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Angkor and its Environs (Art History)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Angkor is the name of an ancient kingdom and capital of the Khmer Empire in northwestern Cambodia that flourished from the 9th century to the mid-15th century. At its peak of power in the 11th and 12th centuries, Angkor’s control extended beyond the borders of modern Cambodia over much of mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of Thailand, Malaysia, and Myanmar. Today, Angkor refers to a historical park encompassing an area of 77 square miles with ruins of some one hundred temples. Angkor is renowned for its art and architecture that was created during the Khmer Empire to honor the religious belief (Hinduism or Buddhism) of the reigning king. A vexing concern in researching the history of the Angkor kingdom is the scarcity of primary sources. As only one firsthand account of the period exists, knowledge of the ancient civilization derives from three other main sources for study: (1) more than 1,200 epigraphic inscriptions carved in sandstone on the temples in either Sanskrit or Khmer and translated into French or English that document the accomplishment of the kings; (2) sculpture, in stone and bronze; and (3) ruins of the monuments. After France established administrative control over Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos by the end of the 19th century, the École Française d’Extrême-Orient was founded to study the history, language, and archaeology of the three countries known as Indochina. French administrators and scholars, therefore, were the first to publish research on Angkor. Their early work combines observations, local legends, and translations of inscriptions that were, at best, imperfect in the beginning. Diaries by early European travelers to Angkor in the first half of the 20th century constitute a firsthand source for impressions of the art and architecture of Angkor. Guidebooks written by French conservators of Angkor provide detailed and systematic descriptions of the temples. The closure of Cambodia for some twenty years (c. 1970–1990) due to the Pol Pot regime and the accompanying civil unrest curtailed research advances and study of the temples. Catalogues of public collections in museums published in the last decade of the 20th century and since 2000 have added substantially to knowledge of Khmer art. Recent research on the art and architecture of Angkor benefits from new technology, generous research grants, and international technical expertise. Classic publications by French scholars working at Angkor in the first half of the 20th century are cited in this article, but the emphasis is on research advances and scholarship since the 1950s.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. This section includes relevant history books, general surveys of the Angkor period, and books on the art of Southeast Asia that have a noteworthy chapter on Angkor and that are useful for understanding the history of the Khmer Empire in relation to neighboring, contemporary kingdoms. Clémentin-Ojha and Manguin 2007, a history of the École Française d’Extrême-Orient, is an important record of its work in Indochina for more than one hundred years. Girard-Geslan, et al. 1998 surveys the art of Southeast Asia and includes recent research up to the end of the 20th century. Rawson 1990 includes chapters on early Angkor and the classical age of Angkor. Cœdès 1990 provides an informative introduction to Angkor in general. Two good overviews by Thierry Zéphir are included: Zéphir 1998a and Zéphir 1998b is an introduction to Khmer art suitable for all levels, and Zéphir 1998a covers a broader period in more detail. Jacques and Lafond 2007 discusses the entire Khmer Empire. Jacques 1997 covers Angkor (before and after) and is a volume that includes lavish illustrations.
  6.  
  7. Clémentin-Ojha, Catherine, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. A Century in Asia: The History of the École Française d’Extrême-Orient, 1898–2006. Singapore: Éditions Didier Millet, 2007.
  8.  
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  10.  
  11. A revised, English-language version that examines the work of the École Française d’Extrême-Orient in Indochina from its founding in 1898 through 2006 and presents the latest developments. Includes a section on the history of the institution’s museums and libraries in Indochina. Illustrated with archival photographs. English translation of Un siècle pour l’Asie (Paris: Éditions du Pacifique, 2001).
  12.  
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  14.  
  15. Cœdès, George. Angkor: An Introduction. Translated and edited by Emily Floyd Gardiner. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990.
  16.  
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  18.  
  19. A revised, English-language version with text by a renowned French scholar. Content is based on eight lectures that place the monuments of Angkor in a historical and religious setting. Considered a classic work. English translation of Pour mieux comprendre Angkor (Paris: A. Maisonneuve, 1943).
  20.  
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  22.  
  23. Girard-Geslan, Maud, Marijke J. Klokke, Albert Le Bonheur, et al., Art of Southeast Asia. Translated by J. A. Underwood. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998.
  24.  
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  26.  
  27. English translation of essays by leading scholars on the art of Southeast Asia with an informative chapter on Khmer art (pp. 152–249). With a preface by Albert Le Bonheur, former Director of the Musèe Guimet, large format and lavishly illustrated. Originally published in French, L’Art de l’Asie du Sud-Est, 1994.
  28.  
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  30.  
  31. Jacques, Claude. Angkor: Cities and Temples. Translated by Tom White. Bangkok: River Books, 1997.
  32.  
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  34.  
  35. A good introduction to Angkor, from the pre- to the post-Angkor periods, by an eminent French historian and epigraphist. Extensively illustrated with photographs by the internationally acclaimed Michael Freeman. English translation of Angkor: Les cities et temples, first published in 1990 (Paris: Bordas).
  36.  
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  38.  
  39. Jacques, Claude, and Philippe Lafond. The Khmer Empire: Cities and Sanctuaries, Fifth to the Thirteenth Centuries. Translated by Tom White. Bangkok: River Books, 2007.
  40.  
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  42.  
  43. Covers the entire Khmer Empire (the temples of Angkor and those in northeastern Thailand, formerly part of the empire) and tracks their history from the pre-Angkor period to the capital’s demise. Preface by David Chandler, a leading historian on Cambodia; amply illustrated.
  44.  
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  46.  
  47. Rawson, Philip. The Art of Southeast Asia: Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, Java, Bali. World of Art series 251. London: Thames and Hudson, 1990.
  48.  
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  50.  
  51. A good introduction to the temples of Angkor for students; written by the former director of Oriental Art at the Gulbenkian Museum, University of Durham. Includes illustrations with temple plans, thirty in color.
  52.  
  53. Find this resource:
  54.  
  55. Zéphir, Thierry. “Khmer Art.” In Art of Southeast Asia. Translated by J. A. Underwood. By Maud Girard-Geslan, Thierry Zéphir, Albert le Bonheur, et al., 151–249. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998a.
  56.  
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  58.  
  59. Extensive, illustrated overview covering Khmer art from pre- to post-Angkor periods. English translation of L’art de l’Asie du Sud-Est (Paris: Citadelles & Mazenod, 1994).
  60.  
  61. Find this resource:
  62.  
  63. Zéphir, Thierry. Khmer: Lost Empire of Cambodia. Translated by Francisca Garvie. London: Thames and Hudson, 1998b.
  64.  
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  66.  
  67. A small volume that is readable and amply illustrated. Tracks the Khmer civilization from the beginning to its demise at Angkor in the mid-15th century. Includes documentation on inscriptions, bas-reliefs, and customs of Cambodia. Recommended for students. Written by a French scholar renowned for his work on Khmer art. English translation of L’empire des rois khmers (Paris: Gallimard, 1997).
