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Maritime Venice

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Venice’s location on its lagoon meant that it was oriented toward the sea from its earliest history. In the medieval period, the Venetian economy depended on commerce. Venetians dominated regional trade in commodities like salt and acted as middlemen in luxury commerce, transferring spices and textiles from the Byzantine and Islamic worlds to markets in northern Italy and above the Alps. These commercial interests grew into influence and direct political rule in some regions of the eastern Mediterranean. Venice’s official maritime presence overseas began with its domination of the eastern Adriatic in the 11th century and blossomed in the aftermath of the fall of Constantinople to western Crusaders in 1204, when the city acquired the island of Crete and the Peloponnesian ports of Coron and Modon. Thus the economic and political histories of maritime Venice in the medieval and early modern period are intertwined. This entry focuses on maritime Venice’s history from the early 14th through the 16th centuries, although some works cited reach earlier or later. At the beginning of the period, Venice’s state-run galley system dominated trade in the eastern Mediterranean and reached westward to Flanders. In the 15th century, Venice began a program of political and military expansion on both the mainland and in the maritime realms. By the later 16th century, competition from the Spanish and the Ottomans, the growing threat of piracy, and the discovery of the Americas all led to a shift in Venice’s role in the Mediterranean. Any scholar will notice the unusual linguistic complexity of the region’s historiography: many sources are in Latin or Italian, while the scholarship is in Italian, French, German, Greek, Croatian, Albanian, and English. This article focuses on contributions in English, Italian, French, and German; the majority of the international scholarly conversation is conducted in French and Italian, and anyone limited to studies in English will find it difficult to penetrate very deeply into the field.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. The many languages and national historical traditions of the maritime state have meant that there are very few studies that treat the Venetian maritime state as a whole or in a synthetic manner. The geography of the maritime state and the contemporary appreciation of the region as a tourist destination have led to some romanticized depictions of the “stato da mar” (maritime state), as in Morris 1990 (cited under Individual and Co-authored Studies). After World War II, the historiography fragmented into Italian, Greek, and Yugoslav approaches, as in Ivetic 2000a and Ivetic 2000b (cited under Northeastern Adriatic). In western Europe, the postwar study of maritime Venice was deeply influenced by the French Annaliste school, resulting in an emphasis on the economic and commercial relationships within the maritime state: Thiriet 1959, cited under Individual and Co-authored Studies; Pertusi 1973, cited under Collections of Studies and Conference Proceedings; Beck, et al. 1977, cited under Collections of Studies and Conference Proceedings; and Tenenti 1999, cited under Individual and Co-authored Studies. The results of decades of in-depth research into Venetian shipbuilding, seafaring, and overseas commerce are summarized in Tenenti and Tucci 1991 (cited under Collections of Studies and Conference Proceedings). Gaetano Cozzi’s influential treatment of the legal and political framework in the Venetian state as a whole includes the maritime state, as seen in Cozzi and Knapton 1986–1992 (cited under Individual and Co-authored Studies). Over the last decade, a series of conferences have brought an increasingly international group of scholars together to discuss current themes in the study of the maritime state. The proceedings of these conferences, discussed in Collections of Studies and Conference Proceedings, are essential reading to understand recent developments in the field, which while retaining an interest in trade and commerce has also become more attentive to networks and negotiation, identity formation, and cross-cultural relationships. In this bibliography, works dealing with more than one of the regions under Venetian rule are listed under both of the subsections here, while works dealing with a specific region are listed under Overseas Possessions.
  8.  
  9. Collections of Studies and Conference Proceedings
  10.  
  11. Given the lack of synthetic overviews, Tenenti and Tucci 1991 offers a collection of wide-ranging essays that make excellent introductions to the mechanics of Venetian trade and travel overseas and are particularly useful on the subject of ships and shipbuilding. Conference proceedings have taken on a crucial role in announcing the results of recent research and in promoting a scholarly dialogue among international scholars with different linguistic and archival competencies. Two Venetian institutions, the Hellenic Institute for Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Studies (Istituto Ellenico di Studi Bizantini e post-Byzantini di Venezia) and the Veneto Institute for Science, Letters and Arts (Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti), sometimes acting alone and sometimes with partner institutions, have been active in organizing conferences and in publishing their proceedings. The conferences organized by the Hellenic Institute focus on historical, economic, and cultural developments in the Greek-speaking world, called in Italian the Venetocrazia, or the region and time period of Venetian rule. Maltezou and Ortalli 2001 treats the Italian and Greek historiographical approaches to this region, while Maltezou, et al. 2009 focuses on cultural and social life in the Venetocrazia. While the focus in this article is on history, it should be noted that all of the Istituto Ellenico’s works continue the interdisciplinary tradition of earlier conferences, such as Pertusi 1973 and Beck, et al. 1977, and include numerous studies on art, architecture, and literature. Ghezzo 1997; Ortalli and Schmitt 2009; and Franchini, et al. 2011 all include contributions from scholars of the eastern Adriatic region, who for political reasons have only recently begun to participate frequently in an international scholarly dialogue.
  12.  
  13. Beck, Hans G., Manoussos Manoussacas, and Agostino Pertusi, eds. Venezia: Centro di mediazione tra Oriente e Occidente (secoli XV–XVII); Aspetti e problemi. Papers presented at the Second International Conference on the History Venetian Civilization, held in Venice on 3–6 October 1973. 2 vols. Florence: Leo Olschki, 1977.
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  15. Proceedings of a 1973 conference sponsored by the Fondazione Giorgio Cini in Venice; contains thirty-seven contributions plus records of the discussions of the conference. Volume 1 focuses on politics and economy, while Volume 2 looks at culture and art. Includes papers in Italian and French from many major scholars who shaped the field, including Halil Inalcik, Robert Mantran, Giorgio Fedalto, David Jacoby, Alberto Tenenti, Freddy Thiriet, Eliyahu Ashtor, Ugo Tucci, and Vittore Branca.
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  17. Franchini, Sandro G., Gherardo Ortalli, and Gennaro Toscano, eds. Venise et la Méditerranée: Actes du colloque tenu les 30 et 31 octobre 2008 à Paris. Venice: Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, 2011.
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  19. Proceedings of a 2008 conference held in Paris; twelve papers in Italian and French that consider the Mediterranean dimensions of Venice’s overseas territories. Includes contributions from an international group of senior and younger scholars on navigation, trade, art, and literature.
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  21. Ghezzo, Michele Pietro, ed. Città e sistema adriatico alla fine del Medioevo: Bilancio degli studi e prospettive di ricerca; Convegno di studi, Padova, 4–5 aprile 1997. Venice: Società Dalmata di Storia Patria, 1997.
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  23. Conference proceedings with papers printed in both Italian and English versions; important because it makes accessible the scholarship of Croatian, Slovenian, and Albanian scholars such as Nevan Budak, Darko Darovec, and Pëllumb Xhufi, among others. Takes pan-Adriatic view; looks at migration and trade across the sea and local dynamics.
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  25. Maltezou, Chryssa, and Gherardo Ortalli, eds. Italia-Grecia: Temi e storiografie a confronto; Atti del Convegno di studi organizzato in collaborazione con il Dipartimento di studi storici dell’Università Ca’ Foscari di Venezia, Venezia, 20–21 ottobre 2000. Venice: Istituto Ellenico, 2001.
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  27. Proceedings from a 2000 conference examining the different perspectives of Greek and Italian historiographies on Venetian rule in the Greek world. Important contributions, in Italian and English, from leading scholars, including the editors, Giorgio Ravegnani, Cristina Angelidi, Paschalis Kitromilidis, Ugo Tucci, Anastassia Papadia-Lala, Aspassia Papadaki, Massimo Costantini, Dimitris Arvanitakis, and Nicolas Karapidakis.
