12th century) who became the earliest documented bhiksuni, up to the early 21st century.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552.  
  553. East Asian Traditions
  554. Nuns are mentioned throughout the historical records, almost from the beginnings of Buddhism in East Asia, but there have been few attempts to compile this information into systematic chronicles. Tsai 1981 studies the earliest Chinese record available, embedded in the stories of eminent Buddhist nuns from the 4th to 6th centuries CE. Freese 2004 attempts to place the historical events surrounding the establishment of the bhiksuni sangha in China in historical context. The involvement of nuns in the transmission of Buddhism from Korea to Japan is a matter of record, but Cho 2011 is the first serious study of nuns in Korea itself available in English. The history of nuns in Japan is also currently coming to light. Kaneko and Morrell 1983 traces the history of Tōkeiji, an imperial convent founded in 13th-century Japan; Kaneko and Morrell 2006 expands on that history in a detailed book-length treatment of the lives and times of the Tōkeiji nuns. Meeks 2010 takes up the history of another Japanese imperial convent, Hokkeji, documenting the nuns’ efforts to reestablish the rite of full ordination. Cogan 2004 describes the history and community service activities of Enshoji, a 17th-century “divorce temple” in Japan. Yuan 2010 traces the institutional innovations and the emergence of feminist awareness in Republican China as reflected in the writings of nuns at Wuchang Buddhist Academy.
  555.  
  556. Cho, Eun-su. Korean Buddhist Nuns and Laywomen: Hidden Histories, Enduring Vitality. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2011.
  557.  
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559.  
  560. An edited volume with eight chapters that document the lives, status, practice, and other activities of Korean nuns, despite a dearth of information about them in Korean historical sources.
  561.  
  562. Find this resource:
  563.  
  564.  
  565. Cogan, Gina. “Precepts at Enshoji: The Rules of a Seventeenth-Century Japanese Amadera.” In Bridging Worlds: Buddhist Women’s Voices Across Generations. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 237–240. Taipei: Yuan Chuan, 2004.
  566.  
  567. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  568.  
  569. An account of the life and writing of Bunchi (b. 1619–d. 1697), the eldest daughter of Emperor Gomizuno, who took the tonsure at the age of twenty-two, founded the Enshoji convent, and spent fifty-six years as its abbess.
  570.  
  571. Find this resource:
  572.  
  573.  
  574. Freese, Roseanne. “Tracing the Roots of the Bhiksuni Tradition.” In Bridging Worlds: Buddhist Women’s Voices Across Generations. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 188–210. Taipei: Yuan Chuan, 2004.
  575.  
  576. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577.  
  578. Recounts the earliest beginnings of the order of nuns in China and the vagaries of history that eventually enabled the establishment of a bhiksuni sangha during turbulent times.
  579.  
  580. Find this resource:
  581.  
  582.  
  583. Kaneko, Sachiko, and Morrell, Robert E. “Sanctuary: Kamakura’s Tōkeiji Convent.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 10 (1983): 195–228.
  584.  
  585. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  586.  
  587. A history of Tōkeiji Convent, well known as a sanctuary for women seeking divorce, including accounts of the leading nuns who founded and maintained it.
  588.  
  589. Find this resource:
  590.  
  591.  
  592. Meeks, Lori R. Hokkeji and the Reemergence of Female Monastic Orders in Premodern Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2010.
  593.  
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595.  
  596. A meticulously researched study of Hokkeji, a convent in Nara that reemerged from a period of decline to revive the practice of Vinaya and full ordination for women during the Kamakura period.
  597.  
  598. Find this resource:
  599.  
  600.  
  601. Morrell, Sachiko Kaneko, and Morrell, Robert E. Zen Sanctuary of Purple Robes: Japan’s Tōkeiji Convent Since 1285. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2006.
  602.  
  603. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  604.  
  605. A social history of the Rinzai Zen convent Tōkeiji, known as a sanctuary for women, from the time of its founding by Kakusan in the 13th century until its decline seven centuries later, including a general introduction to the religious milieu of the day and translations of many primary source materials.
  606.  
  607. Find this resource:
  608.  
  609.  
  610. Tsai, Kathryn Ann. “The Chinese Buddhist Monastic Order for Women: The First Two Centuries.” In Women in China: Current Directions in Historical Scholarship. Edited by Richard W. Guisso and Stanley Johannesen, 1–20. Youngstown, NY: Philo, 1981.
  611.  
  612. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  613.  
  614. A carefully annotated exploration of the significance of Buddhism for women, based primarily on Baochang’s Biqiuni zhuan (Lives of the Nuns), a collection of brief biographies of nuns who lived during the early centuries of the transmission of Buddhism to China.
  615.  
  616. Find this resource:
  617.  
  618.  
  619. Yuan, Yuan. “Chinese Buddhist Nuns in the Twentieth Century: A Case Study in Wuhan.” Journal of Global Buddhism 10 (2010): 375–412.
  620.  
  621. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  622.  
  623. Documents the beginnings of a Buddhist women’s movement in China through the writings of student nuns at Wuchang Buddhist Academy, founded by Taixu in Wuhan in 1924.
  624.  
  625. Find this resource:
  626.  
  627.  
  628. Central Asian Traditions
  629. Much work remains to be done to uncover the history of nuns in Central Asia and the Tibetan cultural sphere. The lives and achievements of women were rarely noted in the records, and we are left gathering shreds of evidence from disparate sources. Willis 1989 provides a survey, with an emphasis on recent history.
  630.  
  631. Willis, Janice D. “Tibetan Anis: The Nun’s Life in Tibet.” In Feminine Ground: Essays on Women and Tibet. Edited by Janice D. Willis, 96–117. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 1989.
  632.  
  633. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  634.  
  635. A straightforward discussion of Tibetan monastic life for women, including the variety of their religious practices and the challenges they face.
  636.  
  637. Find this resource:
  638.  
  639.  
  640. Cultural Histories
  641. There is no prototype for a Buddhist nun in today’s world. Even when patterns can be identified to link the experiences of Buddhist nuns around the world, the ways they dress, study, practice, and even how they interpret the monastic discipline they strive to embody are unique. Inevitably, cultural contexts shape social perceptions of renunciant women and also renunciant women’s perceptions of themselves. The lives of Buddhist nuns are far less frequently recorded than the lives of monks, yet recently researchers have managed to discover literary treasures that have been overlooked.
  642.  
  643. South Asian Cultures
  644. As the country with the largest percentage of Buddhists in South Asia, it is not surprising that the greatest number of cultural studies about Buddhist nuns come from Sri Lanka. Understanding the practice and aspirations of the ten-precept nuns of Sri Lanka is critical for understanding the sea change that occurs for nuns with the reintroduction of full ordination. Nissan 1984 studies the lives of nuns in two aramayas in the ancient capital of Anuradhapura, where the legendary bodhi tree sapling brought to Sri Lanka by Bhikkhuni Sanghamitra has achieved celebrity status. Bloss 1987 introduces the dasasilmathas of Sri Lanka and provides background on their history and their relations with the male monastic establishment. Bartholomeusz 1992 discusses the situation of the dasasilmathas some years later, particularly their motivations for monastic life and why they seem content as ten-precept nuns. Bartholomeusz 1994 takes the inquiry further, as the debate over full ordination becomes more heated. Goonatilake 1997 explains the controversy between supporters and opponents of full ordination that erupted on the eve of great changes for Sri Lankan nuns. Salgado 2004 examines specific issues of dress and language at a time when fully ordained nuns have become commonplace.
  645.  
  646. Bartholomeusz, Tessa. “The Female Mendicant in Buddhist Sri Lanka.” In Buddhism, Sexuality, and Gender. Edited by José Ignacio Cabezón, 37–61. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.
  647.  
  648. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  649.  
  650. Makes the case that many ten-precept nuns in Sri Lanka, leery of coming under the control of the monks, prefer their autonomous, if ambivalent, status to full ordination.
  651.  
  652. Find this resource:
  653.  
  654.  
  655. Bartholomeusz, Tessa. Women Under the Bō Tree: Buddhist Nuns in Sri Lanka. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  656.  
  657. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511896026Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  658.  
  659. An ethnographic account of the institution of nuns in the social and historical context of Sri Lanka, including their self-perceptions, daily lives, and aspirations.
  660.  
  661. Find this resource:
  662.  
  663.  
  664. Bloss, Lowell W. “The Female Renunciants of Sri Lanka: The Dasasilmattawa.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10.1 (1987): 7–32.
  665.  
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667.  
  668. Documents the history of the ten-precept nuns (dasasilmatha) of Sri Lanka from a variety of perspectives, especially the roles of three leading figures (Sudharmachari, Mawichari, and Sudharma), and the relationship between the nuns’ movement and vipassana meditation. Examines the status of ten-precept nuns in Sri Lanka, who are positioned somewhere between the laity and the sangha.