  68.  
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  70.  
  71. Historical
  72. Considerable early research was published by the École Française d’Extrême-Orient relating to its study of the history and epigraphy of Angkor. The works were written some four hundred years after the demise of Angkor and many are outdated as they no longer reflect the present state of research. Nevertheless, they remain valuable resources as classic studies because they represent the earliest research on Angkor by Europeans. Aymonier 1900–1904 is the first published survey of the history of the ruins of Angkor. Briggs 1999 is a comprehensive work on all aspects of Khmer history and art with extensive references to original sources. Giteau 1997, a historical account of Angkor, benefits from the author having lived two decades in Cambodia. Dagens 1995 emphasizes the individuals and work of the French at Angkor. The most up-to-date and complete general history on Cambodia is Chandler 2003. Cœdès 1968 presents a chronology for Khmer kingship with a chapter on “Indianization.” Higham 2001 provides the most recent historical overview of the Angkor civilization. Although Vickery 1998 covers only the pre-Angkor period (7th and 8th centuries), it includes important discussions of the impact of water, Indianization, and religion on Khmer society of the Angkor period.
  73.  
  74. Aymonier, Étienne. Le Cambodge. 3 vols. Paris: E. Leroux, 1900–1904.
  75.  
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  77.  
  78. Includes Vol. 1, Le royaume actuel (Paris: E. Leroux, 1900); Vol. 2, Les provinces siamoises (Paris: E. Leroux, 1902); and Vol. 3, Le groupe d’Angkor et l’histoire (Paris: E. Leroux, 1904). The first systematic survey of the ruins of the Khmer Empire. Considered a classic study of the history and art of Cambodia. The third volume is the most relevant to Angkor.
  79.  
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  81.  
  82. Briggs, Lawrence. The Ancient Khmer Empire. Reprint. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1999.
  83.  
  84. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  85.  
  86. The single most comprehensive and detailed document of the temples up to the mid-20th century. It combines the history of the Khmer Empire, the genealogy of the kings, art, and architecture based on surveys and inscriptions with extensive references. An important analysis. Originally published in 1951.
  87.  
  88. Find this resource:
  89.  
  90. Chandler, David P. A History of Cambodia. 4th ed. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm, 2003.
  91.  
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  93.  
  94. This updated edition traces Cambodian history from the pre-Angkor period to 1991. Considered a standard reference on the history of Cambodia. Originally published in 1992.
  95.  
  96. Find this resource:
  97.  
  98. Cœdès, George. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. Translated by Susan Brown Cowing. Edited by Walter F. Vella. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1968.
  99.  
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  101.  
  102. The author updated this basic text and added bibliographic references. A major work with emphasis on the Khmer Empire and the impact of “Indianization.” English translation of Les états hindouisés d’Indochine et d’Indonésie (Paris: de BocCard, 1964).
  103.  
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  105.  
  106. Dagens, Bruno. Angkor: Heart of an Asian Empire. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1995.
  107.  
  108. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  109.  
  110. A concise, informative history of the French explorers and early archaeologists working at Angkor; a wealth of illustrations and documentation support the text. Written by a French scholar. Suitable for students. English translation of Angkor: La forêt de pierre (Paris: Gallimard, 1989).
  111.  
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  113.  
  114. Giteau, Madeleine. History of Angkor. Translated by Gail Armstrong. Paris: Kailash, 1997.
  115.  
  116. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  117.  
  118. A historical account of the Khmer Empire from its founding in the early 9th century to its decline in the 15th century. Written by the former curator of the National Museum of Phnom Penh who lived in Cambodia for more than twenty years.
  119.  
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  121.  
  122. Higham, Charles. The Civilization of Angkor. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2001.
  123.  
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  125.  
  126. Discusses the origins of Angkor from the prehistoric period to the rise and fall of Angkor. The author draws on the latest research and addresses two contentious issues: the impact of “Indianization” on Angkor and the issue of irrigation during the Angkor period. Written by an archaeologist/anthropologist who conducted field work in Cambodia for more than thirty years.
  127.  
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  129.  
  130. Vickery, Michael. Society, Economics, and Politics in Pre-Angkor Cambodia. Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies for UNESCO, the Toyo Bunko, 1998.
  131.  
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  133.  
  134. Examines the corpus of pre-Angkor Cambodia epigraphic material to discern information about Cambodian society and economy. A scholarly discussion of the structure and dynamics of Khmer society.
  135.  
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  137.  
  138. Epigraphy
  139. The primary surviving indigenous written records of the Angkor period are inscriptions carved on sandstone in either Sanskrit or Khmer. The content mainly eulogizes the kings and praises their meritorious deeds, but it also provides a source for studying the chronology of the kings. Epigraphical research on the Angkor inscriptions has advanced immeasurably since its inception and many of the original early works by French scholars have been reread by modern scholars. Noteworthy studies of the inscriptions in the last half of the 20th century include Bhattacharya 1961, Cœdès 1937–1966, and Sharan 1974. Pou 1997 examines the history and present state of Khmer epigraphy.
  140.  
  141. Bhattacharya, Kamalleswar. Les religions brahmaniques dans l’ancien Cambodge: D’après l’epigraphie et l’iconographie. Paris: École Française d’Extrême-Orient, 1961.
  142.  
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  144.  
  145. An assessment of the inscriptions in old Khmer and Sanskrit by an Indian scholar.
  146.  
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  148.  
  149. Cœdès, George. Inscriptions du Cambodge. 8 vols. Paris: École Française d’Extrême-Orient, 1937–1966.
  150.  
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  152.  
  153. Volumes by a renowned French scholar who translated 1,000 inscriptions (from old Khmer to French).
  154.  
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  156.  
  157. Pou, Saveros. “Khmer Epigraphy.” In Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory. Edited by Helen Ibbitson Jessup and Thierry Zéphir, 53–61. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1997.
  158.  
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  160.  
  161. A clearly written chapter that traces the history of Khmer epigraphy from early works to the present state. Suitable for undergraduate students.
  162.  
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  164.  
  165. Sharan, Mahesh Kuman. Studies in Sanskrit Inscriptions of Cambodia. New Delhi: Abhinav, 1974.
  166.  
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  168.  
  169. Study is based on inscriptions in Sanskrit rather than translations of them into other languages. Contents cover aspects of administration, socioeconomic life, religious conditions, art, and architecture.
  170.  
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  172.  
  173. References
  174. Bruguier 1998, a two-volume bibliography, is a comprehensive reference to the art and archaeology of Cambodia. Pou 1992 is a dictionary of words that gives references in three languages. The Center for Khmer Studies Library Catalogue provides a directory to more than 14,000 volumes on the history and culture of Cambodia and Southeast Asia. The HathiTrust is a partnership with research institutions aimed at preserving knowledge for posterity and includes books on Angkor.