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  29. Maltezou, Chryssa, Angeliki Tzavara, and Despina Vlassi, eds. I Greci durante la venetocrazia: Uomini, spazio, idee (XIII–XVIII sec.): Atti del convegno internazionale di studi, Venezia, 3-7 dicembre 2007. Venice: Istituto Ellenico di Studi Bizantini e Postbizantini di Venezia, 2009.
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  31. Proceedings of a 2007 conference. Fifty-eight papers in Italian, English, and French; important because the proceedings include contributions from leading scholars in the field as well as essays from younger scholars, many of whom began their careers with fellowships at the Istituto Ellenico. Emphasis on culture and society.
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  33. Ortalli, Gherardo, and Oliver Jens Schmitt, eds. Balcani occidentali, Adriatico e Venezia fra XIII e XVIII secolo/Der westliche Balkan, der Adriaraum und Venedig (13.–18. Jahrhundert). Papers presented at a congress held in Vienna and Venice, 25–29 September 2006.Venice: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2009.
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  35. Seventeen articles in English, Italian, and German, emphasizing relationships between Venice and the eastern Adriatic. Important for its emphasis on Islam and the frontier with the Ottoman state as well as religious and confessional identity in the border zone.
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  37. Pertusi, Agostino, ed. Venezia et il Levante fino al secolo XV: Atti del I Convegno internazionale di storia della civiltà veneziana promosso e organizzato dalla Fondazione Giorgio Cini (Venezia, 1-5 giugno 1968). 2 vols. Florence: Olschki, 1973.
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  39. Proceedings from a 1968 conference, largely in Italian and French with some German and English contributions; Volume 1, at more than nine hundred pages, is a comprehensive picture of the historical, legal, and economic fields, while the shorter second volume treats art, literature, and languages. Still essential reading for an understanding of the subject.
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  41. Tenenti, Alberto, and Ugo Tucci, eds. Storia di Venezia: Dalle origini alla caduta della Serenissima. Vol. 12, Il Mare. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1991.
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  43. Broad essays from leading scholars, including the editors, Bernard Doumerc, Jean-Claude Hocquet, Donatella Calabi, and Ennio Concina, on Venice’s cultural relationship with the sea, shipbuilding, seafaring, merchants, institutions, and magistracies that governed shipping, as well as the construction of ports at home and abroad. Lavishly illustrated and an excellent starting point.
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  45. Individual and Co-authored Studies
  46.  
  47. Thiriet 1959, based on extensive research in Venetian archives, remains an essential point of reference for Venetian expansion in the Greek-speaking world; the author’s presentation of Crete as the model for all other areas of Venetian rule has remained influential. While Thiriet might be said to look at maritime Venice from the ground up, Tenenti 1999 takes a more thematic approach, considering the cultural meaning of Venice’s maritime engagement. Lane 1991 is an accessible guide to the technical matters of shipbuilding and commercial organization as well as a good overall guide to maritime Venetian history, and the author’s interpretation of the economic motivations behind Venetian domination in the eastern Mediterranean remains standard. Cozzi and Knapton 1986–1992 gives equal attention to the different regions under Venetian rule, including the Greek-speaking regions, Dalmatia, and Albania. Arbel 1996 is a useful introduction to the territories under Venetian rule and a brief history of acquisitions and losses as well as to the specialized scholarship on each region. While Papadia-Lala 2004 is in Greek and thus more inaccessible to an international scholarly audience than it should be, it is included here because of the importance of its analysis and synthetic approach. O’Connell 2009 examines the role of individual Venetian governors in the organization and maintenance of the far-flung maritime state. Morris 1990 is a subjective and impressionistic approach to the geography of the Venetian maritime state, included here because of its success at capturing the attention of undergraduates.
  48.  
  49. Arbel, Benjamin. “Colonie d’oltremare.” In Storia di Venezia: Dalle origini alla caduta della Serenissima. Vol. 5, Il Rinascimento: Società ed economia. Edited by Alberto Tenenti and Ugo Tucci, 947–985. Rome: Enciclopedia Italiana, 1996.
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  51. Brief overview of Venetian overseas possessions from approximately 1380 through 1540. Describes acquisitions and losses and gives attention to demography; the sociopolitical arrangements in each location; objectives and methods of Venetian rule; and economics and trade. Text available online.
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  53. Cozzi, Gaetano, and Michael Knapton. La Repubblica di Venezia nell’età moderna: Dal 1517 alla fine della Repubblica. 2 vols. Storia d’Italia. Vol. 12. Turin, Italy: Unione Tipografico-Editrice Torinese, 1986–1992.
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  55. Part of a general history of Venice. Cozzi discusses the political and legal framework for the maritime state, and Knapton reviews its financial and military organization to 1517 in the first volume. Knapton continues his account of the maritime state’s organization to 1630 in a long chapter in the second volume.
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  57. Lane, Frederic Chapin. Venice: A Maritime Republic. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
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  59. First published in 1973. While actually a survey of Venice’s entire history, this book focuses a great deal on shipbuilding and maritime commerce, subjects in which the author was an undisputed expert. Puts forth the influential interpretation of Venice’s overseas possessions as an “empire of naval bases,” organized and maintained to support shipping and trade.
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  61. Morris, Jan. The Venetian Empire: A Sea Voyage. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1990.
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  63. More travelogue than history, Morris’s impressionistic accounts follows the path of the Venetian fleets to the Aegean Islands, Crete, Cyprus, and the Adriatic. Evocatively describes the landscapes and, when used with caution, can be used as a short and flavorful introduction to the region and its past.
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  65. O’Connell, Monique. Men of Empire: Power and Negotiation in Venice’s Maritime State. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.
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  67. Looks at the laws, institutions, and personal networks that allowed Venetian administration to function in the legal and cultural diversity of the maritime state. Focuses on the role of patrician governors who developed local networks of association and served as intermediaries between center and periphery.
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  69. Papadia-Lala, Anastassia. Ho thesmos tōn astikōn koinotētōn ston hellēniko chōro kata tēn periodo tēs venetocratias (13os–18os ai.): Mia synthetikē prosengisē. Venice: Istituto Ellenico di Studi Bizantini e Postbizantini, 2004.
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  71. An important synthesis arguing that the civic communities, or town councils, in the Venetian-ruled Greek territories were important sites for local identity formation. The study traces the dynamic between closed councils—with membership restricted to a social elite—and more open councils, and concludes that social distinctions evolved gradually under Venetian rule. In Greek with English summary.
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  73. Tenenti, Alberto. Venezia e il senso del mare: Storia di un prisma culturale dal XIII al XVIII secolo. Milan: Guerini, 1999.
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  75. Collection of twenty-five of Tenenti’s essays, most previously published, demonstrating his wide-ranging interests in Venice’s medieval and early modern engagement with the sea. Includes an analysis of Venetian engagement with Mediterranean piracy, descriptions of life at sea, and accounts of Venetian commerce, its merchant marine, and its navy.
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  77. Thiriet, Freddy. La Romanie vénitienne au Moyen Âge: Le developpement et l’exploitation du domaine colonial vénitien (XIIe–XVe siècles). Paris: E. de Boccard, 1959.
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  79. An economic and political history of Venetian expansion rule in the Greek-speaking region, especially Crete, based on extensive research in Venetian archives. Presents Venetian motivations for rule as primarily economic; emphasizes commercial aspects and colonial exploitation of resources. Ends in the mid-15th century with the rise of the Ottoman power.