  669.  
  670. Find this resource:
  671.  
  672.  
  673. Goonatilake, Hema. “Buddhist Nuns: Protests, Struggle, and the Reinterpretation of Orthodoxy in Sri Lanka.” In Mixed Blessings: Gender and Religious Fundamentalism Cross Culturally. Edited by Judy Brink and Joan Mencher, 25–39. New York: Routledge, 1997.
  674.  
  675. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  676.  
  677. Documents the establishment of the bhikkhuni sangha at the time of the Buddha and the early stages of the movement to restore the order in Sri Lanka in the 20th century, including voices of opposition among the monks.
  678.  
  679. Find this resource:
  680.  
  681.  
  682. Nissan, Elizabeth. “Recovering Practice: Buddhist Nuns in Sri Lanka.” South Asia Research 4.1 (1984): 32–49.
  683.  
  684. DOI: 10.1177/026272808400400104Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  685.  
  686. An anthropological study of two aramayas in Anuradhapura and the dasa sil matha (ten-precept nuns) who live and practice there, with introductions to the history of Buddhist nuns in India and Sri Lanka.
  687.  
  688. Find this resource:
  689.  
  690.  
  691. Salgado, Nirmala S. “Religious Identities of Buddhist Nuns: Training Precepts, Renunciation Attire, and Nomenclature in Theravāda Buddhism.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 72.4 (2004): 935–953.
  692.  
  693. DOI: 10.1093/jaarel/lfh084Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  694.  
  695. Explores the renunciant identities of Theravada nuns in Sri Lanka, who are renunciants by virtue of having left the household life, but have no place in official renunciant orders. Discusses the public debate about the color of robes, terms of address, and higher ordination for nuns.
  696.  
  697. Find this resource:
  698.  
  699.  
  700. Southeast Asian Cultures
  701. In Southeast Asian societies, women devotedly and generously sustain Buddhist institutions, though they generally remain in the background. Keyes 1984 examines traditional assumptions about women’s roles in Thai Buddhist society and how more positive images can be recaptured. Falk 2007 lays the foundation for understanding the place of renunciant women in Thai Buddhism today and how both social and self-perceptions of nuns are being rethought. New directions for Thai nuns include greater social engagement and new Buddhist movements. Falk 2006 discusses changing perceptions of social involvement among the mae chi in Thailand. Heikkila-Horn 1997 and Heikkila-Horn 2000 describe the central role that nuns (sikkhamats) play in the Santi Asoke Buddhist reform movement. Kawanami 1990 and Kawanami 2007 make the case that nuns (thilá-shin) in Burma are content with the current structures and opportunities of their religious lives.
  702.  
  703. Falk, Monica Lindberg. “A Silent Undercurrent: The Significance of Mae chiis’ Socially Engaged Buddhist Practice in Thailand.” In Out of the Shadows: Socially Engaged Buddhist Women in the Global Community. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 239–244. Delhi: Sri Satguru, 2006.
  704.  
  705. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  706.  
  707. Discusses the structural gender inequality in Thailand that is starkly evident in the realm of religion and counter-examples of exemplary nuns whose achievements belie stereotypical images of the submissive, oppressed Thai woman.
  708.  
  709. Find this resource:
  710.  
  711.  
  712. Falk, Monica Lindberg. Making Fields of Merit: Buddhist Female Ascetics and Gendered Orders in Thailand. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007.
  713.  
  714. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  715.  
  716. An anthropological study of gender relations in Thailand, focused especially on female renunciants (mae chi), their quest for religious legitimacy, and the growing number of autonomous nunneries (samnak chii).
  717.  
  718. Find this resource:
  719.  
  720.  
  721. Heikkila-Horn, Marja-Leena. Buddhism with Open Eyes: Belief and Practice of Santi Asoke. Bangkok: Fah Apai, 1997.
  722.  
  723. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  724.  
  725. A detailed description of daily life in the Santi Asoke communities, with an analysis of the reasons for the rise of Santi Asoke and other alternative Buddhist movements in Thailand.
  726.  
  727. Find this resource:
  728.  
  729.  
  730. Heikkila-Horn, Marja-Leena. “The Status and Values of the Santi Asoke Sikkhamats.” In Innovative Buddhist Women: Swimming Against the Stream. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 72–83. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 2000.
  731.  
  732. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  733.  
  734. Examines the precepts of the Santi Asoka nuns (sikkhamats), the structure of their communities, and the value they place on specific merit-making activities.
  735.  
  736. Find this resource:
  737.  
  738.  
  739. Kawanami, Hiroko. “The Religious Standing of Burmese Buddhist Nuns (thilá-shin): The Ten Precepts and Religious Respect Words.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 13.1 (1990): 17–39.
  740.  
  741. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  742.  
  743. Describes the history, social status, and cultural milieu of Burmese nuns in relation to Buddhist scripture and tradition.
  744.  
  745. Find this resource:
  746.  
  747.  
  748. Kawanami, Hiroko. “The Bhikkhuni Ordination Debate: Global Aspirations, Local Concerns, with Special Emphasis on the Views of the Monastic Community in Burma.” Buddhist Studies Review 24.2 (2007): 226–244.
  749.  
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751.  
  752. Argues that Burmese nuns (thilá-shin) are more concerned with issues unique to their own situation than with the issue of full ordination that is a priority for Buddhist women in other countries.
  753.  
  754. Find this resource:
  755.  
  756.  
  757. Keyes, Charles F. “Mother, Mistress but Never a Monk: Buddhist Notions of Female Gender in Rural Thailand.” American Ethnologist 11.2 (1984): 223–241.
  758.  
  759. DOI: 10.1525/ae.1984.11.2.02a00010Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  760.  
  761. Interrogates notions of gender in Thailand that elevate monks as pillars of spiritual virtue, while consigning women to worldly affairs—a sexual division of labor presumably constructed on the basis of Buddhist teachings—and instead proposes the ideal of mother/nurturer found in texts and practices of northeastern Thailand.
  762.  
  763. Find this resource:
  764.  
  765.  
  766. East Asian Cultures
  767. The lives of nuns in East Asian societies have been shrouded by the mists of time until recently. Apart from brief mentions, little attention was given to those who, it was supposed, hid themselves away to concentrate on intensive religious devotion. Recent studies reveal that nuns were far more active and influential than previously assumed. In the Chinese annals, it is nuns of the Chan lineage who have been the subject of recent studies. Levering 1992 examines the lives of the nuns through the current-day rhetoric of equality and finds evidence of their quiet heroism. Grant 1996 and Grant 1999 confirm the achievements of Chan nuns during the late imperial period, including a female lineage holder. Grant 2008 depicts the lives of nuns of the 17th century through the writings of female Chan masters. Hirakawa 1992 describes the early transmission of women’s ordination from Korea to Japan, where the cloistered life was embraced by many aristocratic women. The chapters of Ruch 2002 reveal many facets of their lives. As documented in Fister 2003 and Fister, et al. 2009, the imperial convents were repositories of many artistic treasures.
  768.  
  769. Fister, Patricia. Art by Buddhist Nuns: Treasures from the Imperial Convents of Japan. New York: Institute for Medieval Japanese Studies, 2003.
  770.  
  771. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  772.  
  773. The bilingual full-color catalogue of a 2003 exhibition curated by the author at the Nomura Museum in Kyoto that included Buddhist art, calligraphy, and religious artifacts created by nuns of the Edo period, ten of whom were from the imperial family.
  774.  
  775. Find this resource:
  776.  
  777.  
  778. Fister, Patricia, et al. Amamonzeki: A Hidden Heritage, Treasures of the Japanese Buddhist Convents. Tokyo: University Art Museum, 2009.
  779.  
  780. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  781.  
  782. The bilingual catalogue of an exhibition held in 2009 at the University Art Museum, Tokyo University of the Arts. Includes the histories of all thirteen extant Imperial convents and the biographies and portraits of their abbesses, extending from the Nara to the Edo periods.
  783.  
  784. Find this resource:
  785.  
  786.  
  787. Grant, Beata. “Female Holder of the Lineage: Linji Chan Master Zhiyuan Xinggang (1597–1654).” Late Imperial China 17.2 (1996): 51–76.
  788.  
  789. DOI: 10.1353/late.1996.0009Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  790.  
  791. Documents the existence of numerous exceptional women practitioners during the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty period, including a female lineage holder of the Linji Chan Buddhist lineage whose writings have been preserved in a Ming edition of the Tripitaka.
  792.  
  793. Find this resource:
  794.  
  795.  
  796. Grant, Beata. “The Red Cord Untied: Buddhist Nuns in Eighteenth-Century China.” In Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 91–103. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
  797.  
  798. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799.  
  800. Investigates the lives of nuns who lived in late imperial China, including their various motivations for becoming a nun, their lifestyles, and their religious activities.