  175.  
  176. Bruguier, Bruno. Bibliographie du Cambodge ancien. 2 vols. Paris: École Française d’Extrême-Orient, 1998.
  177.  
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179.  
  180. Volume 1, Corpus bibliographique, is an extensive bibliography (4,000 references) of works and articles on the art, history, and archaeology of ancient Cambodia, arranged alphabetically by author. Volume 2, Tables et index, is an index of the geography of the principal sites with references to the archaeological reports. Written in collaboration with Phann Nady.
  181.  
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  183.  
  184. Center for Khmer Studies Library Catalogue.
  185.  
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187.  
  188. Extensive collection of books on Angkor and sets of several journals that specialize on the culture of Southeast Asia. An online catalogue is available.
  189.  
  190. Find this resource:
  191.  
  192. Hathitrust.
  193.  
  194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195.  
  196. This site offers a digital library that is an invaluable reference source. Includes a search facility and some, free, digital copies of books on Angkor.
  197.  
  198. Find this resource:
  199.  
  200. Pou, Saveros. Dictionnaire vieux khmer-français-anglais: An Old Khmer-French-English Dictionary. Paris: Centre de Documentation et de Recherch sur la Civilisation Khmère, 1992.
  201.  
  202. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203.  
  204. The single most complete dictionary for translation of Khmer words into French and English.
  205.  
  206. Find this resource:
  207.  
  208. Khmer Studies Journals
  209. Two journals are dedicated solely to subjects related to Khmer studies. They both publish peer-reviewed, scholarly articles and the texts are trilingual. Siksacakr: The Journal of Cambodia Research focuses on promoting new research and trends. Udaya: Journal of Khmer Studies is devoted to papers on Khmer history, art history, and archaeology. Selected articles in five other journals are relevant to Angkor and environs: Arts Asiatiques; Aséanie; Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient; the Journal of the Siam Society; and SPAFA Journal. Several of the journals are available online on the Persée Portal, a French portal established in 2005 to facilitate access to journals.
  210.  
  211. Arts Asiatiques. 1924–.
  212.  
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  214.  
  215. An annual journal on Asian art and archaeology published in Paris by the Musées de France. Available on the Persée portal online
  216.  
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  218.  
  219. Aséanie. 1997–.
  220.  
  221. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  222.  
  223. Features academic papers on Southeast Asian humanities and social sciences. Abstracts in French and English. Published by the office of the École Française d’Extrême-Orient in Bangkok, Thailand. Under the auspices of H.R.H. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn. Issues between 1997 and 2005 are available on the Persée portal online.
  224.  
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  226.  
  227. Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient (BEFEO). 1901–.
  228.  
  229. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  230.  
  231. A long-established journal that includes articles on all aspects of the humanities and social sciences related to Asia. Issues from 1901 to 2000 are available on the Persée portal online.
  232.  
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  234.  
  235. Journal of the Siam Society (JSS). 1904–.
  236.  
  237. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  238.  
  239. The Siam Society, under royal patronage, is one of Thailand’s oldest institutions dedicated to pursuing knowledge of Southeast Asian culture. The first journal was published in 1904 and it includes more than one hundred volumes with numerous articles on Angkor and environs. Articles from 1904 to 2011 are available online.
  240.  
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  242.  
  243. Siksacakr: The Journal of Cambodia Research. 2000–.
  244.  
  245. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  246.  
  247. Siksacakr (“the wheel of studies”), a journal of Cambodian research, contains articles on all aspects of Khmer culture. Published in English, French, and Khmer. Issues from 2001 to 2003 are available online.
  248.  
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  250.  
  251. SPAFA Journal. 1980–.
  252.  
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  254.  
  255. SPAFA Journal is published by the Regional Center for Archaeology and Fine Arts, part of the Southeast Asia Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMO). Articles (in English) focus on archaeology, fine arts, and the cultural heritage of Southeast Asia. Published in Bangkok. Issues from 1980 to 2009 available online in various formats.
  256.  
  257. Find this resource:
  258.  
  259. Udaya: Journal of Khmer Studies. 2000–.
  260.  
  261. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  262.  
  263. Udaya (“dawn or rebirth”) is the first journal of Khmer studies in modern times. A multidisciplinary journal with some thematic issues such as Khmer ceramics. Exclusively online and all issues are available free with registration. Published in English, French, and Khmer. Edited by Ang Choulean and Ashley Thompson. Based in Phnom Penh.
  264.  
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  266.  
  267. European Literary Works
  268. The diaries in this section are firsthand accounts written by European explorers and travelers to Angkor between the 16th and the early 20th centuries. Groslier 2006 is a study of accounts of early Spanish and Portuguese missionaries and adventurers in Cambodia. Bouillevaux 2013 (originally published 1858) is the earliest published eyewitness report of Angkor Wat. Mouhot 1992 is authored by the first European to describe the ruins of Angkor in detail and to include plans of the temples when he visited in 1859. His account aroused an awareness of Angkor in Europe for the first time. Loti 1996 is a work written in flowery prose characteristic of the early 20th century. Its importance stems from the author’s having captured the feel of Angkor before the temples were cleared and restoration efforts began. De Beerski 1923 is a representative example of a complete diary by an early European visitor to Angkor. And Ponder 1936 is a typical account of how the temples looked in the 1930s. Rooney 2003 includes a broad sampling of impressions by early Western travelers to Angkor.
  269.  
  270. Bouillevaux, Charles-Émile. Voyage dans l’Indo-Chine, 1848–1856. Paris: Hachette, 2013.
  271.  
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  273.  
  274. The relevance of this work is that it constitutes the earliest eyewitness report of Angkor Wat. However, it lacks details of the temple other than its citing. Written by a Jesuit priest. Originally published in 1858.
  275.  
  276. Find this resource:
  277.  
  278. De Beerski, P. Jeannerat. Angkor, Ruins in Cambodia. London: Grant Richards, 1923.
  279.  
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  281.  
  282. This book features sixty-five drawings by the author and accompanying text when he visited Angkor in 1919 on an “artistic and literary mission” as an envoy appointed by the French minister of the colonies.
  283.  
  284. Find this resource:
  285.  
  286. Groslier, Bernard Philippe. Angkor and Cambodia in the Sixteenth Century, According to Portuguese and Spanish Sources. Translated by Michael Smithies. Bangkok: Orchid Press, 2006.
  287.  
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  289.  
  290. Besides texts from early accounts this work includes images of the first aerial surveys of Angkor. The author provides his view of a reconstruction of the civilization of Angkor. English translation of Angkor et le Cambodge au XVIe siècle d’après les sources portugaises et espagnoles (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1958).
  291.  
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  293.  
  294. Loti, Pierre. A Pilgrimage to Angkor. Translated by W. P. Baines. Introduction and revised translation by Michael Smithies. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm, 1996.
  295.  
  296. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  297.  