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  81. Primary Sources
  82.  
  83. There are obviously more published primary sources relevant to maritime Venice than can be encompassed in this article. The examples here are of two types: Ljubić 1872–1893, Sathas 1880–1890, Valentini 1967–1981, and McKee 1998 are transcriptions of archival documents in Latin, either legislative or notarial, with brief topical headings in English, French, Croatian, or Italian. The second, more recent type of edition, represented here by Arbel 2007 and Wright and Melville-Jones 2008, has both transcriptions and facing English translations, and focuses on correspondence.
  84.  
  85. Arbel, Benjamin, ed. and trans. Venetian Letters, (1354–1512): From the Archives of the Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation and Other Cypriot Collections. Nicosia: Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation, 2007.
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  87. Twenty letters of Venetian merchants and galley commanders active in eastern Mediterranean trade and shipping, demonstrating Cyprus’s importance along the route to Syria as well as its own economic importance. Contains facsimiles of the letters, as well as transcriptions and English translations.
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  89. Ljubić, Sime, ed. Listine o odnošajih izmedju južnoga slaventsva i Mletačke Republike. Vols. 4–11. Monumenta spectantia historiam Slavorum meridionalium. Zagreb, Croatia: Knjizharnici Fr. Zhupana, 1872–1893.
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  91. This massive work runs to twenty-two volumes total; Volumes 4 through 10 provide editions, mainly from the Venetian Senate’s deliberations, of documents relevant to Venetian rule in Dalmatia and diplomatic relationships with the Balkan hinterlands. The collection, with documents in Latin and text in Croatian, is weighted toward the medieval period. Volume 11 provides a partial index.
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  93. McKee, Sally, ed. Wills from Late Medieval Venetian Crete, 1312–1420. 3 vols. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library, 1998.
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  95. Edition of 790 wills, in Latin, taken from the records of Cretan notaries. A rich source for reconstructing social and economic life on the island. Volume 3 is a detailed index.
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  97. Sathas, Konstantinos, ed. Mnēmeia Hellēnikēs Historias: Documents inédits relatifs à l’histoire de la Grèce au Moyen Âge. 9 vols. Paris: Maisonneuve, 1880–1890.
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  99. The first three volumes are editions of Senato Misti (Senate series) deliberations relating to the Greek-speaking regions under Venetian rule; the middle volumes are dispatches from Venetian governors and military commanders; the final three volumes contain documents relating to the stradioti, or Greek soldiers in Venetian service.
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  101. Valentini, Giuseppe, ed. Acta Albaniae Veneta Saeculorum XIV et XV. 25 vols. Archivio di Stato di Venezia. Milan: Typis P. I. M. E., 1967–1981.
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  103. Provides transcriptions of nearly every Latin document from the Venetian state archives relating to Albania.
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  105. Wright, Diana Gilliland, and John R. Melville-Jones, eds. The Greek Correspondence of Bartolomeo Minio: Dispacci from Nauplion 1479–1483. Padua, Italy: Unipress, 2008.
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  107. Minio was the Venetian governor of the city of Nauplion, on the eastern side of the Peloponnese. Minio’s letters were previously published by Sathas (Sathas 1880–1890), but this volume offers an English translation as well as a historical introduction, footnotes, and textual glosses that place Minio’s letters in a broad context.
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  109. Overseas Possessions
  110.  
  111. In general, historians of the individual regions of the maritime state have tended to look inward, emphasizing the details of local experience rather than broader comparative themes. Venice acquired its overseas possessions at different times and under a variety of circumstances, something that makes it difficult to generalize about the overseas regions under Venetian control. In 1440, the Venetian Senate divided its deliberations, previously registered in the series Misti, into the series Senato Mar and Senato Terra, emphasizing the distinction between land and sea realms. All the regions below fall into the “Mar” category, with the partial exception of Istria, and they are sometimes referred to collectively as part of the “stato da mar,” or the maritime state. The current division of the region into nation-states means that most of the locations in the maritime state have multiple place names; in this article, the place name is given both Italian and modern usage to orient the reader.
  112.  
  113. Northeastern Adriatic
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  115. The historiography of this region has been profoundly influenced by the 19th- and 20th-century politics of nationalism. In the medieval and early modern period, Istria, the triangular peninsula at the head of the Adriatic, and Dalmatia, the string of port cities and islands along the eastern Adriatic coastline, were border zones between the Venetian-dominated Adriatic sea and the mountainous interior, held by first Slavic and Hungarian and then Ottoman rulers. In the 20th century, Italy and Yugoslavia’s conflicting claims to the region were in part based on the supposed Italian or Slavic character of its history and inhabitants, and states alternately imposed severe and often-violent programs of purging the Italian or Slavic language, culture, and people. Many writers, both at the time of Venetian rule and after its end in 1797, emphasized the distinction between the Latinate, Italian-influenced Dalmatian coast and the Slavic interior of the Balkan Peninsula, as exemplified here by Praga 1993. Other writers downplayed the region’s ties to the Italian peninsula and instead presented the region as part of a unified province of Croatia, a distinction that to some degree continues to influence contemporary scholarship, as Ivetic 2000b and Paladini 2000 discuss. Bracewell 1992, a study of the Uskoks, makes the complexity of contest over national and cultural identity clear. Ivetic 2000a deals with a slightly later period, 1650–1800, but is included here because of the significance of its conceptualization of the relationship between Venice and Istria. Krekić 1996 and Cabanes 2001 offer useful overviews of Venetian political and economic involvement in the region, while Schmitt 2011 is a micro-historical view of one island; the author also gives a perspective on larger themes.
  116.  
  117. Bracewell, Catherine Wendy. The Uskoks of Senj: Piracy, Banditry, and Holy War in the Sixteenth-Century Adriatic. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992.
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  119. Looks at the Uskoks, a group of land and sea raiders located at the intersection of three empires, the Venetian, Ottoman, and Austrian, in the 16th and early 17th centuries. Shows how the Uskoks have alternately been portrayed as criminal bandits or heroes resisting foreign oppressors; gives compelling picture of conditions on the frontier.
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  121. Cabanes, Pierre, ed. Histoire de l’Adriatique. Paris: Seuil, 2001.
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  123. A history of the Adriatic from prehistory to the present; includes excellent synthesis of Venetian history in the Adriatic. Two important chapters, by Alain Ducellier and Bernard Doumerc, place Venetian efforts to dominate the region into larger context, pointing to Byzantine, Hungarian, Norman, Slavic, and Ottoman contenders as well.
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  125. Ivetic, Egidio. Oltremare: L’istria nell’ultimo dominio veneto. Venice: Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, 2000a.
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  127. An important conceptualization of how Venice related to its Adriatic possessions in the early modern period. It presents Istria not as a colony but as a peripheral region of the Venetian state, linked to Venice by tight political and economic ties. Highlights rural as well as urban context.
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  129. Ivetic, Egidio. “Storiografie nazionali e interpretazioni della Dalmazia medievale.” In Venezia e la Dalmazia: anno mille; secoli di vicende comuni. Edited by Nedo Fiorentin, 95–133. Treviso, Italy: Canova, 2000b.
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  131. A synthetic essay that clearly defines the two main lines of historiography—Italian and Croatian—on Dalmatia, with evaluations of the major works in each tradition, including the essential contributions of the Croatian historian Tomislav Raukar.
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  133. Krekić, Bariša. “Venezia e l’Adriatico.” In Storia di Venezia: Dalle origini alla caduta della Serenissima. Vol. 3, La formazione dello Stato Patrizio. Edited by Giorgio Cracco, Girolamo Arnaldi, and Alberto Tenenti, 51–85. Rome: Enciclopedia Italiana, 1996.