  801.  
  802. Find this resource:
  803.  
  804.  
  805. Grant, Beata. Eminent Nuns: Women Chan Masters of Seventeenth-Century China. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008.
  806.  
  807. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  808.  
  809. A translation of the recorded discourses, poems, biographies, letters, and other writings of seven Chinese nuns of the 17th century who were recognized as Chan masters.
  810.  
  811. Find this resource:
  812.  
  813.  
  814. Hirakawa, Akira. “The History of Buddhist Nuns in Japan.” Translated by Karma Lekshe Tsomo and Junko Miura. Buddhist Christian Studies 12 (1992): 147–158.
  815.  
  816. DOI: 10.2307/1389961Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  817.  
  818. A summary of the early history of Buddhist nuns in China and Japan, with an introduction to the Vinaya precepts that typically regulate monastic life, supplemented in these traditions by the bodhisattva precepts of the Brahmajala Sutra.
  819.  
  820. Find this resource:
  821.  
  822.  
  823. Levering, Miriam L. “Lin-chi (Rinzai) Ch’an and Gender: The Rhetoric of Equality and the Rhetoric of Heroism.” In Buddhism, Sexuality, and Gender. Edited by José Ignacio Cabezón, 137–156. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.
  824.  
  825. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  826.  
  827. Examines the rhetoric of equality implicit in the statement that all beings have an “originally enlightened mind” and the implications of the claim that gender is therefore irrelevant.
  828.  
  829. Find this resource:
  830.  
  831.  
  832. Ruch, Barbara. Engendering Faith: Women and Buddhism in Premodern Japan. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Center, 2002.
  833.  
  834. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  835.  
  836. A collection of scholarly articles on Japanese Buddhist women that includes seminal studies on the significant roles of nuns during different periods of Japanese history and intriguing aspects of their lives.
  837.  
  838. Find this resource:
  839.  
  840.  
  841. Central Asian Cultures
  842. The lives of monastics in Himalayan societies have fascinated the imagination since Alexander David-Neel’s epic journey, but nuns have been largely missing from these flights of fancy. Realities on the ground turn out to be much harsher and fraught with seemingly endless challenges. In one of the earliest depictions, Harding 2003 presents the teachings of the wondrous yogini Machik Labkyi Dronma, including her early years as a nun, subsequent hardships, and realizations. Tsomo 1989 is an overview of the lives of Tibetan nuns, many now living as refugees in India and Nepal. A number of anthropological studies have appeared in recent years. In one of the earliest, Ortner 1983 documents the austere but fulfilling lives of Sherpa nuns in Nepal. Havnevik 1989 is based on the experiences of the Tibetan refugee nuns who settled in Tilokpur, not far from Dharamsala, India. Grimshaw 1994 recounts the joys and hardships of the Julichang nuns of Ladakh, while Gutschow 2004 presents a detailed account of the Kachö Drubling nunnery in Zangskar. LaMacchia 2008 describes the lives and spiritual aspirations of the nuns of Kinnaur through the Buddhist verses that they sing. Change has come swiftly to Himalayan societies; Watkins 1996 documents how recent changes have affected one nunnery in Nepal.
  843.  
  844. Grimshaw, Anna. Servants of the Buddha: Winter in a Himalayan Convent. Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim, 1994.
  845.  
  846. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  847.  
  848. The personal observations of a graduate student in anthropology who spends a winter with the nuns of Julichang Nunnery in Ladakh. Documents the nuns’ labors on behalf of Rizong Monastery and their role as mediators between the monks and the local villagers.
  849.  
  850. Find this resource:
  851.  
  852.  
  853. Gutschow, Kim. Being a Buddhist Nun: The Struggle for Enlightenment in the Himalayas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
  854.  
  855. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  856.  
  857. A feminist ethnography focused on Kachö Drubling, a Buddhist nunnery in Zangskar, a remote region of the Indian Himalayas. Includes a thorough introduction to the political and religious history of the region and the monastic economy.
  858.  
  859. Find this resource:
  860.  
  861.  
  862. Harding, Sarah. Machik’s Complete Explanation: Clarifying the Meaning of Chöd. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 2003.
  863.  
  864. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  865.  
  866. The life and teachings of one of Tibet’s most celebrated Buddhist practitioners, Machik Labkyi Dronma, who was a nun during the early part of her life and a preeminent proponent of chöd, a practice especially treasured by nuns to the present day.
  867.  
  868. Find this resource:
  869.  
  870.  
  871. Havnevik, Hanna. Tibetan Buddhist Nuns: History, Cultural Norms and Social Reality. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
  872.  
  873. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  874.  
  875. An anthropological study of a Tibetan refugee nunnery in Himachal Pradesh, India, that incorporates feminist perspectives.
  876.  
  877. Find this resource:
  878.  
  879.  
  880. LaMacchia, Linda. Songs and Lives of the Jomo (Nuns) of Kinnaur, Northwest India: Women’s Religious Expression in Tibetan Buddhism. Delhi: Sri Satguru, 2008.
  881.  
  882. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  883.  
  884. An anthropological study of nuns in the Himalayan regions of Kinnaur, focused especially on their songs, sung in both Tibetan and Kinnauri languages, many of which are transcribed therein. Includes twenty-six black-and-white plates.
  885.  
  886. Find this resource:
  887.  
  888.  
  889. Ortner, Shelly B. “The Founding of the First Sherpa Nunnery, and the Problem of ‘Women’ as an Analytic Category.” In Feminist Re-Visions: What Has Been and What Might Be. Edited by Vivian Paraka and Louise A. Tilly, 93–134. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1983.
  890.  
  891. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  892.  
  893. Recounts events in the religious lives of the nuns of Devuche Nunnery who defy gender expectations by establishing their own ritual space and an economy to support it.
  894.  
  895. Find this resource:
  896.  
  897.  
  898. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “Tibetan Nuns and Nunneries.” In Feminine Ground: Essays on Women and Tibet. Edited by Janice D. Willis, 118–134. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 1989.
  899.  
  900. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  901.  
  902. A brief introduction to the nuns of Tibet who observed thirty-six srāmaṇerikā precepts and established their own independent communities, now replicated in exile communities in India and Nepal.
  903.  
  904. Find this resource:
  905.  
  906.  
  907. Watkins, Joanne C. Spirited Women: Gender, Religion, and Cultural Identity in the Nepal Himalaya. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.
  908.  
  909. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  910.  
  911. An ethnography of laywomen and nuns in the region of Nyeshangte, recording changes in cultural values and social structures that mirror similar changes throughout the Himalayas.
  912.  
  913. Find this resource:
  914.  
  915.  
  916. Comparative Cultures
  917. Among comparative studies, Lang 1982 takes an interreligious approach in comparing images of women in early Buddhism and Christian Gnosticism. Chung 2004 compares the earliest Buddhist nuns in India and China. In recent times, Cheng 2007 compares conditions for nuns in Taiwan and Sri Lanka, while Tsomo 2009 compares the social activism of nuns in Taiwan and North America.
  918.  
  919. Cheng, Wei-yi. Buddhist Nuns in Taiwan and Sri Lanka: A Critique of the Feminist Perspective. Richmond, UK: RoutledgeCurzon, 2007.
  920.  
  921. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  922.  
  923. A comparative analysis of the experience of Buddhist nuns, based on fieldwork in Taiwan and Sri Lanka, with attention to differences of race, class, and other aspects of identity.
  924.  
  925. Find this resource:
  926.  
  927.  
  928. Chung, Inyoung (Sukhdam Sunim). “Comparing the First Buddhist Women in Early Chinese and Ancient Indian Buddhism.” In Bridging Worlds: Buddhist Women’s Voices Across Generations. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 161–165. Taipei: Yuan Chuan, 2004.
  929.  
  930. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  931.  
  932. An examination of the lives and backgrounds of the earliest Buddhist nuns in India and China, based on the Biographies of Nuns (Biqiuni zhuan) and the Therīgāthā.
  933.  
  934. Find this resource:
  935.  
  936.  
  937. Lang, Karen Christina. “Images of Women in Early Buddhism and Christian Gnosticism.” Buddhist Christian Studies 2 (1982): 95–105.
  938.  
  939. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  940.  
  941. Examines the attitudes toward women expressed by the ascetic authors of early Buddhist and Christian texts, including images of women both as sexual and seductive, and as wise and compassionate.
  942.  
  943. Find this resource:
  944.  
  945.  
  946. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “Socially Engaged Buddhist Nuns: Activism in Taiwan and North America.” Journal of Global Buddhism 10 (2009): 459–485.
  947.  
  948. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  949.  
  950. A comparative analysis of the perspectives and social activism of nuns in Taiwan, especially Bhiksunis Cheng Yen, Chao Hwei, and Hiu Wan, and those of nuns from Taiwan in immigrant Chinese communities in the United States and Canada.