  298. One of the earliest and most colorful texts about Angkor written by a French naval officer who visited Angkor in 1901. The text centers on vivid descriptions of Angkor Wat and the Bayon. English translation of Un pelerin d’Angkor (Paris: Calamann-Levy, 1912).
  299.  
  300. Find this resource:
  301.  
  302. Mouhot, Henri. Travels in Siam, Cambodia and Laos, 1858–1860. 2 vols. Introduction by Michael Smithies. Reprint. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1992.
  303.  
  304. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  305.  
  306. A compilation of notes and sketches written during the author’s travels in Southeast Asia. Mouhot, a French naturalist, was the first European to give a detailed description of the ruins of Angkor, having visited the site in 1859. Published posthumously. English translation of Voyage dans les royaumes de Siam, de Cambodge, de Laos et autres parties centrales de l’Indo-Chine (Paris: Hachette, 1868), published in English in 1864 (London: J. Murray).
  307.  
  308. Find this resource:
  309.  
  310. Ponder, H. W. Cambodia Glory, The Mystery of the Deserted Khmer Cities and Their Vanished Splendour; and a Description of Life in Cambodia today. London: Thornton Butterworth, 1936.
  311.  
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  313.  
  314. An attempt to enlighten the tourist and armchair traveler of the 1930s about the Angkor region. Perceptive and engaging descriptions of the ruins in that decade.
  315.  
  316. Find this resource:
  317.  
  318. Rooney, Dawn F. Angkor Observed, A Travel Anthology of “Those There Before.” Reprint. Bangkok: Orchid Press, 2003.
  319.  
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  321.  
  322. An illustrated collection of sixty-eight memoirs of Angkor by early Western travelers from 1860 onward. A good survey of firsthand accounts.
  323.  
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  325.  
  326. Khmer Religion
  327. Khmer religion, society, and art were inseparable. The religious practices at Angkor were dictated by the preferences of the kings and are as follows: Hindu from the 9th to the early 12th centuries (initially worshipping Shiva and later Vishnu); Mahayana Buddhism in the late 12th and early 20th centuries; an iconoclastic revival of Hinduism in the late 13th century was followed by the adoption of Theravada Buddhism, which remains the main religion in Cambodia today. Kulke 1978 presents the most in-depth study of the various meanings of the devaraja cult (“the god who is king” or “god king”) initiated by King Jayavarman II in 802 CE. Bhattacharya 1997 provides a good overview of the religions of ancient Cambodia. Roveda 2005 is the most comprehensive publication on Khmer mythology. Two works focus on the story of the Ramayana as depicted on numerous bas-relies on the temples at Angkor: Martini 1978 gives a French version of the Cambodian story (Reamker), and Jacob 1986 presents an English translation of the story.
  328.  
  329. Bhattacharya, Kamaleswar. “The Religions of Ancient Cambodia.” In Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory. Edited by Helen Ibbitson Jessup and Thierry Zéphir, 34–52. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1997.
  330.  
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  332.  
  333. This chapter by an esteemed scholar is a readable account of a complex subject—the religious practices at Angkor. Suitable for undergraduate students.
  334.  
  335. Find this resource:
  336.  
  337. Jacob, Judith M., trans. Reamker (Rāmakerti): The Cambodian Version of the Ramayana. London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1986.
  338.  
  339. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  340.  
  341. Translated from French. A revised English translation of the Cambodian version of the Rama story based on volumes on the Reamker by Dr. S. Pou. Includes an introduction relating the text to its visual representation on the bas-reliefs at Angkor. Critical notes are added.
  342.  
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345. Kulke, Hermann. The Devaraja Cult. Data Paper 108. Ithaca, NY: Department of Asian Studies, Cornell University, January 1978.
  346.  
  347. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  348.  
  349. Monograph by a well-known Indologist. An examination of previous theories and an in-depth analysis of the meaning of the cult and its implication in Khmer society. Translation from German and introduction by I. W. Mabbett. Notes on the translation of Khmer terms by J. M. Jacob.
  350.  
  351. Find this resource:
  352.  
  353. Martini, Francis. La gloire de Rama: Ramakerti, Ramayana cambodgien. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1978.
  354.  
  355. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  356.  
  357. The Cambodian story of Rama retold in French.
  358.  
  359. Find this resource:
  360.  
  361. Roveda, Vittorio. Images of the Gods: Khmer Mythology in Cambodia, Thailand and Laos. Bangkok: River Books, 2005.
  362.  
  363. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  364.  
  365. An encyclopedic work on Khmer mythology with descriptions and images of the main Buddhist and Hindu myths and legends depicted on the reliefs at Khmer temples. More than 1,500 color illustrations and a DVD with eight hundred additional images.
  366.  
  367. Find this resource:
  368.  
  369. Khmer Society
  370. The works in this section are references to Khmer society and daily life, the latter of which has been largely ignored by scholars mainly because of the scarcity of primary sources. Mabbett and Chandler 1995 provides a scholarly, yet readable, interpretation of how the Khmers lived. Coe 2003 examines Angkor from an anthropological viewpoint. Thierry 1997 explores the core of Khmer civilization. Two different translations of the Chinese emissary Zhou Daguan’s year at Angkor in the late 13th century are included: Daguan 2006 is a French translation; and Daguan 2007 is a translation from the original Chinese text. Both versions are significant because they describe the only firsthand source of the period.
  371.  
  372. Coe, Michael D. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. London: Thames and Hudson, 2003.
  373.  
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375.  
  376. The author, a renowned scholar on the Maya civilization, traces the people from their origins to the post-classic period. Includes sections on the people, languages, and life and culture at Angkor.
  377.  
  378. Find this resource:
  379.  
  380. Daguan, Zhou (Chou Ta-Kuan). The Customs of Cambodia. 5th ed. Bangkok: Siam Society, 2006.
  381.  
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383.  
  384. Edited and newly translated by Michael Smithies. This is the only firsthand account of daily life, written by a Chinese emissary who lived in Angkor from 1296 to 1297. English translation of Paul Pelliot, Mémoires sur les coutumes du Cambodge de Tcheou Ta-Kouan (Paris: Librairie d’amérique et d’Orient, 1951). Includes a chapter on “The Temple of Angkor Wat” by Louis Finot. Translated by Michael Smithies with a note by Jacques Dumarçay. English translation extracted from Mémoires archéologiques, Vol. 2, first published in 1929 (Paris: Editions G. Van Oest).
  385.  
  386. Find this resource:
  387.  
  388. Daguan, Zhou. A Record of Cambodia: The Land and Its People. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm, 2007.
  389.  
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391.  
  392. This version of Zhou Daguan’s year at Angkor is translated from the original Chinese. Extensive footnotes are an important addition. Translation, introduction, and notes by Peter Harris.
  393.  
  394. Find this resource:
  395.  
  396. Mabbett, Ian, and David Chandler. The Khmers. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.
  397.  