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  135. Excellent overview of Venetian presence in the Adriatic in the 14th and 15th centuries, focusing particularly on political and diplomatic negotiations. Text available online.
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  137. Paladini, Filippo Maria. “Storia di Venezia e retorica del dominio adriatico: Venezianità e imperialismo (1938–1943).” Ateneo Veneto 38 (2000): 253–298.
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  139. Incisive analysis of Italian historiography on Venetian domination of the Adriatic and Ionian Islands produced under the fascist regime, focusing particularly on the work of Gino Damerini. Points to the complementary nature of historical production and Italian foreign policy before and during World War II.
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  141. Praga, Giuseppe. History of Dalmatia. Translated by Edward Steinberg and edited by Franco Luxardo. Pisa, Italy: Giardini, 1993.
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  143. Praga, born near Zara/Zadar, was one of the most productive historians of Dalmatia in the 20th century. Forced to leave during World War II, he resettled in Venice. His book rests on a vast knowledge of archives and relevant languages and emphasizes a continuous thread of Roman and Italian influences on Dalmatian culture. Originally published as Storia di Dalmazia (Padua, Italy: CEDAM, 1954); republished with additions in 1981 by Varese, Italy: Dall’Oglio.
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  145. Schmitt, Oliver Jens. Korčula sous la domination de Venise au XVe siècle: Pouvoir, économie et vie quotidienne dans une île dalmate au Moyen Âge tardif. Paris: Collège de France, 2011.
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  147. Micro-historical approach to Venetian rule on the island of Curzola/Korčula. Uses local archives to give a specific and nuanced picture of many large-scale dynamics that affected the island, including Venetian administrators’ intervention into local politics and the interplay of local and regional economies. An e-book.
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  149. Southern Adriatic
  150.  
  151. The southern Adriatic has generally been treated by scholars as two separate regions, generally corresponding to the contemporary nation-state of Albania and the Ionian Islands, part of Greece. Despite this tendency, they are grouped together in this bibliography because of the growing number of works, exemplified here by Gaspares 1998, that emphasize the interconnectedness of the region in the medieval and early modern period. Among the Ionian Islands, Corfu/Kerkyra has received the most scholarly attention. Bacchion 1956 uses Venetian archives to produce a picture of official policy toward the island, while Karapidakis 1992, which uses local archives, greatly nuances that picture. Maltezou and Ortalli 2005 and Costantini and Nikiforou-Testone 1996 continue the focus on Corfu but also reach beyond, looking at the other Ionian Islands and regional economic relationships. Valentini 1966 draws on the author’s multivolume publication of Venetian sources on Albania to give an overview of Venetian economic and political policies, while Ducellier 1981 looks at the relationship of two particular cities on the Albanian coast to the Adriatic as a whole. Schmitt 2001 draws on both Venetian and local sources to give a definitive history of Venetian rule in the region.
  152.  
  153. Bacchion, Eugenio. Il dominio veneto su Corfù, 1386–1797. Venice: Edizioni Altino, 1956.
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  155. Narrative history closely based on Venetian archival sources; while somewhat dated, still provides a good overview of the Venetian acquisition, defense, and eventual loss of the island.
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  157. Costantini, Massimo, and Aliki Nikiforou-Testone, eds. Levante veneziano: Aspetti di storia delle Isole Ionie al tempo della Serenissima. Rome: Bulzoni, 1996.
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  159. Ten studies in Italian on the politics and economy of Corfu and the surrounding region emphasizing the post-1500 era. Includes descriptions of relevant archival resources, studies of production and trade in olive oil, and investigations of fiscal and political relations among church, government, and society.
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  161. Ducellier, Alain. La façade maritime de l’Albanie au Moyen Âge: Durazzo et Valona du XIe au XVe siècle. Thessaloniki, Greece: Institute for Balkan Studies, 1981.
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  163. Comprehensive study that focuses on the two principal coastal cities in Albania but gives a good sense of the larger picture as well, based on copious archival research.
  164. Find this resource:
  165. Gaspares, Charalampos, ed. Hoi Alvanoi sto mesaiōna. The Mediaeval Albanians. Athens, Greece: National Hellenic Research Foundation, Institute for Byzantine Research, 1998.
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  167. Conference proceedings with texts in Greek, English, French, and Italian. Emphasizes sources in Venetian, French, Ragusan, and Dalmatian archives and texts and relationships between Albanians and other Adriatic residents; includes contributions from the editor, Spiros Asonitis, Oliver Jens Schmitt, Bariša Krekić, Nikos Oikonomidès, Sima Ćircković, Maria Dourou-Eliopoulou, and Laura Balletto.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Karapidakis, Nicolas. Civis fidelis: L’avènement et l’affirmation de la citoyenneté corfiote (XVIème–XVIIème siècles). Frankfurt and New York: Lang, 1992.
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  171. Uses Venetian and Corfiote archives to investigate the development of the idea of citizenship for Corfiotes, especially through their participation in local governing councils.
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Maltezou, Chryssa, and Gherardo Ortalli, eds. Venezia e le Isole Ionie. Papers presented at a conference held 26–27 September 2002 in Corfu, Greece. Venice: Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, 2005.
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  175. Fifteen papers in Italian, English, and French. Studies include considerations of Byzantine influence; relationships between economic and political power on Corfu and on Cephalonia; and agricultural and commercial economies.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Schmitt, Oliver Jens. Das venezianische Albanien (1392–1479). Südosteuropäische Arbeiten 110. Munich: Oldernburg, 2001.
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  179. Comprehensive overview of Venetian rule in Albania, emphasizing the social, economic, and military aspects of Venetian rule; based on meticulous archival research. Devotes particular attention to the decades of border raiding that preceded the Ottoman-Venetian war of 1463–1479; demonstrates the wide-ranging changes war caused in daily life and social relationships.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Valentini, Giuseppe. “Appunti sul regime degli stabilimenti veneti in Albania nel secolo XIV e XV.” Studi Veneziani 8 (1966): 195–265.
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  183. Relying on his extensive archival research, the author lays out the main aspects of Venetian rule in Albania, focusing on political and legal arrangements.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Greek Mainland and Aegean Sea
  186.  
  187. The territories included in this category have no natural geographical unity; Venice’s territories in this region included the Peloponnesian cities of Coron, Modon, Nauplion/Napoli di Romania, and Thessalonica, and the island of Negroponte/Eubea. Jacoby 1971 uses a legal history to compare and contrast the way Venice ruled each different place. Loenertz 1975 is a detailed study of a single family’s holdings in the Aegean, demonstrating the semi-official Venetian presence there in the medieval period. Borsari 2007 looks at social history on Negroponte, while Koder 1973 focuses on the geography and urban form of the island. Pepper 1993 highlights the essential importance of Coron and Modon to Venetian defensive strategies, while Wright 1999 looks at the practical difficulties involved in organizing the defense of Nauplion even during peacetime. Melville-Jones 2002 (and Melville-Jones 2006) makes a similar point about the complexity of diplomacy in the region from both a state and local perspective.
  188.  
  189. Borsari, Silvano. L’Eubea Veneziana. Venice: Deputazione di Storia Patria per le Venezie, 2007.
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  191. Posthumously published study of Venetian rule on the island of Negroponte, with chapters on the population, religious life, and the economy.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Jacoby, David. La Féodalité en Grèce médiévale: Les “Assises de Romanie,” sources, application et diffusion. École pratique des hautes études. VI section. Documents et recherches sur l’économie des pays byzantins, islamiques et slaves et leurs relations commerciales au Moyen Âge 10. Paris: Mouton, 1971.