  951.  
  952. Find this resource:
  953.  
  954.  
  955. Biographies/Narrative Histories
  956. Perhaps the best sources of information about Buddhist nuns are narrative histories and biographies that present the lives and experiences of nuns firsthand. In the early sources, stories about Mahaprajapati, founder of the bhikkhuni sangha, figure prominently. The Therīgāthā, a collection of verses by seventy nuns at the time of the Buddha, is an especially useful source. After that, works by or about nuns are quite scarce, especially in Southeast Asia. Recent research has brought many previously overlooked sources to light, however, and there are surely more waiting to be discovered.
  957.  
  958. Early Buddhist Nuns
  959. The pioneering figure of Mahāpajābatī, aunt and foster mother of Sidhartha Gotama, and her determination to join the sangha are among the most striking images in the Buddhist imagination. Walters 1994 and Dash 2008 reconstruct the life of this remarkable figure using various, sometimes contradictory, sources. Obeyesekere 2009 similarly reconstructs the story of the Buddha’s former wife Yasodhara, based on legends and commentaries.
  960.  
  961. Dash, Shobha Rani. Mahāpajābatī: The First Bhikkhuni. Seoul, South Korea: Blue Lotus, 2008.
  962.  
  963. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  964.  
  965. A biographical study of the life of Mahāpajābatī, the foster mother of Prince Siddhartha and legendary founder of the bhikkhuni sangha, based primarily on Pali sources and secondarily on Sanskrit and Chinese sources.
  966.  
  967. Find this resource:
  968.  
  969.  
  970. Obeyesekere, Ranjini. Yasodhara, the Wife of the Bodhisattva: The Sinhala Yasodharavata (The Story of Yasodhara) and the Sinhala Yasodharapadanaya (The Sacred Biography of Yasodhara). Albany: State University of New York Press, 2009.
  971.  
  972. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  973.  
  974. This is the story of Yasodhara, the wife that Prince Siddhartha left behind when he set out to seek enlightenment, a translation based on later commentaries and folk literature in which the abandoned wife becomes a nun and eventually an arhat.
  975.  
  976. Find this resource:
  977.  
  978.  
  979. Walters, Jonathan S. “A Voice from the Silence: The Buddha’s Mother’s Story.” History of Religions 33 (1994): 358–379.
  980.  
  981. DOI: 10.1086/463377Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  982.  
  983. Examines the voices of women in the Therī-apadāna, a body of Theravada hagiographic literature composed around the 2nd century BCE, focusing specifically at the text ascribed to Mahāpajābatī.
  984.  
  985. Find this resource:
  986.  
  987.  
  988. The Therīgāthā
  989. Among the earliest extant examples of women’s literature, the verses of the Therīgāthā are the exaltations of nuns who have achieved liberation. Murcott 1991 is a poetic reading of these verses, while Blackstone 1998 includes both qualitative and quantitative analysis in her study.
  990.  
  991. Blackstone, Kathryn. Women in the Footsteps of the Buddha: Struggle for Liberation in the Therīgāthā. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
  992.  
  993. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  994.  
  995. A critical study of the Therīgāthā, an early collection of verses by seventy nuns who proclaim their realizations and the efficacy of the Buddha’s teachings. Based on earlier studies, Blackstone’s work pays special attention to attitudes toward women embedded in the text.
  996.  
  997. Find this resource:
  998.  
  999.  
  1000. Murcott, Susan. The First Buddhist Women: Translations and Commentaries on the Therigatha. Berkeley, CA: Parallax, 1991.
  1001.  
  1002. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1003.  
  1004. An accessible translation of the verses of realization of the theris (elder nuns) who were the Buddha’s earliest female disciples, with commentary describing their diverse backgrounds and dedicated quest for liberation.
  1005.  
  1006. Find this resource:
  1007.  
  1008.  
  1009. Southeast Asian Traditions
  1010. Biographical accounts of Buddhist nuns in Southeast Asia are scarce and the stories they tell vary in relation to the cultural and socioeconomic background of the central figure. Brown 2001, the biographical account of an individual mae chi, offers glimpses of the lives of female religious practitioners inhabiting the margins of Thai Buddhist monastic life. By contrast, Tsomo 2004 describes the life of an aristocratic woman who challenges the status quo by working to gain higher education and legal recognition for mae chi in Thailand. In Vietnam, where women already have access to higher ordination as bhiksunis, Khong, et al. 1993 tells the story of her struggles as an activist nun during the war years.
  1011.  
  1012. Brown, Sid. The Journey of One Buddhist Nun: Even Against the Wind. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001.
  1013.  
  1014. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1015.  
  1016. This biographical account weaves the story of Wabi, a Thai mae chi who attempts to reconcile the inner and outer challenges of her existence within a Buddhist worldview.
  1017.  
  1018. Find this resource:
  1019.  
  1020.  
  1021. Khong, Chan, Cao Ngoc Phuong, and Maxine Hong Kingston. Learning True Love: How I Learned and Practiced Social Change in Vietnam. Berkeley, CA: Parallax, 1993.
  1022.  
  1023. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1024.  
  1025. The autobiography of a Vietnamese nun who has worked closely with Thich Nhat Hanh through years of war, relocation, and reconciliation.
  1026.  
  1027. Find this resource:
  1028.  
  1029.  
  1030. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “Khunying Kanitha: Thailand’s Advocate for Women.” In Buddhist Women and Social Justice: Ideals, Challenges, and Achievements. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 173–191. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
  1031.  
  1032. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1033.  
  1034. Recounts the life and work of Khunying Kanitha, an attorney who established the first women’s shelter and the first Buddhist college for women in Thailand, became a nun (mae chi), and worked to gain legal status for nuns in Thailand.
  1035.  
  1036. Find this resource:
  1037.  
  1038.  
  1039. East Asian Traditions
  1040. Nuns in East Asia have a long history and have preserved a lineage of full ordination that dates back to the time of the Buddha and continues until today. Chang 1981 and Shih Pao-Ch’ang 1994 are translations of a classic collection of brief biographies of eminent nuns who lived during the early centuries of Buddhism’s establishment in China. Further afield, Chung 2006 recounts the life of a nun who pioneered education for nuns in Korea, while Batchelor and Son’gyong Sunim 2006 tell the stories of their own lives and Zen practice in Korea. From Japan, Dobbins 2004 reflects on the letters of a pivotal figure in Pure Land Buddhism, and King 1993 offers a more contemporary, autobiographical account of a resolute Zen nun. Other contemporary accounts include Ching 1995 and Huang 2009, which document the life and charitable activities of Cheng Yen, a charismatic Taiwanese nun.
  1041.  
  1042. Batchelor, Martine, and Son’gyong Sunim. Women in Korean Zen: Lives and Practices. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2006.
  1043.  
  1044. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1045.  
  1046. Describes the life of nuns in Korea, first through Batchelor’s personal experience of living for ten years as a French nun in Korea and, second, through the autobiography of Son’gyong Sunim, a highly realized Korean nun, meditation master, and poet.
  1047.  
  1048. Find this resource:
  1049.  
  1050.  
  1051. Chang, Pao. Biographies of Buddhist Nuns. Translated by Jung-hsi Li. Osaka, Japan: Tohokai, 1981.
  1052.  
  1053. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1054.  
  1055. A rich source of information about the lives of Chinese nuns during the 4th–6th centuries, revealing their reasons for renouncing the world, meditation, diet, death practices (sometimes by self-immolation), and burial.
  1056.  
  1057. Find this resource:
  1058.  
  1059.  
  1060. Ching, Yu-Ing. Master of Love and Mercy: Cheng Yen. Nevada City, CA: Blue Dolphin, 1995.
  1061.  
  1062. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1063.  
  1064. Recounts the life story of the Taiwanese nun Cheng Yen and the founding of Tzu Chi Compassion Relief Foundation, one of the world’s largest charitable relief organizations.
  1065.  
  1066. Find this resource:
  1067.  
  1068.  
  1069. Chung, Inyoung (Sukhdam Sunim). “Crossing Over the Gender Boundary in Gray Rubber Shoes: A Study on Myoom Sunim’s Buddhist Monastic Education.” In Out of the Shadows: Socially Engaged Buddhist Women in the Global Community. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 218–227. Delhi: Sri Satguru, 2006.
  1070.  
  1071. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1072.  
  1073. Chronicles the life of Myoom Sunim, who joined a meditation retreat in 1945 to avoid being drafted as a “comfort woman,” developed a thirst for Buddhist learning and became one of the most highly acclaimed Korean Buddhist teachers in recent times.
  1074.  
  1075. Find this resource:
  1076.  
  1077.  
  1078. Dobbins, James C. Letters of the Nun Eshinni: Images of Pure Land Buddhism in Medieval Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2004.