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399.  
  400. One of the few books that hypothesizes on the lives of the Khmer people within a historical context. Written in a style accessible to a general readership. Both authors are archaeologists and academics. A groundbreaking work in its presentation of daily life.
  401.  
  402. Find this resource:
  403.  
  404. Thierry, Solange. The Khmers. Translated by Gail Armstrong. Paris: Kailash, 1997.
  405.  
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407.  
  408. A subjective work but one that attempts to reach the “heart” of the Khmer people. Written by a former curator of the National Museum of Phnom Penh. English translation of Les khmers (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1964).
  409.  
  410. Find this resource:
  411.  
  412. Khmer Sculpture and Objects
  413. This section begins with catalogues accompanying exhibitions of Khmer art in museums that are valuable references for descriptions and images of sculpture. The next subsection includes works devoted to a specific medium.
  414.  
  415. Museum Exhibitions/Collections/Databases
  416. A few museums have staged exhibitions solely on Khmer art and produced accompanying catalogues. Khmer art in the Musée Guimet is documented in Baptiste and Zéphir 2008. The Khmer collection in the National Museum, Phnom Penh, is covered in Dalsheimer 2001; Samen 2005; and Jessup, et al. 2006. Jessup and Zéphir 1997 is a catalogue that accompanied a traveling exhibition (Washington, DC, Paris, Osaka). Museum databases featuring collections are available and useful for research as they give access to museum objects, both on display and in storage. A select list of museums with collections of Khmer art accessible online include: Asian Art Museum, San Francisco; Cleveland Museum of Art; the Freer-Sackler Galleries at the Smithsonian, Washington, DC; Los Angeles County Museum; Musée Guimet, Paris; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Norton Simon Museum, Pasadena, CA; and the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
  417.  
  418. Baptiste, Pierre, and Thierry Zéphir. L’Art khmer dans les collections du Musée Guimet. Paris: Éditions de la Réunion des Musées nationaux, 2008.
  419.  
  420. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  421.  
  422. A major reference work on the largest collection of Khmer art outside Cambodia. Fully documented with lavish illustrations.
  423.  
  424. Find this resource:
  425.  
  426. Dalsheimer, Nadine. Les collections du musée national de Phnom Penh: L’art du Cambodge ancien. Paris: École Française d’Extrême-Orient, 2001.
  427.  
  428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  429.  
  430. Includes a history of the museum and stone and bronze statuary in the collection with descriptions and photographs.
  431.  
  432. Find this resource:
  433.  
  434. Jessup, Helen Ibbitson, Ang Choulean, Mariko Ikehara, and Thierry Zéphir. Masterpieces of the National Museum of Cambodia: An Introduction to the Collection. Norfolk, CT: Friends of Khmer Culture, 2006.
  435.  
  436. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  437.  
  438. This catalogue features selected highlights written by four leading scholars of Khmer art; the text is conveniently published in four languages (English, French, Khmer, and Japanese).
  439.  
  440. Find this resource:
  441.  
  442. Jessup, Helen Ibbitson, and Thierry Zéphir, eds. Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1997.
  443.  
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. Pieces on loan from the National Museum, Phnom Penh, many of which traveled outside Cambodia for the first time. A total of 117 objects spanning a thousand years of history elucidate Khmer sculptural traditions. A monumental catalogue accompanying a blockbuster exhibition. Also available See also Mediums.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450. Samen, Khun. Preah Neang Tevi: Collections of the National Museum Phnom Penh. Phnom Penh, Department of Museums, 2005.
  451.  
  452. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  453.  
  454. This catalogue is unique as it discusses Khmer art from a Cambodian perspective written by the former director of the National Museum, Phnom Penh.
  455.  
  456. Find this resource:
  457.  
  458. Mediums
  459. This section includes works specifically on Khmer art in various mediums (stone, bronze, gold, ceramics). Stone and bronze are covered in Boisselier 1955, Jessup and Zéphir 1997, Bunker and Latchford 2004, and Cort and Jett 2010. Bunker and Latchford 2008 is the only publication solely on Khmer gold. Rooney 2010 brings research on Khmer ceramics up-to-date and includes essays by two Thai scholars. Two works are based on a study of the bas-reliefs at the temples: Marchal 2005 identifies Khmer costumes and objects, and Jacq-Hergoualc’h 2007 details Khmer weaponry.
  460.  
  461. Boisselier, Jean. La statuaire khmère et son évolution. 2 vols. Saigon, Vietnam: Ècole Française d’Extrême-Orient, 1955.
  462.  
  463. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  464.  
  465. Includes Part 1, text and Part 2, plans. More than one hundred black-and-white illustrations of Khmer sculpture (stone and bronze) from Angkor temples and museums, mainly Musée Guimet, Paris, and National Museum, Phnom Penh. Text by a distinguished French scholar.
  466.  
  467. Find this resource:
  468.  
  469. Bunker, Emma C., and Douglas Latchford. Adoration and Glory: The Golden Age of Khmer Art. Chicago: Art Media Resources, 2004.
  470.  
  471. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472.  
  473. Khmer sculpture in stone and bronze with additional objects in gold and ceramics. Pieces from public and private collections, many seen for the first time, are placed in a chronological and historical context determined by the authors.
  474.  
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477. Bunker, Emma C., and Douglas A. J. Latchford. Khmer Gold: Gifts for the Gods. Chicago: Art Media Resources, 2008.
  478.  
  479. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  480.  
  481. The first study of Khmer gold (jewelry and objects/artifacts) spanning a period from 700 CE to the 15th century.
  482.  
  483. Find this resource:
  484.  
  485. Cort, Louise Allison, and Paul Jett, eds. Gods of Angkor, Bronzes from the National Museum of Cambodia. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm, 2010.
  486.  
  487. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  488.  
  489. A catalogue accompanying an exhibition held at the National Museum, Phnom Penh, that traveled to the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. The text is organized by forms (drums, urns, bells; sculptures) with a chapter on an important technical study of a group of bronze figures from the province of Kampong Cham.
  490.  
  491. Find this resource:
  492.  
  493. Jacq-Hergoualc’h, Michel. The Armies of Angkor: Military Structure and Weaponry of the Khmers. Translated by Michael Smithies. Bangkok: Orchid Press, 2007.
  494.  
  495. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  496.  
  497. A groundbreaking iconographic study of the royal army and its weapons in the 12th and early 13th centuries. More than 150 illustrations and line drawings. English translation of L’armement et l’organisation de l’armée Khmère aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles, d’après les bas-reliefs d’Angkor Vat, du Bàyon et de Banteay Chmar (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1979).
  498.  
  499. Find this resource:
  500.  
  501. Jessup, Helen Ibbitson, and Thierry Zéphir, eds. Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1997.
  502.  
  503. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  504.  