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  195. Magisterial study of the legal framework governing Venetian Greek territories. Based on the “Assizes of Romania,” a legal code applied in the wake of the Fourth Crusade, the author’s meticulous charting of how it was applied in each Venetian territory gives a nuanced picture of regional political and legal history.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Koder, Johannes. Negroponte: Untersuchungen zur Topographie und Siedlungsgeschitchte der Insel Euboia während der Zeit der Venezianerherrschaft. Vienna: Ősterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1973.
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  199. The volume focuses on mapping and documenting both the urban form of Negroponte’s main city and the location of villages and towns throughout the island; gives particular attention to the location and form of churches on the island. Amply illustrated with maps and plans.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Loenertz, Raymond-Joseph. Les Ghisi: Dynastes vénitiens dans l’archipel, 1207–1390. Florence: Olschki, 1975.
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  203. Study of the semi-independent Venetian families who held a number of small islands in the Aegean Sea, focusing on the Ghisi, lords of Skopelos, Skiathos, Skyros, Tinos, Mykonos, and a third of Negroponte. Contains editions of relevant legislation and chronicles as well as detailed genealogies.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Melville-Jones, John R. Venice and Thessalonica, 1423–1430. Vol. 1, The Venetian Documents. Archivio del Litorale Adriatico 7. Padua, Italy: Unipress, 2002.
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  207. A detailed account closely based on archival documents of the short Venetian rule in Thessalonica, interesting for the inside view it offers into negotiations with failing Byzantine and expanding Ottoman power in the Balkans. Includes lengthy translations of letters, chronicles, and legislation, now expanded by a second volume of Greek documents (see John R. Melville-Jones, Venice and Thessalonica, 1423–1430. Vol. 2, The Greek Accounts. Archivio del Litorale Adriatico 8. Padua, Italy: Unipress, 2006 [ISBN: 9788880982289]).
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Pepper, Simon. “Fortress and Fleet: The Defence of Venice’s Mainland Greek Colonies in the Late Fifteenth Century.” In War, Culture, and Society in Renaissance Venice: Essays in Honour of John Hale. Edited by David S. Chambers, Cecil H. Clough, and Michael E. Mallett, 29–55. London: Hambleton, 1993.
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  211. Detailed reconstruction of the Venetian defenses built in Coron and Modon during the 15th century; places these fortifications in the larger context of Venetian defensive strategies against the Ottomans.
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  213. Wright, Diana G. “Bartolomeo Minio: Venetian Administration in 15th-Century Nauplion.” PhD diss., Catholic University of America, 1999.
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  215. Uses the correspondence of a Venetian official to examine the details of Venetian rule in this city, focusing particularly on the often-difficult negotiations over boundaries with Albanian and Ottoman neighbors.
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  217. Crete
  218.  
  219. Crete is unique among Venetian overseas possessions both for the length of Venetian rule there, 1211–1669, and for the preservation of its local archive in Venice. Maltezou 1991 offers a concise history of Venetian rule on Crete with citations to relevant Greek-language scholarship. Crete’s agricultural base was an important aspect of its economy; Borsari 1963 looks at the roots of Venice’s social and economic domination of the island, and Gallina 1989 is a careful study of agricultural and commercial life on the island in the 14th century. Zacharidou 1983 and several studies in Ortalli 1998 focus on Crete’s role as a key node in Venice’s commercial network in the eastern Mediterranean. The relationship among metropole, colonists, and the colonized has been of great interest to scholars concerned with the development of Greek and Latin identities. McKee 2000 points to a blurring of the boundaries between Greeks and Latins, while Maltezou 1995 points to the continuing strength of Byzantine traditions on the island. See also Ethnic, Religious, and Cultural Identity.
  220.  
  221. Borsari, Silvano. Il dominio veneziano a Creta nel XIII secolo. Naples, Italy: Fiorentino, 1963.
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  223. Careful study of the first centuries of Venetian domination, focusing on the frequent rebellions of the Greek populace as well as the land-use system, in which Venetian colonists were allotted estates, called fiefs, and expected to provide military services when called upon.
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  225. Gallina, Mario. Una società coloniale del trecento: Creta fra Venezia e Bisanzio. Venice: Deputazione di Storia Patria per le Venezie, 1989.
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  227. Examination of the agricultural and commercial conditions on Crete during the 14th century; based on study of Cretan notarial records as well as official Venetian sources.
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  229. Maltezou, Chryssa. “The Historical and Social Context.” In Literature and Society in Renaissance Crete. Edited by David Holton, 17–48. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
  230. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511519666Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. Overview of the four centuries of Venetian rule on Crete, with discussion of social and religious life; literary production; and politics and economic organization.
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  233. Maltezou, Chryssa. “Byzantine ‘Consuetudines’ in Venetian Crete.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 49 (1995): 269–280.
  234. DOI: 10.2307/1291715Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Considers the continuing Byzantine cultural and legal influence on the island during Venetian rule, especially as seen in land use and the taxation system.
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  237. McKee, Sally. Uncommon Dominion: Venetian Crete and the Myth of Ethnic Purity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000.
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  239. Based on an in-depth study of wills, this book examines social and political life in the 14th century, focusing on the Venetian feudators’ role in governing the island and their relationships with Greek neighbors. Emphasizes the alliance between Greek and Latin families during the revolt of San Tito (1363–1365).
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Ortalli, Gherardo, ed. Venezia e Creta: Atti del convegno internazionale di studi Iraklion-Chanià, 30 settembre–5 ottobre 1997. Venice: Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, 1998.
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  243. Proceedings of a 1997 conference held on Crete. Twenty-four papers in Italian from a group of international scholars, covering the conquest of the island, its economic and social system, urban form, and literary and artistic production.
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  245. Zacharidou, Elizabeth A. Trade and Crusade: Venetian Crete and the Emirates of Menteshe and Aydin (1300–1415). Venice: Istituto Ellenico di Studi Bizantini e Postbizantini, 1983.
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  247. Study of diplomatic relationships between the Venetian duke of Crete and the independent emirs of southern Anatolia. Analyzes decline of Byzantium and the rise of the Ottomans and the conditions of trade in the eastern Mediterranean, including commodities, weights and measures, and money and prices. Contains edition of eleven treaties.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Cyprus
  250.  
  251. Cyprus was one of the last additions to Venice’s overseas empire, officially becoming a Venetian possession in 1489. Hill 1972 offers a detailed account of Venetian rule on Cyprus, although without reference to local sources; Aristidou’s contribution to Karageorghis, et al. 2003 offers a more concise and updated overview of Venetian rule on the island. Arbel 2000 and Karageorghis, et al. 2003 both engage with the economic aspects of Venetian rule on the islands and contain significant studies of social patterns. The relatively large Greek Cypriot population means that scholars have been interested in Greek-Latin relations and cultural identity. For Cyprus, Arbel 2000 repudiates an earlier tradition of scholarship that characterized Greek-Latin relations in hostile terms. Calvelli 2009 offers an interpretation of Cyprus’s cultural importance to the Renaissance through its ancient monuments, and Costantini 2009 is an innovative examination of the end of Venetian and the beginning of the Ottoman rule; the study relies on documentation from both Italian and Turkish archives.
  252.  
  253. Arbel, Benjamin. Cyprus, the Franks, and Venice, 13th–16th Centuries. Variorum Collected Studies Series. Aldershot, UK, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2000.