  1079.  
  1080. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1081.  
  1082. Reflections on Pure Land Buddhism in 13th-century Japan, inspired by translations of the letters of Eshinni, a nun who became the wife of Shinran, founder of the Jōdo Shinshū school.
  1083.  
  1084. Find this resource:
  1085.  
  1086.  
  1087. Huang, C. Julia. Charisma and Compassion: Cheng Yen and the Buddhist Tzu Chi Movement. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
  1088.  
  1089. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1090.  
  1091. An ethnography of the life and work of the celebrated Taiwanese nun Cheng Yen, who founded (and continued leading into the early 21st century) the Tzu-Chi Foundation, a transnational charitable relief organization, with insights on the relationship between religion, cultural identity, compassion, and charisma.
  1092.  
  1093. Find this resource:
  1094.  
  1095.  
  1096. King, Sallie B., trans. Passionate Journey: The Spiritual Autobiography of Satomi Myodo. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993.
  1097.  
  1098. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1099.  
  1100. The autobiography of a modern Japanese woman who was determined to attain enlightenment (kenshō) and who, defying convention and weathering many trials and tribulations, eventually achieved her goal.
  1101.  
  1102. Find this resource:
  1103.  
  1104.  
  1105. Shih Pao-Ch’ang. Lives of the Nuns: Biographies of Chinese Buddhist Nuns from the Fourth to Sixth Centuries: A Translation of the Pi-Ch’Iu-Ni Chuan. Translated by Kathryn Ann Tsai. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1994.
  1106.  
  1107. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1108.  
  1109. A collection of sixty-five biographies compiled in the 6th century that documents the lives of nuns during the early period of Buddhist monastic formation in China.
  1110.  
  1111. Find this resource:
  1112.  
  1113.  
  1114. Central Asian Traditions
  1115. Recent scholarship has brought to light the biographies of several exemplary nuns in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition. Allione 1984, Schaeffer 2004, Schaeffer 2005, and Diemberger 2007 tell the stories of women from the Himalayan region who were recognized as extraordinary practitioners in earlier centuries. More recently, Havnevik 1998 and Gutschow 2000 document the exemplary contributions of nuns who traveled on a pilgrimage through India and Tibet in the early half of the 20th century.
  1116.  
  1117. Allione, Tsultrim. Women of Wisdom. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984.
  1118.  
  1119. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1120.  
  1121. Includes brief biographies of six Tibetan women practitioners who were nuns or who lived like nuns: A-yu Khandro (Dorje Paldron), Machig Lapdron, Nangsa Obum, Jomo Memo, Machig Ongjo, and Drenchen Rema.
  1122.  
  1123. Find this resource:
  1124.  
  1125.  
  1126. Diemberger, Hildegard. When a Woman Becomes a Religious Dynasty: The Samding Dorje Phagmo of Tibet. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
  1127.  
  1128. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1129.  
  1130. A translation and commentary on the 15th-century biography of Chokyi Dronma, a Tibetan princess who became a nun and founded a lineage of tantric practitioners that continued for centuries.
  1131.  
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133.  
  1134.  
  1135. Gutschow, Kim. “Yeshe’s Tibetan Pilgrimage: The Founding of a Himalayan Nunnery in Zangskar.” In Innovative Buddhist Women: Swimming Against the Stream. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 112–128. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 2000.
  1136.  
  1137. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1138.  
  1139. Tells the story of three nuns who traveled from the Indian Himalayan region of Zangskar to Tibet, received srāmaṇerikā ordination there, and returned to Zangskar to found an independent monastery for nuns in the village of Karsha.
  1140.  
  1141. Find this resource:
  1142.  
  1143.  
  1144. Havnevik, Hanna. “On Pilgrimage for Forty Years in the Himalayas: The Female Lama Jetsun Lochen Rinpoche’s (1865–1951) Quest for Sacred Sites.” In Pilgrimage in Tibet. Edited by Alex McKay, 85–107. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
  1145.  
  1146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1147.  
  1148. An account of the life and circumstances of the Tibetan yogini Jetsun Lochen Rinpoche, who lived in the 1890s and traveled extensively to sacred sites (“power places”) throughout Tibet.
  1149.  
  1150. Find this resource:
  1151.  
  1152.  
  1153. Schaeffer, Kurtis R. Himalayan Hermitess: The Life of a Tibetan Buddhist Nun. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  1154.  
  1155. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1156.  
  1157. An account of the life and visionary experience of Orgyan Chokyi, a nun who asserted her autonomy and practiced in solitude in the snowy Himalayas.
  1158.  
  1159. Find this resource:
  1160.  
  1161.  
  1162. Schaeffer, Kurtis R. “The Autobiography of a Medieval Hermitess: Orgyan Chokyi (1675–1729).” In Women in Tibet. Edited by Janet Gyatso and Hanna Havnevik, 83–109. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
  1163.  
  1164. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1165.  
  1166. A study of the life and writing of Orgyan Chokyi, a nun from the Dolpo who views the female body as analogous to the suffering nature of samsara. Concludes with reflections on the religious lives of women in Dolpo.
  1167.  
  1168. Find this resource:
  1169.  
  1170.  
  1171. Non-Asian Cultures
  1172. Biographies of non-Asian nuns provide a lens for understanding the appeal of Buddhism for people raised in non-Asian societies and also for understanding the challenges of cultural difference. Adiele 2005 recounts her experience of living as a black American ten-precept nun in Thailand, while Mackenzie 1998 narrates the life of the Tenzin Palmo, a British nun who lived for twelve years in retreat in the Indian Himalayas. Khema 1998 is the memoir of a German American Jew who became a respected teacher of Buddhism. Khema 1999 is a unique autobiography, describing Ayya Khema’s experiences of teaching Dharma and meditation to Western students. Kennett 2002 is the diary of a British nun who, frustrated at being denied ordination in the Anglican Church, became a Buddhist nun, teacher, and eventually founder of Shasta Abbey in California. O’Halloran 1994 tells a very different story of Zen monastic life through the eyes of a young Irish nun. Chodron 1996 recounts her Jewish family’s reaction to the news that she had decided to become an ordained Buddhist nun. Tsomo, et al. 1995 illustrates the range of experiences of Western women who live as Buddhist nuns, either in India or in the West.
  1173.  
  1174. Adiele, Faith. Meeting Faith: The Forest Journals of a Black Buddhist Nun. New York: W. W. Norton, 2005.
  1175.  
  1176. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1177.  
  1178. The amusing story of a black teenager who went to Thailand on a Rotary Club scholarship and returned five years later to become an eight-precept woman renunciant (mae chi) as a fieldwork project.
  1179.  
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181.  
  1182.  
  1183. Chodron, Thubten. “You’re Becoming a What? Living as a Western Buddhist Nun.” In Buddhist Women on the Edge. Edited by Marianne Dresser, 223–233. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic, 1996.
  1184.  
  1185. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1186.  
  1187. The personal story of a Jewish American girl who grew up in Los Angeles, studied English at UCLA, traveled to Nepal to study Buddhism, and became a nun in the Tibetan tradition—much to the consternation of her parents.
  1188.  
  1189. Find this resource:
  1190.  
  1191.  
  1192. Kennett, Roshi Jiyu. The Wild, White Goose: the Diary of a Female Zen Priest. 2 vols. Mt. Shasta, CA: Shasta Abbey, 2002.
  1193.  
  1194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1195.  
  1196. The spiritual biography of an English woman who trained through successive stages in a traditional Zen monastery in Japan and went on to establish her own monastery, illuminating both the grueling process and the psychological realities of her experience.
  1197.  
  1198. Find this resource:
  1199.  
  1200.  
  1201. Khema, Ayya. I Give You My Life: The Autobiography of a Western Buddhist Nun. Translated by Sherab Chodzin Kohn. Boston: Shambhala, 1998.
  1202.  
  1203. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1204.  
  1205. The autobiographical account of Ayya Khema, a German Jew whose family escaped the Holocaust and who, after years in Scotland, Shanghai, and the United States, became one of the pioneering nuns and teachers for the West.
  1206.  
  1207. Find this resource:
  1208.  
  1209.  
  1210. Khema, Ayya. Be an Island: The Buddhist Practice of Ayya Khema. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 1999.
  1211.  
  1212. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1213.  
  1214. An introduction to Buddhist teachings on meditation, based on the personal experience of Ayya Khema, a German-born nun who became a leading interpreter of Buddhism for the West.
  1215.  
  1216. Find this resource:
  1217.  
  1218.  
  1219. Mackenzie, Vicki. Cave in the Snow: Tenzin Palmo’s Quest for Enlightenment. New York and London: Bloomsbury, 1998.
  1220.  
  1221. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1222.  