  505. An ambitious work with contributions by leading scholars and authorities on the art of Cambodia published in conjunction with an exhibition of Khmer art (primarily from the National Museum of Phnom Penh and the Musée Guimet in Paris) that toured Paris, Washington, DC, and Japan (Tokyo and Osaka). See also Museum Exhibitions/Collections/Databases.
  506.  
  507. Find this resource:
  508.  
  509. Marchal, Sappho. Khmer Costumes and Ornaments, of the Devatas of Angkor Wat. Translated by Merrily P. Hansen. Bangkok: Orchid Press, 2005.
  510.  
  511. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  512.  
  513. Annotated line drawings of Khmer costumes and ornaments seen on the bas-reliefs of Angkor Wat by a French artist who grew up at Angkor. Important documentation as many of the objects carved in stone on the walls of the temples have deteriorated. English translation of Costumes et parures khmères d’après les devatâ d’Angkor-Vat (Paris: G. Vanoest, 1927).
  514.  
  515. Find this resource:
  516.  
  517. Rooney, Dawn F. Khmer Ceramics: Beauty and Meaning. Bangkok: River Books, 2010.
  518.  
  519. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  520.  
  521. Text includes the latest research on ceramics and essays by two Thai scholars on Khmer iconography, the development of ceramics in the Angkor period, and the relationship between Chinese and Khmer wares.
  522.  
  523. Find this resource:
  524.  
  525. Khmer Archaeology
  526. Substantial progress has been made in archaeological research at Angkor since the 1990s. Works in this section reflect these developments. Marui 2001 details ten years of onsite research at Banteay Kdei, an understudied temple. Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties 2012 is an extensive report of research at Western Prasat Top using modern technology. Higham 2002 covers all of mainland Southeast Asia and includes an informative chapter on Angkor. Two papers examine the reasons for the demise of Angkor. Thung 1994 looks at the site from a geologist’s viewpoint, whereas Buckley, et al. 2010 considers the effects of the climate. Evans, et al. 2007 provides a comprehensive archaeological map of greater Angkor using new technology. Evans, et al. 2013 describes the latest technology—lidar (air-borne laser scanning)— used for archaeological research at Angkor.
  527.  
  528. Buckley, Brendan M., Kevin J. Anchukaitis, Daniel Penny, et al. “Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107.15 (13 April 2010): 6748–6752.
  529.  
  530. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0910827107Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531.  
  532. Argues that climatic evidence from hundreds of years of alternating drought and monsoons impacted on the water supply and agricultural sustainability. Based on extensive onsite research. Written by an international team of leading experts. Available online in two formats.
  533.  
  534. Find this resource:
  535.  
  536. Evans, Damian H., Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, et al. “Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110.31 (30 July 2013): 12595–12600.
  537.  
  538. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1306539110Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539.  
  540. A groundbreaking, unprecedented study of Angkor beneath its surface topography. Used lidar (airborne laser scanning), a revolutionary technology in archaeological remote sensing. Resulted in the first digital elevation models of Angkor below the surface. Written by the foremost experts in the field. Available online in two formats.
  541.  
  542. Find this resource:
  543.  
  544. Evans, Damian, Christophe Pottier, Roland Fletcher, et al. “A Comprehensive Archaeological Map of the World’s Largest Preindustrial Settlement Complex at Angkor, Cambodia.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104.36 (4 September 2007): 14277–14282.
  545.  
  546. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0702525104Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. An archaeological map compiled by a team of French, Australian, and Cambodian experts based on research designed to resolve the long-standing debate over Angkor’s water management system. Used a combination of traditional methods and advanced remote-sensing applications. Research extended beyond the temples to, for the first time, the “greater Angkor” area. Revealed new and detailed data on the landscape of Angkor. Available online in two formats.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552. Higham, Charles. Early Cultures of Mainland Southeast Asia. Bangkok: River Books, 2002.
  553.  
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555.  
  556. Chapter 7 (pp. 298–347) of this work summarizes the findings of each archaeological dig at Angkor and reports the main findings written in a reader-friendly style; 558 photos and sixty-seven maps and charts.
  557.  
  558. Find this resource:
  559.  
  560. Marui, Masako. “Archaeological Research at Banteay Kdei Temple: Overview of Investigations over the Past Ten Years.” UDAYA: Journal of Khmer Studies 2 (2001): 141–151.
  561.  
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563.  
  564. One of the few published archaeological reports on the Angkorian temple of Banteay Kdei built at the end of the 12th century. Covers onsite research from 1991 to 2001, including information on the founding of the temple, its functions, dating, and methods of construction. Provides evidence that Banteay Kdei continued to function after the demise of Angkor.
  565.  
  566. Find this resource:
  567.  
  568. Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, ed. Translated from Japanese by Tomo Ishimura, Aiko Tashiro and Yuni Sato. Western Prasat Top Site Survey Report on Joint Research for the Protection of the Angkor Historic Site. Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties Monograph No. 90. Nara-shi, Japan: Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, 2012.
  569.  
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  571.  
  572. The first archaeological report on a temple that was discovered in 1908. Previous studies focused on iconography and architecture.
  573.  
  574. Find this resource:
  575.  
  576. Thung, Heng L. “Geohydrology and the Decline of Angkor.” Journal of the Siam Society 82.1–2 (1994): 9–16.
  577.  
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579.  
  580. An article on the hotly debated subject of reasons for the decline of Angkor. Thung supports the theory of a decreasing maintenance of the waterworks based on research using Landsat images, aerial photographs, and field observations. Written by a geologist who was a senior remote sensing advisor to the Cambodia National Mekong Committee.
  581.  
  582. Find this resource:
  583.  
  584. Khmer Architecture
  585. Early studies of Angkor were conducted by French naval officers assigned to Cambodia during the French Indochina period. Line drawings of Angkor in the mid-1800s in Delaporte 2013 are among the earliest and most extensive impressions of the temples. Lajonquière 1902–1911 provides an early inventory of the Cambodian monuments. Groslier and Arthaud 1966 describes the temples from a mid-20th-century perspective. Dumarçay 1998, written by a renowned architect and longtime scholar of Angkor, includes unpublished architectural drawings. Dumarçay and Royère 2001 presents a scholarly and comprehensive analysis of Khmer architecture. Jessup 2004 is a general account of the art and architecture of Angkor, including the latest research. Cunin 2007 is an extensive analysis of the chronology of the architectural changes at the Bayon.
  586.  
  587. Cunin, Olivier. “The Bayon: An Archaeological and Architectural Study.” In Bayon: New Perspectives. Edited by Joyce Clark, 136–229. Bangkok: River Books, 2007.
  588.  
  589. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  590.  
  591. A thorough and technical analysis of the architectural history of the Bayon. Uses a technique that measures the magnetic susceptibility of the sandstone to obtain its source. Based on two decades of the author’s research. Adapted partially from his doctoral thesis. Extensively illustrated with photographs, charts, graphs, and computer-generated images.
  592.  