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  255. Collects fourteen previously published studies focusing on economic and social relationships in Venetian Cyprus. Particularly important are the several articles in which Arbel repudiates the “black legend” of antagonism between Greek Cypriots and Venetian rulers. Also contains two demographic studies and two studies tracing the extensive influence of the Corner, a Venetian patrician family with many economic interests on the island.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Calvelli, Lorenzo. Cipro e la memoria dell’Antico fra Medioevo e Rinascimento: La percezione del passato romano dell’isola nel mondo occidentale. Venice: Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, 2009.
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  259. This study uses literary and archeological evidence to document the importance of the classical past for the travelers, pilgrims, diplomats, and residents of Cyprus, demonstrating the early development of the Renaissance concern with antiquity. Looks at the interplay between pagan and Christian pasts, with case studies of specific monuments.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Costantini, Vera. Il sultano e l’isola contesa: Cipro tra eredità veneziana e potere ottomano. Turin, Italy: Unione Tipografico-Editrice Torinese, 2009.
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  263. Innovative study uses both Venetian and Ottoman documents to examine the Venetian loss and Ottoman conquest in the 16th and 17th centuries. Looks at the installation of Ottoman rule, focusing particularly on tax structures, population, and commercial strategies in the face of new competition from English and Dutch merchants.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Hill, George, F. A History of Cyprus: 1940–1952. 4 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
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  267. First published in 1948. The four volumes cover prehistory to 1950; Volume 3 has a detailed and lively although not always accurate account of the island’s takeover by Venice and its loss to the Ottomans in 1571 as well as chapters on artistic, religious, and literary culture. Presents Cypriot history as a series of occupations.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Karageorghis, Vassos, Loukia Loizou Hadjigavriel, and Chryssa A. Maltezou, eds. Cyprus: Jewel in the Crown of Venice. Nicosia, Cyprus: Anastasios G. Leventis Foundation and Leventis Municipal Museum of Nicosia, 2003.
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  271. Volume accompanying an art exhibition; wonderfully illustrated and containing several important accounts of Venetian government and society on the island, in English and French, with contributions from Ekaterini C. Aristidou, Gilles Grivaud, Brunhilde Imahaus, Marie-Louise von Wartburg, and Chryssa Maltezou.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Urban Space, Architecture, and Ritual
  274.  
  275. While this bibliography is not explicitly concerned with the artistic or literary heritage of Venice overseas, there are an increasing number of studies that engage with questions of cultural history. Manno 1986 looks at the massive fortifications built throughout the Venetian empire in the 16th century as artistic and technological symbols of Venetian power. Concina and Nikeforou-Testone 1994 and Georgopoulou 2001 both examine the interplay of the built environment with state and local needs; Georgopoulou analyzes urban space in terms of expressing power and identity. Papadaki 2005 uses ritual to examine similar themes in Venetian Crete. The emergence of an independent Croatia in the early 1990s has led more frequent international conferences investigating a shared history in the Adriatic, as exemplified by Graciotti 2001. With the disintegration of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, there has been a “rediscovery” of Italian influences in the culture of the coastal region, although scholars disagree on the balance of local and Italian influence in architecture and works of art; see Dempsey 1996 and Norwich 2009.
  276.  
  277. Concina, Ennio, and Aliki Nikeforou-Testone, eds. Corfu: History, Urban Space, and Architecture, 14th–19th Centuries. Corfu, Greece: Cultural Society “Korkyra,” 1994.
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  279. The volume, produced in conjunction with an exhibition on Corfu’s architectural history, presents urban development on the island as an interplay between Venetian state and local forces, emphasizing the way the built environment was adapted to suit the needs of a variety of users.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Dempsey, Charles, ed. Quattrocento Adriatico: Fifteenth Century Art of the Adriatic Rim; Papers from a Colloquium Held at the Villa Spelman, Florence, 1994. Villa Spelman Colloquia 5. Bologna, Italy: Nuova Alfa, 1996.
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  283. Proceedings of a 1994 conference organized in the immediate aftermath of the breakup of Yugoslavia on the theme of the artistic and cultural relationships between the Italian and Dalmatian shores of the Adriatic. Ten papers in English and Italian from a group of international scholars on painting, sculpture, and architecture.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Georgopoulou, Maria. Venice’s Mediterranean Colonies: Architecture and Urbanism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
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  287. Examines the way the built environment in Venetian colonies expressed close cultural ties with both Venice and Byzantium. Focusing on Crete and its capital Candia but including material from other locations, the study reconstructs ecclesiastical, military, and administrative buildings and shows their role in legitimating Venetian imperial rule.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Graciotti, Sante, ed. Mito e antimito di Venezia nel bacino adriatico (secoli XV–XIX): Atti del I Convegno italo-croato, Venezia, Fondazione Giorgio Cini, novembre 1997. Rome: Il Calamo, 2001.
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  291. Proceedings of a 1997 conference organized to examine the historiographical and cultural myths surrounding Venetian rule in Dalmatia from Italian and Croatian perspectives. Twenty-two contributions emphasizing literature and language use as well as beliefs about Venetian government and cultural connections between the two sides of the Adriatic.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Manno, Antonio. “Politica e architettura militare: Le difese di Venezia (1557–1573).” Studi Veneziani 11 (1986): 91–137.
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  295. Examines Venice’s program of fortifications in the terraferma and maritime realms, focusing on the interaction between Venice’s military commanders and the artists/engineers who designed and built the fortifications.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Norwich, John Julius. Croatia: Aspects of Art, Architecture and Cultural Heritage. London: Lincoln, 2009.
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  299. Lavishly illustrated volume with twelve essays in English intended to showcase Croatia’s cultural patrimony, with a heavy emphasis on classical and Renaissance era works. Timothy Clifford’s piece on architecture painting and the decorative arts and Donal Cooper’s essay on Gothic art and Friars’ churches are particularly relevant for Venetian domains.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Papadaki, Aspassia. Cerimonie religiose e laiche nell’isola di Creta durante il dominio veneziano. Translated by Giorgio Pelidis. Spoleto, Italy: Fondazione Centro Italiano di Studi sull’alto Medioevo, 2005.
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  303. Detailed study of the rituals that animated and shaped daily life in Venetian Crete, examining the interplay between official religious festivals and popular celebrations and the role of ritual in expressing identity and popular discontent.
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  305. Ethnic, Religious, and Cultural Identity
  306.  
  307. Scholars have long been interested in the role of the Jews in overseas Venice because of their pan-Mediterranean presence in trade and commerce. While not framed in terms of identity, the work of David Jacoby, especially in Jacoby 1979 and Jacoby 1987, is fundamental, as is Arbel 1995 (cited under Trade and Commerce Overseas). Fedalto 1981 is an essential guide for understanding the Latin church hierarchy and its often stormy relationship with Greek Orthodox populations. In the last decade, influenced by developments in the field of Mediterranean Studies, North American scholars in particular have become very interested in how the individuals who lived in and traveled through Venice’s maritime state formed, experienced, and negotiated their identities in ethnic, religious, and cultural terms. McKee 2000 contends that centuries of coexistence on Crete effectively blurred boundaries between Greek and Latin residents. Dursteler 2006 and Dursteler 2011 examine individuals and institutions on the Venetian-Ottoman border whose lived experience defied easy categorizations of nationality or faith. Pedani 2010 offers a general overview of the Ottoman-Venetian exchanges through the lenses of diplomacy and migration, and Rothman 2012 looks at the complicated negotiations over categories of identity and belonging in Venice.
  308.  
  309. Dursteler, Eric R. Venetians in Constantinople: Nation, Identity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
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  311. Uses the Venetian “nation” in Constantinople to examine questions of identity in the early modern Mediterranean, looking at official Venetian representatives, merchants, slaves, renegades, Greeks, and Jews. Argues that identity was situational rather than static.