  1223. The life story of Tenzin Palmo, born as the daughter of a fishmonger and a spiritualist in London, who traveled to India in the 1960s, met a Tibetan lama who became her teacher and spent twelve years in solitary retreat in a cave in Lahaul, along the Tibet-India border.
  1224.  
  1225. Find this resource:
  1226.  
  1227.  
  1228. O’Halloran, Maura. Pure Heart, Enlightened Mind: The Zen Journal and Letters of Maura “Soshin” O’Halloran. Boston: Charles E. Tuttle, 1994.
  1229.  
  1230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1231.  
  1232. The memoir of a young Irish woman who traveled to Japan at the age of twenty-four, where she studied to become a Zen master, based on her journal entries and letters.
  1233.  
  1234. Find this resource:
  1235.  
  1236.  
  1237. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe, Eko Susan Noble, Furyu Schroeder, Nora Ling-yun Shih, and Jacqueline Mandell. “The Monastic Experience.” In Buddhism Through American Women’s Eyes. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 121–148. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 1995.
  1238.  
  1239. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1240.  
  1241. First-person accounts of the experiences of five Western women who lived as nuns in India, Japan, Burma, and the United States.
  1242.  
  1243. Find this resource:
  1244.  
  1245.  
  1246. Contemporary Studies and Reflections
  1247. Scholarship on Buddhist nuns has burgeoned in recent decades. The plethora of newly available studies includes documentation of the institutional subordination of women, feminist reflections on ordination, critiques of gender disparities in education, and contemporary efforts toward institutional autonomy. Much recent research focuses on the ordination issue. Tsomo 1999 is a historical overview of women in Buddhism, with specific reference to the lives of nuns. Wawrytko 1994 examines gender bias in the sangha, from the beginnings of the bhiksuni sangha to today, from a philosophical perspective. Tsomo 1988 explains the primary objections to full ordination for women and refutations, while Tsomo 2004 investigates gender bias in the Vinaya texts in more depth. The collection of essays compiled by Mohr and Tsedroen 2010 investigates a variety of questions related to the ordination of Buddhist nuns, across a broad spectrum of traditions and perspectives. Reflection on other aspects of nuns’ lives include Gyatso 2003, which considers gender categories; Wilson 1996, which reveals frightful images of both laywomen and nuns; and Wilson 1995, which questions androcentric perceptions and self-perceptions.
  1248.  
  1249. Gyatso, Janet. “One Plus One Makes Three: Buddhist Gender, Monasticism, and the Law of the Non-Excluded Middle.” History of Religions 43.2 (2003): 89–115.
  1250.  
  1251. DOI: 10.1086/423006Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1252.  
  1253. A thoughtful analysis of Buddhist conceptions of gender and sexual difference that attempts to avoid both the critique of misogyny and a valorized feminization of the tradition, turning on a discussion of the pandaka, a third sex.
  1254.  
  1255. Find this resource:
  1256.  
  1257.  
  1258. Mohr, Thea, and Jampa Tsedroen. Dignity & Discipline: Reviving Full Ordination for Buddhist Nuns. Papers presented at the International Congress on Women’s Role in the Sangha, Hamburg University, Hamburg, Germany, 18–20 July 2007. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2010.
  1259.  
  1260. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1261.  
  1262. A collection of seventeen papers presented at the International Congress on Women’s Role in the Sangha held at Hamburg University in 2007, attended by H. H. Dalai Lama and leading scholars, to analyze the issue of full ordination for women.
  1263.  
  1264. Find this resource:
  1265.  
  1266.  
  1267. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “Prospects for an International Bhiksuni Sangha.” In Sakyadhita: Daughters of the Buddha. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 236–254. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 1988.
  1268.  
  1269. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1270.  
  1271. An introduction to the history and development of the bhiksuni sangha, the case for full ordination, the objections raised by opponents, and their refutation.
  1272.  
  1273. Find this resource:
  1274.  
  1275.  
  1276. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “Mahāpajābatī’s Legacy: The Buddhist Women’s Movement: An Introduction.” In Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 1–44. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
  1277.  
  1278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1279.  
  1280. Beginning with Mahaprajapati and her entourage of five hundred women, the institution of the bhiksuni sangha has required a collective effort of Buddhist women. A survey of the lives of contemporary nuns, including efforts to reestablish full ordination for women.
  1281.  
  1282. Find this resource:
  1283.  
  1284.  
  1285. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “Is the Bhikṣunī Vinaya Sexist?” In Buddhist Women and Social Justice: Ideals, Challenges, and Achievements. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 45–72. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
  1286.  
  1287. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1288.  
  1289. A feminist analysis of the bhikṣuṇī Vinaya texts, with particular attention to the bhikṣunī pratimokṣa and the eight gurudharmas. Assesses the extent to which discriminatory passages may be influenced by cultural preconceptions of women and/or misogyny.
  1290.  
  1291. Find this resource:
  1292.  
  1293.  
  1294. Wawrytko, Sandra A. “Sexism in the Early Sangha: Its Social Basis and Philosophical Dissolution.” In Buddhist Behavioral Codes and the Modern World. Edited by Charles Fu and Sandra A. Wawrytko, 277–296. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1994.
  1295.  
  1296. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1297.  
  1298. A philosophical analysis of androcentric bias in the sangha historically, based on specific Pali texts, and an assessment of attitudes in the late 20th century.
  1299.  
  1300. Find this resource:
  1301.  
  1302.  
  1303. Wilson, Liz. “Seeing Through the Gendered ‘I’: The Self-Scrutiny and Self-Disclosure of Nuns in Post-Aśokan Buddhist Hagiographic Literature.” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 11.1 (1995): 41–80.
  1304.  
  1305. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1306.  
  1307. Sounds a cautionary note that, despite recent optimistic predictions about new opportunities for women, hagiographic images in Buddhist literature reveal that women are often seen, and see themselves, through an androcentric lens.
  1308.  
  1309. Find this resource:
  1310.  
  1311.  
  1312. Wilson, Liz. Charming Cadavers: Horrific Figurations of the Feminine in Indian Buddhist Hagiographical Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
  1313.  
  1314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1315.  
  1316. An exposition of graphic, repugnant portrayals of women’s bodies in Indian Buddhist literature that were designed to lead monks from temptation. Includes chapters on celibacy and nuns.
  1317.  
  1318. Find this resource:
  1319.  
  1320.  
  1321. South Asian Traditions
  1322. Despite its reputation as a bastion of Theravada conservatism, South Asia has been at the center of important recent changes for Buddhist nuns. From 1996, when ten Sri Lankan nuns received bhikkhuni precepts from the Korean lineage in Sarnath, India, and 1998, when a total of 132 nuns from around the world, including a large contingent of Sri Lankan nuns, received bhikkhuni precepts from the Chinese lineage in Bodhgaya, the impetus for full ordination for women in India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka has continued unabated. De Silva 2004 and Wijayasundara 1999 explain the background and rationale for this historic restoration movement. Mrozik 2009 and Mrozik 2011 discuss the changes that have resulted from the movement, including the improved opportunities for education and training for nuns documented in de Silva 2006. LeVine 2004 describes similar changes among nuns in Nepal. Education and full ordination, however, are not the goal of all nuns. Salgado 1997 argues that the incidence of ecstatic possession among ten-precept nuns is related to their ambiguous status in the monastic system.
  1323.  
  1324. de Silva, Ranjani. “Reclaiming the Robe: Restoration of the Bhikkhunī Order in Sri Lanka.” In Buddhist Women and Social Justice: Ideals, Challenges, and Achievements. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 119–135. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
  1325.  
  1326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1327.  
  1328. Traces the bhikkhuni lineage from India to Sri Lanka and hence to China, and the current controversy over restoring the lineage in Sri Lanka.
  1329.  
  1330. Find this resource:
  1331.  
  1332.  
  1333. de Silva, Ranjani. “The Training and Education of Nuns in Sri Lanka.” In Out of the Shadows: Socially Engaged Buddhist Women in the Global Community. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 90–93. Delhi: Sri Satguru, 2006.
  1334.  
  1335. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1336.  
  1337. A discussion of the changes that have occurred for nuns in Sri Lanka since they gained access to full ordination, including changing perceptions of nuns’ capabilities and increasing social welfare contributions.
  1338.  
  1339. Find this resource:
  1340.  
  1341.  
  1342. LeVine, Sarah. “Dharma Education for Women in the Theravāda Buddhist Community of Nepal.” In Buddhist Women and Social Justice: Ideals, Challenges, and Achievements. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 137–154. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
  1343.  
  1344. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1345.  
  1346. Examines the pivotal role Buddhist nuns have played in reviving Theravada Buddhism in the country through Buddhist education programs and publications, especially for children and youth.
  1347.  
  1348. Find this resource:
  1349.  
  1350.  
  1351. Mrozik, Susane. “A Robed Revolution: The Contemporary Buddhist Nun’s Movement.” Religion Compass 3.3 (2009): 360–378.