  593. Find this resource:
  594.  
  595. Delaporte, Louis. Voyage au Cambodge: L’architecture khmère. Reproduction. Paris: Riveneuve, 2013.
  596.  
  597. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  598.  
  599. Delaporte was the artist on the Mekong Exploration Commission (1866–1868) and published his drawings of Angkor some years later. A classic early reference for Angkor and environs by one who is recognized as a French pioneer in research on the art and architecture of the Angkor temples. Originally published in 1880.
  600.  
  601. Find this resource:
  602.  
  603. Dumarçay, Jacques. The Site of Angkor. Translated from French and edited by Michael Smithies. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  604.  
  605. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  606.  
  607. A small volume with an important content written by a well-known French architect. The Angkor period is presented chronologically through a description of the ancient cities with emphasis on how the irrigation system with reservoirs was implemented at Angkor.
  608.  
  609. Find this resource:
  610.  
  611. Dumarçay, Jacques, and Pascal Royère. HdO: Cambodian Architecture, Eighth to Thirteenth Centuries. Translated and edited by Michael Smithies. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  612.  
  613. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  614.  
  615. A comprehensive text on the development of architecture in Cambodia from the 8th to the 13th centuries. Recommended for postgraduate students and specialists.
  616.  
  617. Find this resource:
  618.  
  619. Groslier, Bernard and Jacques Arthaud. Angkor: Art and Civilization. London: Thames and Hudson, 1966.
  620.  
  621. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  622.  
  623. The text follows the Angkor civilization from the origin to its peak with emphasis on the role of art. This revised edition includes new material. Groslier was a highly respected conservator of Angkor who succeeded his father in the same position. The text benefits from his longevity at the site. Photographs by Jacques Arthaud. Originally published in 1957.
  624.  
  625. Find this resource:
  626.  
  627. Jessup, Helen Ibbitson. Art & Architecture of Cambodia. London: Thames and Hudson, 2004.
  628.  
  629. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  630.  
  631. An up-to-date introduction to the art and architecture of Angkor, including text on the pre- and post-Angkor periods. Recommended for students. World of Art series.
  632.  
  633. Find this resource:
  634.  
  635. Lajonquière, E. Lunet de. Inventaire descriptif des monuments du Cambodge. 3 vols. Paris: École Française d’Extrême-Orient, 1902–1911.
  636.  
  637. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  638.  
  639. An early and comprehensive inventory of the Cambodian monuments as they were at the beginning of the 20th century.
  640.  
  641. Find this resource:
  642.  
  643. The Temples
  644. Although several French curators of Angkor working for the École Française d’Extrême-Orient wrote guides to the temples in the first half of the 20th century, Glaize 1993 is considered a classic. Stern 1927 is an early study attempting to identify a chronological sequence for the Khmer temples at Angkor from the late 12th to the early 13th centuries. Finot, et al. 2000 is an account of the temple of Banteay Srei as it was in the 1920s and includes architectural drawings and images of the bas-reliefs accompanied by a scholarly, albeit slight, text. Angkor Wat, as the largest religious stone monument in the world, is the most extensively studied and well-documented temple of Angkor and environs. Two works present new research conducted on Angkor Wat since the late 1990s. Mannikka 1996 is an in-depth study of the role of astronomy in the construction of Angkor Wat, and Roveda 2007 is a detailed study on the iconography of the bas-reliefs at Angkor Wat. Significant research on other specific Angkor temples has been published since the 1950s revealing new discoveries and debunking previous ones. Clark 2007 is a groundbreaking work on the Bayon with articles by nine scholars and includes the latest research. Coe and Stubbs 2011 discusses recent work by the World Monuments Fund on Preah Khan, a major monastic complex. Falser 2006 examines the 9th-century temple of Preah Ko at Roluos in the environs of Angkor.
  645.  
  646. Clark, Joyce, ed. Bayon: New Perspectives. Bangkok: River Books, 2007.
  647.  
  648. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  649.  
  650. New scholarship by multiple authors discusses the Bayon, an enigmatic 13th-century Khmer temple, from various aspects. Includes controversies on the history and architecture of the temple. Extensive introduction by Michael Vickery, an esteemed scholar.
  651.  
  652. Find this resource:
  653.  
  654. Coe, Michael D., and John H. Stubbs, eds. Preah Khan Monastic Complex, Angkor, Cambodia. London: Scala, 2011.
  655.  
  656. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  657.  
  658. Chapters by six experts on Angkor covering aspects of Preah Khan, a temple from the late 12th to the early 13th centuries; restored as a “partial ruin” by the World Monuments Fund in the 1990s.
  659.  
  660. Find this resource:
  661.  
  662. Falser, Michael S. The Pre-Angkorian Temple of Preah Ko: A Sourcebook of the History, Construction and Ornamentation of the Preah Ko Style. Bangkok: White Lotus, 2006.
  663.  
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  665.  
  666. Study of the 9th-century temple of Preah Ko written by an architect. Contains significant reports on the materials and construction of the temple as well as information on the alterations to the structure from the 16th to the 21st centuries. Forward by Hans Leisen, director of the German Apsara Conservation Project at Angkor.
  667.  
  668. Find this resource:
  669.  
  670. Finot, Louis, Henri Parmentier, and Victor Goloubew. A Guide to the Temple of Banteay Srei at Angkorr. Translated by J. H. Stape. Reprint. Bangkok: White Lotus, 2000.
  671.  
  672. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  673.  
  674. An early work on a (then) remote temple by three legendary French scholars. English translation of Le temple d’Içvarapura (Paris: G. Vanoest, 1926).
  675.  
  676. Find this resource:
  677.  
  678. Glaize, Maurice. Les monuments du groupe d’Angkor. 4th ed. Paris: Maisonneuve, 1993.
  679.  
  680. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  681.  
  682. Other early guides cover the temples but this one remains the primary reference for descriptions and impressions of the temples in the mid-20th century. English translation, The Monuments of the Angkor Group, is available online. Originally published in 1944.
  683.  
  684. Find this resource:
  685.  
  686. Mannikka, Eleanor. Angkor Wat: Time, Space, and Kingship. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1996.
  687.  
  688. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  689.  
  690. An eighteen-year study and analysis of the sacred space of Angkor Wat determined by a measurement system based on astronomical and cosmological calculations. It relates the overall layout and physical dimensions to calendar calculations. Not light reading but a brilliant piece of original research on an understudied topic and provides a new perspective on Angkor Wat.
  691.  
  692. Find this resource:
  693.  
  694. Roveda, Vittorio. Sacred Angkor: The Carved Reliefs of Angkor Wat. Photography by Jaro Poncar. Bangkok: River Books, 2007.
  695.  
  696. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  697.  
  698. Draws on works by early French scholars, modern research, and personal observations and interpretations to present a systematic study of the bas-reliefs and related mythology at Angkor Wat.
  699.  