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  313. Dursteler, Eric R. Renegade Women: Gender, Identity, and Boundaries in the Early Modern Mediterranean. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011.
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  315. Uses the lives of seven women who crossed religious boundaries between Christianity and Islam and political boundaries between Venice and the Ottoman Empire to investigate how gender affected questions of culture, identity, and religious belief.
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  317. Fedalto, Giorgio. La chiesa latina in Oriente. 3 vols. Verona, Italy: Mazziana, 1981.
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  319. First published in 1973–1978. Comprehensive and detailed overview of the Latin church hierarchy that Venice imposed on its Greek-speaking subjects, with chapters addressing each of the localities separately as well as editions of relevant documents.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Jacoby, David. Recherches sur la Méditerranée orientale du XIIe au XVe siècle: Peuples, sociétés, économies. London: Variorum, 1979.
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  323. Twelve previously published studies in French and English. Especially important is the article “Citoyens, sujets et protégés . . .” (pp. 159–188) that investigates the ways individuals could be considered as “Venetian” outside of the city; also includes several studies on Jews on Crete, in Constantinople, and in Venice.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Jacoby, David. “Venice and the Venetian Jews in the Eastern Mediterranean.” In Gli Ebrei e Venezia: Secoli XIV–XVIII: Atti del convegno internazionale organizzato dall’Istituto di storia della società e dello Stato veneziano della Fondazione Giorgio Cini, Venezia, Isola di San Giorgio Maggiore, 5–10 giugno 1983. Edited by Gaetano Cozzi, 29–58. Milan: Edizioni Comunità, 1987.
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  327. Overview of legal status of Jews outside of Venice, Jewish societal organization, and economic activities.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. McKee, Sally. Uncommon Dominion: Venetian Crete and the Myth of Ethnic Purity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000.
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  331. Based on an in-depth examination of wills, this study argues that the boundary between “Latin” and “Greek” social groups on the island was blurred by intermarriage and local political life, although the Venetian state tried to maintain clear distinctions between groups.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Pedani, Maria Pia. Venezia porta d’Oriente. Bologna, Italy: Il Mulino, 2010.
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  335. A synthesis and overview of much recent literature on Venice’s relationship with the Ottoman Empire, as well as archival research on war and peace, the diplomatic system, and migrants and converts. Looks at knowledge of the “other” from both sides; describes Ottoman community in Venice and vice versa.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Rothman, E. Natalie. Brokering Empire: Trans-Imperial Subjects between Venice and Istanbul. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012.
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  339. Carefully theorized investigation of the networks of alliance and interaction that helped to draw boundaries between different groups in early modern Venice; focuses particularly on commercial brokers, converts from Judaism and Islam, and translators. Based on extensive research in rarely used Venetian archives.
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  341. The Venetian Fleet
  342.  
  343. The backbone of Venice’s overseas presence was its fleet. The shipping industry, generally speaking, can be divided into the public and private sectors, although the Venetian state regulated privately owned ships as well as reserved the right to commandeer merchant ships for military purposes. Thus the boundary between public and private is often indistinct. Lane 1966 (cited under Shipping and Seafaring) and Lane 1991 (cited under Individual and Co-authored Studies) categorize the types of voyages possible as free voyages on private ships, regulated and/or licensed voyages on private ships, voyages of communally owned ships auctioned for private use, and direct communal operation of communally owned ships. The bulk of the extant documentation, and as a result the bulk of the scholarship, deals with the state-owned galleys and the war fleet. This bibliography devotes sections to shipbuilding, governing and investing in the fleet, and shipping and seafaring.
  344.  
  345. Shipbuilding
  346.  
  347. The Arsenal of Venice, a sixty-acre shipyard located near the Ducal Palace, was the home of Venice’s state-run shipping industry. Scholars have long been interested in it as an example of preindustrial manufacturing: Lane 1992, Davis 1991, and Caniato 1996 investigate how the caulkers, carpenters, sailmakers, rope makers, and other craftsmen were all coordinated into an efficient working body, capable of turning out and launching a galley from frame to riggings in under an hour, as they famously did in 1574 for the entertainment of Henri III of France. Concina 1984 looks at the Arsenal as a significant force shaping the city’s architectural history and urban form, while Rossi 1996 and Zan, et al. 2006 investigate the organizational principles and changing policies of the Venetian state toward production and finance at the shipyard. Pagratis 2011 and Bravo and Tosato 2010 demonstrate the new direction of scholarship on shipbuilding by examining ship provisioning and construction of fleets outside of the city.
  348.  
  349. Bravo, Martino Ferrari, and Stefano Tosato, eds. Gli arsenali oltremarini della Serenissima: Approvvigionamenti e strutture cantieristiche per la flotta veneziana (secoli XVI–XVII). Milan: Biblion, 2010.
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  351. Fourteen essays in Italian by an international group of scholars examining the construction and maintenance of the Venetian fleet in overseas arsenals, particularly those in Crete and Dalmatia. Emphasizes the wide network of resources necessary for provisioning the fleet, including metals and wood from the mainland, and the changes in military strategy and technology in the early modern era.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Caniato, Giovanni. “L’Arsenale: Maestranze e organizzazione del lavoro.” In Storia di Venezia: Dalle origini alla caduta della Serenissima. Vol. 5, Il Rinascimento: Società ed economia. Edited by Alberto Tenenti and Ugo Tucci, 641–677. Rome: Enciclopedia Italiana, 1996.
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  355. Focuses on the organization of the workforce within the shipyard and the life of the workers, including all the specialized crafts and materials necessary for the construction and launching of a ship. Text available online.
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  357. Concina, Ennio. L‘Arsenale della Repubblica di Venezia: Tecniche e istituzioni dal medioevo all’età moderna. Milan: Electa, 1984.
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  359. An overview of the shipyard’s history, emphasizing the Arsenal as a place where science, technology, and government met. Traces the shipyard’s impact on the overall urban development of the city.
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  361. Davis, Robert C. Shipbuilders of the Venetian Arsenal: Workers and Workplace in the Preindustrial City. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
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  363. Looks at the place of arsenal workers in Venetian civic life, their organization in a preindustrial factory system, and their lives in the city outside of the shipyard. Focuses on the 17th century.
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  365. Lane, Frederic C. Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders of the Renaissance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
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  367. Originally printed in 1934, a classic study of the Arsenal of Venice and the main ships it produced: galleys, round ships, and galleons. Treats private shipyards as well as the Arsenal’s large-scale production of the war fleet and describes the organization and governance of the Arsenal and its workforce.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Pagratis, Gerassimos D. “Ships and Shipbuilding in Corfu in the First Half of the Sixteenth Century.” Mediterranea: Richerche Storiche 22 (August 2011): 237–246.
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  371. Documents and analyzes the merchant fleet that Greek subjects of Venice in the Ionian Islands developed and deployed for both local and regional commerce in the early 16th century. Relies on Corfiote notarial documents as well as Venetian sources to demonstrate the importance of Greek shipowning earlier than previously thought.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Rossi, Franco. “L’Arsenale: I quadri direttivi.” In Storia di Venezia: Dalle origini alla caduta della Serenissima. Vol. 5, Il Rinascimento: Società ed economia. Edited by Alberto Tenenti and Ugo Tucci, 593–639. Rome: Enciclopedia Italiana, 1996.
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  375. Describes the relationship between the Venetian state and the shipyard, with attention to the various governors and institutions responsible for ensuring the Arsenal’s operation and for enacting government policies and reforms. Text available online.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Zan, Luca, Franco Rossi, and Stefano Zambon. Il “discorso del maneggio”: Pratiche gestionali e contabili all’Arsenale di Venezia, 1580–1643. Bologna, Italy: Il Mulino, 2006.