  1352.  
  1353. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00136.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1354.  
  1355. A discussion of the central issues of the debate over Buddhist nuns’ access to full ordination in Sri Lanka, including monastic discipline, Buddhist identity, ordination lineage, and competing visions of female renunciation.
  1356.  
  1357. Find this resource:
  1358.  
  1359.  
  1360. Mrozik, Susanne. “In the Company of Spiritual Friends: Sri Lanka’s Buddhist Nuns.” Present: The Voices and Activities of Theravada Buddhist Women 4.2 (2011): 4–11.
  1361.  
  1362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1363.  
  1364. Traces the origins, development, and current status of Buddhist nuns in Sri Lanka, including the question of why not all dasasilmathas have embraced the opportunity to become bhikkhunis.
  1365.  
  1366. Find this resource:
  1367.  
  1368.  
  1369. Salgado, Nirmala S. “Sickness, Healing, and Religious Vocation: Alternative Choices at a Theravada Buddhist Nunnery.” Ethnology 36 (1997): 213–226.
  1370.  
  1371. DOI: 10.2307/3773986Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1372.  
  1373. Discusses ecstatic states in the context of Buddhist religious practice and constructions of gender among female ascetics in Sri Lanka.
  1374.  
  1375. Find this resource:
  1376.  
  1377.  
  1378. Wijayasundara, Senarat. “Restoring the Order of Nuns to the Theravada Tradition.” In Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 79–87. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
  1379.  
  1380. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1381.  
  1382. Discusses the history and current revival of the bhikkhuni sangha, focusing specifically on Sri Lanka. Considers reasons why the heads of many monastic orders (nikāya) oppose the restoration of the order and possible ways to successfully revive it.
  1383.  
  1384. Find this resource:
  1385.  
  1386.  
  1387. Southeast Asian Traditions
  1388. The recent focus on equity for women in Buddhism has touched off a spate of studies by scholars, practitioners, scholar/practitioners, and feminists. Kabilsingh 1991 introduces the history and social context for understanding Buddhist women in Thailand. Kabilsingh 1987 and Chamsanit 2006 look specifically at the debate surrounding the question of full ordination of women in the Theravada tradition from their vantage point in Thailand, while Kawanami 2007 considers the same question from a Burmese perspective. Scott 2011 takes up the question of Thai nuns’ and laywomen’s association with miraculous or supernormal events or faculties, which are used variously to demean or validate them. Tsomo 2010 discusses the relative obscurity of the Theravada eight-precept nuns (maekhao) of Laos, while Seet 2008 describes the relative prominence of Mahayana bhikṣunīs in Malaysia.
  1389.  
  1390. Chamsanit, Varaporn. “Settling the Debate on Bhikkhunī Ordination in Thailand: Why Is It So Difficult?” In Out of the Shadows: Socially Engaged Buddhist Women in the Global Community. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 223–232. Delhi: Sri Satguru, 2006.
  1391.  
  1392. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1393.  
  1394. Problematizes the controversy over the ordination status of renunciant women (mae chee) in Thailand who are considered neither laywomen nor fully nuns.
  1395.  
  1396. Find this resource:
  1397.  
  1398.  
  1399. Kabilsingh, Chatsumarn. “The Future of the Bhikkhuni Samgha in Thailand.” In Speaking of Faith: Global Perspectives on Women, Religion, and Social Change. Edited by Diana L. Eck and Devaki Jain, 148–158. Philadelphia: New Society, 1987.
  1400.  
  1401. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1402.  
  1403. An introduction to the history and status of nuns in Thailand and the controversy over establishing an order of fully ordained nuns in the Theravada tradition.
  1404.  
  1405. Find this resource:
  1406.  
  1407.  
  1408. Kabilsingh, Chatsumarn. Thai Women in Buddhism. Berkeley, CA: Parallax, 1991.
  1409.  
  1410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1411.  
  1412. An introduction to the history of Buddhist women in Thai history, including the issue of Buddhism and prostitution.
  1413.  
  1414. Find this resource:
  1415.  
  1416.  
  1417. Kawanami, Hiroko. “The Bhikkhuni Ordination Debate: Global Aspirations, Local Concerns.” Buddhist Studies Review 24 (2007): 2.
  1418.  
  1419. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1420.  
  1421. Reflects on the movement to revive bhikkhuni ordination from the perspective of monks and nuns in Burma, including the controversial case of a Burmese nun who was ordained as a bhikkhuni in Sri Lanka and the tension between disparate perspectives on women’s religious rights.
  1422.  
  1423. Find this resource:
  1424.  
  1425.  
  1426. Scott, Rachelle M. “Buddhism, Miraculous Powers, and Gender: Rethinking the Stories of Theravada Nuns.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 33.1–2 (2011): 489–511.
  1427.  
  1428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1429.  
  1430. Focuses attention on the stories of nuns and laywomen, both in the Pali canon and in contemporary Thailand, who are associated with miraculous events or supernormal powers, and how these events and powers are thought to authenticate them.
  1431.  
  1432. Find this resource:
  1433.  
  1434.  
  1435. Seet, Lee Terk. “Buddhist Nuns in Malaysia.” In Buddhist Women in a Global Multicultural Community. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 122–128. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Sukhi Hotu, 2008.
  1436.  
  1437. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1438.  
  1439. An introduction to the history and contemporary circumstances of nuns in Malaysia, with an emphasis on their social contributions in the fields of charity, education, teaching, and meditation.
  1440.  
  1441. Find this resource:
  1442.  
  1443.  
  1444. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “Lao Buddhist Women: Quietly Negotiating Religious Authority.” Buddhist Studies Review 27.1 (2010): 85–106.
  1445.  
  1446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1447.  
  1448. Examines the religious lives of nuns and laywomen in Lao Buddhist society, with particular attention to communities of eight-precept nuns (maekhao) who live at the margins of Lao society, without access to Buddhist education or full ordination.
  1449.  
  1450. Find this resource:
  1451.  
  1452.  
  1453. East Asian Traditions
  1454. The tension between tradition and innovation is a central thread in studies about nuns in East Asia today. Uchino 1987, Arai 1999a, Arai 1999b, and Arai 1993 document this tension among Zen nuns in Japan; and Cheng 2003 and DeVido 2004 among nuns in Taiwan. DeVido 2010 documents the many ways in which the nuns of Taiwan have acted as both the modernizers and preservers of tradition.
  1455.  
  1456. Arai, Paula Kane Robinson. “Sōtō Zen Nuns in Modern Japan: Keeping and Creating Tradition.” In Religion and Society in Modern Japan. Edited by Mark Mullins, Shimazono Susumu, and Paul Swanson, 203–218. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities, 1993.
  1457.  
  1458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1459.  
  1460. Describes the education, training, and daily life of the Zen Buddhist nuns of Aichi Senmon Nisōdō in Nagoya, Japan, under the direction of Shundo Aoyama.
  1461.  
  1462. Find this resource:
  1463.  
  1464.  
  1465. Arai, Paula Kane Robinson. “Japanese Buddhist Nuns: Innovators for the Sake of Tradition.” In Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 105–122. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999a.
  1466.  
  1467. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1468.  
  1469. An exploration of the status and expectations of Japanese Buddhist nuns of the Sōtō Zen school. Begins by tracing the origins of women’s ordination in Japan, its development during the Heian and Kamakura periods, and the training of Sōtō nuns today.
  1470.  
  1471. Find this resource:
  1472.  
  1473.  
  1474. Arai, Paula Kane Robinson. Women Living Zen: Japanese Soto Buddhist Nuns. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999b.
  1475.  
  1476. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1477.  
  1478. Traces the history of nuns in Japan back to the 6th century and, focusing especially on nuns of the Zen school, demonstrates how they have maintained a tradition of rigorous practice and careful discipline.
  1479.  
  1480. Find this resource:
  1481.  
  1482.  
  1483. Cheng, Wei-yi. “Luminary Buddhist Nuns in Contemporary Taiwan: A Quiet Feminist Movement.” Journal of Buddhist Ethics 10 (2003): 39–56.
  1484.  
  1485. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1486.  
  1487. A study of the Luminary order of nuns in Taiwan and the social, historical, and economic factors that have contributed to their success.
  1488.  
  1489. Find this resource:
  1490.  
  1491.  
  1492. DeVido, Elise Anne. “The Infinite World of Taiwanese Nuns.” In Buddhist Women and Social Justice: Ideals, Challenges, and Achievements. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 219–231. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
  1493.  
  1494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1495.  
  1496. A historical overview of the key roles that nuns have played in the resurgence of Buddhism in Taiwan and the significant impact they have had internationally as the preservers and transmitters of bhikṣunī ordination and training.
  1497.  
  1498. Find this resource:
  1499.  