  700. Find this resource:
  701.  
  702. Stern, Philippe. Le Bayon d’Angkor et l’évolution de l’art Khmer: Étude et discussion de la chronologie des monuments khmers. Paris: Geuthner, 1927.
  703.  
  704. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  705.  
  706. An early stylistic study and discussion of the successive construction periods of the Khmer monuments by an esteemed French art historian.
  707.  
  708. Find this resource:
  709.  
  710. Visual Records
  711. Visual records document the temples, reliefs, and restoration work through the 20th century. Baptiste and Zéphir 2013 introduces plaster casts of the temples and bas-reliefs collected by Louis Delaporte to the public for the first time since his mission to Indochina in the mid-1880s. Béguin and Poujol 2011 is a collection of archival photographs taken in the first half of the 20th century of fieldwork by French archaeologists. Dufour, et al. 1910–1914 is an early and complete set of photographs of the bas-reliefs at the Bayon. A facsimile of photographs (Dieulefils and Finot 2001) taken by P. Dieulefils in 1909 reveals the temples of Angkor as they were then. Maxwell and Poncar 2006 provides a complete visual documentation of the gallery of bas-reliefs at Angkor Wat.
  712.  
  713. Baptiste, Pierre, and Thierry Zéphir. Angkor, naissance d’un mythe: Louis Delaporte et le Cambodge. Paris: Gallimard, Musée national des Arts asiatiques Guimet, 2013.
  714.  
  715. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  716.  
  717. A book published in conjunction with an exhibition includes fourteen essays on various aspects of Delaporte’s mission to study the Khmer temples at Angkor. The plaster casts of reliefs and sculpture and the drawings and photographs of the late 19th century are important documents as the temples were first seen by Europeans.
  718.  
  719. Find this resource:
  720.  
  721. Béguin, Gilles, and Isabelle Poujol. Archéologues à Angkor: Archives photographiques de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient. Paris: Musées Éditions, 2011.
  722.  
  723. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  724.  
  725. A catalogue accompanying an exhibition of archival photographs documenting the work of the École Française d’Extrême-Orient at Angkor in the first half of the 20th century.
  726.  
  727. Find this resource:
  728.  
  729. Dieulefils, P., and Louis Finot. Preface by Étienne Aymonier. Ruins of Angkor: Cambodia in 1909. Bangkok: River Books, 2001.
  730.  
  731. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  732.  
  733. Photographs by P. Dieulefils and text by Louis Finot. A facsimile of the original (1909) published in French, English, and German. Superb photographs of the Angkor temples at an early date by a leading photographer of the period. Only five hundred copies of the original book were printed.
  734.  
  735. Find this resource:
  736.  
  737. Dufour, Henri, Charles Carpeaux, Jean Commaille, et al. Le Bayon d’Angkor Thom: Bas-reliefs publiés par les soins de la Commission archéologique de l’Indochine d’après les documents recueillis par la mission H. Dufour. 2 vols. Paris: E. Leroux, 1910–1914.
  738.  
  739. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  740.  
  741. The only published photographic collection of all the Bayon bas-reliefs. Black-and-white photos.
  742.  
  743. Find this resource:
  744.  
  745. Maxwell, Thomas S., and Jaroslav Poncar. Of Gods, Kings, and Men: The Reliefs of Angkor Wat. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm, 2006.
  746.  
  747. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  748.  
  749. Poncar’s photographs of the entire gallery of bas-reliefs of Angkor Wat (length=328 feet; height=6.5 feet) are taken using a slit-scan technique that enables one to see the entire length of the reliefs without distortion—a remarkable achievement with excellent results. Scholarly text by Maxwell accompanies the photographs. Black-and-white photos. Two other editions: Albert le Bonheur and Jaroslav Poncar, Des dieux, des rois, des hommes: Les bas-reliefs d’Angkor Vat et du Bayon (Geneva, Switzerland: Éditions Olizane, 1995); and Albert le Bonheur, Of Gods, Kings, and Men: Bas-reliefs of Angkor Wat and Bayon (London: Serindia, 1995).
  750.  
  751. Find this resource:
  752.  
  753. Restoration and Conservation
  754. Nearly all the temples were left untended from approximately 1970 to 1990 during a period when Cambodia was isolated from the rest of the world because of war and civil unrest. Many monuments were overtaken by jungle growth. Furthermore, firsthand research was not possible during that period. The situation improved after Angkor was inscribed on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) coveted World Heritage Site List in 1992, confirming it as a national treasure and deserving of preservation. Thus, efforts in the 21st century by Cambodian and international experts have stimulated a public awareness of the urgent need for restoration and conservation work on the temples and for measures to curb illicit theft of Khmer artifacts. International Council of Museums 1997 identifies and includes photographs of one hundred stolen Khmer artifacts. Ang, et al. 1996 is a compendium of chapters with emphasis on the environment and management of the cultural heritage of Angkor. Heritage Watch is a website dedicated to preserving Angkor temples and artifacts and protecting their future. Leisen, et al. 2000 is a German government initiative to protect the female divinities carved in sandstone on the walls of Angkor Wat.
  755.  
  756. Ang, Chouléan, Eric Prenowitz, and Ashley Thompson. Angkor: a Manual for the Past, Present, and Future. Phnom Penh, Cambodia: Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap (APSARA) and United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 1996.
  757.  
  758. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759.  
  760. A contemporary work that discusses land use and the impact of the Tonle Sap Lake on Angkor with extensive documentation on obligations and measures for the protection of the environment and the temples.
  761.  
  762. Find this resource:
  763.  
  764. Heritage Watch.
  765.  
  766. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767.  
  768. A nonprofit organization founded in 2003 and based in Cambodia that works to preserve Southeast Asia’s cultural heritage. Website keeps up-to-date on the theft of artifacts in conjunction with international laws governing cultural property.
  769.  
  770. Find this resource:
  771.  
  772. International Council of Museums. Pillage à Angkor: Cent objets disparus: One Hundred Missing Objects, Looting in Angkor. Paris: International Council of Museums, 1997.
  773.  
  774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775.  
  776. An updated and fuller version of an initiative that aims to preserve the cultural heritage of Angkor. It identifies, illustrates, and describes specific stolen Khmer stone statuary. In French and English. Written in cooperation with the École Française d’Extrême-Orient. Originally published in 1993.
  777.  
  778. Find this resource:
  779.  
  780. Leisen, Hans, Jaroslav Poncar, and Simon Warrack. German Apsara Conservation Project: Angkor Wat. Cologne: German Apsara Conservation Project, 2000.
  781.  
  782. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  783.  
  784. Over time, the stone has deteriorated on many of the approximately 1,800 female divinities on the bas-reliefs at Angkor Wat. This is a report on a German cultural project sponsored by the government to conserve more than three hundred of the divinities using ultrasound technology to determine the state of the sandstone. A priority was to train local staff in conservation techniques.
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