  1500.  
  1501. DeVido, Elise Anne. Taiwan’s Buddhist Nuns. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010.
  1502.  
  1503. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1504.  
  1505. An introduction to the history and recent development of Buddhist nuns in Taiwan, highlighting the achievements of specific luminary figures who have, in their own unique ways, transformed Buddhism and demonstrated its contemporary relevance.
  1506.  
  1507. Find this resource:
  1508.  
  1509.  
  1510. Uchino, Kumiko. “The Status Elevation Process of Soto Sect Nuns in Modern Japan.” In Speaking of Faith. Edited by Diana L. Eck and Devaki Jain, 177–194. Philadelphia: New Society, 1987.
  1511.  
  1512. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1513.  
  1514. A discussion of social attitudes toward Sōtō Zen nuns from the Meiji era (b. 1868–d. 1912) through the Pacific War years and up to 1979, ranging from a denial of their existence to an awakening of feminist and democratic awareness with modernization. Includes mention of the problems they have faced and the experience of Zen temple wives.
  1515.  
  1516. Find this resource:
  1517.  
  1518.  
  1519. Ritual Practices
  1520. The lives of Buddhist nuns are characterized by a rich panoply of ritual practices. Examples of these practices can be found in Hüsken and Pülz 2012, which analyzes bhikkhuni ordination both as initiation ritual and legal procedure; Arai 2000, which discusses the ritual expressing appreciation to Ananda for his advocacy on behalf of nuns; and Dash 2006, which describes food rituals in a Japanese nunnery.
  1521.  
  1522. Arai, Paula Kane Robinson. “A Case of Ritual Zen: Gratitude to Ananda.” In Innovative Buddhist Women: Swimming Against the Stream. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 123–129. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 2000.
  1523.  
  1524. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1525.  
  1526. Describes the history and practice of a unique ritual performed by Sōtō Zen nuns in Japan to express appreciation to Ananda, the cousin and attendant of the Buddha, who convinced him to admit women to the sangha.
  1527.  
  1528. Find this resource:
  1529.  
  1530.  
  1531. Dash, Shobha Rani. “Food of Dharma: Rituals at Meals and in the Kitchen, A Case Study of Dongein Imperial Nunnery of Japan.” In Out of the Shadows: Socially Engaged Buddhist Women in the Global Community. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 266–269. Delhi: Sri Satguru, 2006.
  1532.  
  1533. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1534.  
  1535. Describes a ceremony held on New Year’s at Dongein, an imperial nunnery in Kyoto, in which seventy sets of food offerings, each with its own significance, are prepared and offered to Avalokiteśvara and indigenous deities (Kami) alike.
  1536.  
  1537. Find this resource:
  1538.  
  1539.  
  1540. Hüsken, Ute, and Petra Kieffer Pülz. “Buddhist Ordination as Initiation Ritual and Legal Procedure.” In Negotiating Rites. Edited by Ute Hüsken and Frank Neubert, 255–276. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  1541.  
  1542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1543.  
  1544. Argues that, in the ongoing “negotiation” concerning full ordination for women, Western bhiksunis have taken an academic, legalistic approach, whereas Himalayan nuns approach ordination as a performative aspect of lived religion.
  1545.  
  1546. Find this resource:
  1547.  
  1548.  
  1549. Central Asian Traditions
  1550. The changes and challenges faced by Tibetan nuns in Tibet and the Himalayan region are the focus of several recent studies. Tsomo 1999 and Coberly 2004 discuss the new attitudes and opportunities of women in the western Indian Himalayan region, while Tsomo 2008 describes divergent approaches to the treatment of maladies. Makley 2005 reveals a different kind of cultural dissonance related to gender and politics in northeastern Tibet.
  1551.  
  1552. Coberly, Margaret. “Crisis as Opportunity: Nuns and Cultural Change in the Spiti Valley.” In Buddhist Women and Social Justice: Ideals, Challenges, and Achievements. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 193–204. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
  1553.  
  1554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1555.  
  1556. A description of the innovations in education for Buddhist nuns that have taken place in the Indian Himalayan region of Spiti since the 1990s and the new ideas and leadership initiatives these changes have affected.
  1557.  
  1558. Find this resource:
  1559.  
  1560.  
  1561. Makley, Charlene E. “The Body of a Nun: Nunhood and Gender in Contemporary Amdo.” In Women in Tibet. Edited by Janet Gyatso and Hanna Havnevik, 259–284. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
  1562.  
  1563. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1564.  
  1565. A feminist analysis of the lives and subordinate social status of three communities of Tibetan nuns living in Labrang, Amdo, an area in the process of major socioeconomic change. Examines constructions of gender as performative.
  1566.  
  1567. Find this resource:
  1568.  
  1569.  
  1570. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “Change in Consciousness: Women’s Religious Identity in Himalayan Buddhist Cultures.” In Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations. Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 169–189. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
  1571.  
  1572. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1573.  
  1574. An analysis of the self-understanding of Buddhist women in the western Indian Himalayan region, especially nuns, and how attitudes are beginning to shift as the result of social changes (such as increased educational opportunities and contact with new ideas).
  1575.  
  1576. Find this resource:
  1577.  
  1578.  
  1579. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “The Buddha and the Spirit World: Healing Praxis in a Himalayan Monastery.” In Buddhist Women in a Global Multicultural Community. By Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 129–138. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Sukhi Hotu, 2008.
  1580.  
  1581. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1582.  
  1583. Discusses culture clashes and competing worldviews in the Indian Himalayas through the experience of a young nun in the Spiti Valley.
  1584.  
  1585. Find this resource:
  1586.  
  1587.  
  1588. Non-Asian Cultures
  1589. The perspectives of non-Asian commentators are prominent in contemporary Buddhism. Among them, the teachings of well-known and respected nuns such as Pema Chodron, Thubten Chodron, and Tenzin Palmo are made accessible through lectures, books, CDs, and videos. Their work provides important insights into the adaptation and interpretation of Buddhism in non-Asian societies through the varied lenses of gender, culture, and social change. Gross 1993 is a scholarly analysis of women’s experience in Buddhism from a feminist perspective. Friedman 1987 includes biographies of several Western nuns among the prominent Buddhist women teachers she interviewed. Chodron 1999 is a compilation of articles on the adaptation of Buddhist monastic practice in contemporary cultures. Tsomo 2002 discusses the challenges that Western nuns face, while Tsomo 2009 provides an update, focusing on the significant contributions of nuns to the transformation of Buddhism in the West.
  1590.  
  1591. Chodron, Thubten. Blossoms of the Dharma: Living as a Buddhist Nun. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic, 1999.
  1592.  
  1593. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1594.  
  1595. An exploration of monastic life, moving from its historical origins up to its contemporary adaptations, based on the experiences of a variety of mostly Western Buddhist nuns.
  1596.  
  1597. Find this resource:
  1598.  
  1599.  
  1600. Friedman, Lenore. Meetings with Remarkable Women: Buddhist Teachers in America. Boston: Shambhala, 1987.
  1601.  
  1602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1603.  
  1604. An anthology of biographical sketches by leading Buddhist women teachers, including several nuns: Pema Chodron, Jiyu Kennett, Gesshin Prabhasa Dharma, Karuna Dharma, and Ayya Khema. The introduction also discusses the significant roles nuns have played in the transmission of Buddhism.
  1605.  
  1606. Find this resource:
  1607.  
  1608.  
  1609. Gross, Rita M. Buddhism After Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, and Reconstruction of Buddhism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993.
  1610.  
  1611. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1612.  
  1613. A feminist analysis of Buddhist institutional and social inequalities, including the subordinate status of nuns in Buddhist monastic structures.
  1614.  
  1615. Find this resource:
  1616.  
  1617.  
  1618. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “Buddhist Nuns: Changes and Challenges.” In Westward Dharma: Buddhism Beyond Asia. Edited by Martin Baumann and Charles Prebish, 255–274. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
  1619.  
  1620. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1621.  
  1622. A survey of the experiences and contributions of Buddhist nuns living in Western countries, including their struggles for education and ordination.
  1623.  
  1624. Find this resource:
  1625.  
  1626.  
  1627. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. “Global Exchange: Women in the Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism.” In TransBuddhism: Transmission, Translation, Transformation of Buddhism. Edited by Nalini Bhushan, Jay L. Garfield, and Abraham Zablocki,151–166. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2009.
  1628.  
  1629. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1630.  
  1631. An analysis of the global Buddhist women’s movement and its contributions to the transmission and interpretation of Buddhism in the West.
Advertisement
Add Comment
Please, Sign In to add comment
Advertisement
Public Pastes
Advertisement
We use cookies for various purposes including analytics. By continuing to use Pastebin, you agree to our use of cookies as described in the Cookies Policy.  OK, I Understand
Not a member of Pastebin yet?
Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!