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  379. Six essays by the three authors on different aspects of the organizational and financial management of the Arsenal in the early modern period. Includes lengthy appendixes of reports on the Arsenal to the Senate and Senate deliberations.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Governing and Investing in the Fleet
  382.  
  383. One of the most particular features of the Venetian fleet’s operation was its collective governance. Throughout the medieval period, the main shipping lines—to the Black Sea, Cyprus, Alexandria, Beirut, Flanders, Southern France, and North Africa—were all run on state-owned galleys auctioned to groups of investors, who outfitted the ship and shared the profits of the voyage. Doumerc 1996 offers an overview of the system’s development, management, and decline, contending that the Venetian merchant fleet was significant for political as well as economic reasons. Stöckly 1995 looks at the role that investment in the fleet played in the formation of a merchant elite in the 14th and early 15th centuries, and Judde de Larivière 2008 examines the decline of the galley system in terms of social and political changes to Venice’s patriciate.
  384.  
  385. Doumerc, Bernard. “Il dominio del mare.” In Storia di Venezia: Dalle origini alla caduta della Serenissima. Vol. 4, Il Rinascimento: Politica e cultura. Edited by Alberto Tenenti and Ugo Tucci, 113–180. Rome: Enciclopedia Italiana, 1996.
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  387. Introduction to the main features of the Venetian galley system, including the beginnings of the convoys; strategies and policies directing the fleet; fluctuating prices of the auctions; establishment of the various shipping lines; and the increasingly disruptive late departures of the fleet at the turn of the 16th century. Text available online.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Judde de Larivière, Claire. Naviguer, commercer, gouverner: Économie maritime et pouvoirs à Venise (XVe–XVIe siècles). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.
  390. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004170728.i-362Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Close archival and prosopographical (collective biography) study examines why the convoys of public galleys, characteristic of medieval Venetian shipping, had disappeared by 1571. Finds that investment in these galleys was increasingly restricted to a certain group of patricians in the late 15th century, rupturing the connection between public good and private wealth.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Stöckly, Doris. Le système de l’Incanto des galées du marché à Venise (fin XIIIe–milieu XVe siècle). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1995.
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  395. Examines the development of the medieval system of navigation in which state-owned galleys were auctioned to private patrician investors for the duration of a single voyage. Studies the beginnings of the eight state shipping routes, patricians’ patterns of participation, and the emergence of a merchant oligarchy.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Shipping and Seafaring
  398.  
  399. Scholars have pursued a multiplicity of approaches to the broad field of shipping and seafaring. Lane 1966 and Hocquet 2006 are both helpful introductions to the organization and outfitting of the Venetian fleet and what life at sea was like in the medieval period. Tucci 1981 offers a collective portrait of merchants as well as more technical studies on maritime insurance and financing galley voyages. Long, et al. 2009 is a three-volume study that recovers a single sailor’s perspective on seafaring; while the technical matter in the manuscript can be difficult to interpret, the essays do a marvelous job of helping the reader understand its significance. Tenenti 1992 also recovers the experience of seafaring from a single perspective, in this case a Venetian commander bent on adapting the Venetian fleet to changing 16th-century conditions. Tenenti 1967 and Schmitt 2008 both look at the intersection of state policies and nonstate actors’ attempts to evade those same policies.
  400.  
  401. Hocquet, Jean-Claude. Venise et la mer XII–XVIIIe siècle. Paris: Fayard, 2006.
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  403. Brings together eleven studies, the majority previously published, from one of the most important historians of Mediterranean commercial life. Covers the merchant economy of the 14th century, ports, ships, and sailors, and the intersection of maritime commerce and public finance.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Lane, Frederic C. Venice and History: The Collected Papers of Frederick C. Lane. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1966.
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  407. Thirty-two papers in English, most previously published, covering a wide range of topics: business and finance, fleets and fairs, and ships and shipping. Extremely useful for understanding the detailed mechanisms of the maritime economic system.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Long, Pamela O., David McGee, and Alan M. Stahl, eds. The Book of Michael of Rhodes: A Fifteenth Century Maritime Manuscript. Transcription by Franco Rossi and translated by Alan M. Stahl. 3 vols. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009.
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  411. Michael was a sailor in the Venetian fleet and in 1434 began to compose a manuscript with the knowledge he had gained: commercial mathematics, astrology, tables of time reckoning, portolan (vellum navigational chart) texts, and a treatise on shipbuilding. Contains a facsimile, a complete transcription and translation, and nine essays on Michael’s world.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Schmitt, Oliver Jens. “Contrabannum: Der adriatisch-balkanische Schmuggel im ausgehenden Mittelalter.” Südost-Forschungen 67 (2008): 1–26.
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  415. Uses local archives in Venetian Korčula to illuminate the history of illegal cross-Adriatic trade, demonstrates the limits of Venice’s official policies redirecting Adriatic trade toward Venice, and connects economic trade policies with Venetian state building.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Tenenti, Alberto. Piracy and the Decline of Venice, 1580–1615. Translated by Janet Pullan and Brian Pullan. Oxford: Longmans, 1967.
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  419. Confronts Venice’s fading hegemony in Mediterranean trade, pointing to pirates from the eastern Adriatic and North Africa as well as new competition from the English, Maltese, and Spaniards. Examines piracy’s impact on the organization of the Venetian navy and points to large-scale structural changes that led to Venetian decline. First published as Venezia e i corsari, 1580–1615 (Bari, Italy: Laterza, 1961).
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Tenenti, Alberto. Cristoforo da Canal: La Marine Vénitienne avant Lépante. Paris: SEVPEN, 1992.
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  423. First published in 1962. Uses the life and writings of Canal, Captain General of the Venetian fleet, to examine the changing conditions of maritime warfare and defense in the mid-16th century. Canal advocated using convicts to man the galleys rather than free oarsmen because they were more obedient.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Tucci, Ugo. Mercanti, navi, monete nel Cinquecento veneziano. Bologna, Italy: Il mulino, 1981.
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  427. Eight previously published studies in Italian on the psychology and attitudes of merchants, maritime insurance, and the cost and profit of outfitting a ship.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Trade and Commerce Overseas
  430.  
  431. Venice’s commercial engagement overseas has long been at the heart of scholarship on the maritime state. Hocquet 1978 looks within the maritime empire at the salt trade. Ashtor 1983, Arbel 1995, Brummett 1995, and Doumerc 1999 all examine Venetian commerce with the Islamic world, although they approach the subject with very different perspectives. Arbel moves outward from the perspective of individual Jewish merchants to examine changing patterns of Venetian-Ottoman commerce, while Doumerc and Brummett emphasize the political and diplomatic negotiations that secured Venetian merchants’ privileges and access to the markets of North Africa and Alexandria, respectively. Ashtor is a classic economic history, concerned with price fluctuations, monetary matters, and trade patterns.
  432.  
  433. Arbel, Benjamin. Trading Nations: Jews and Venetians in the Early-Modern Eastern Mediterranean. New York: Brill, 1995.
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  435. Based on extensive archival research, this study examines the growing importance of Jewish merchants in Mediterranean trade in the 16th century, using the experiences of individual Jewish merchants as a lens for the larger shifts in the relationship between Venice and the Ottoman Empire.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Ashtor, Eliyahu. Levant Trade in the Later Middle Ages. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Comprehensive treatment of the commercial system of the Eastern Mediterranean, with special attention to Venice and Egypt.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Brummett, Palmira. Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995.
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  443. Uses Venetian sources, especially the diaries of Marino Sanudo (b. 1466–d. 1536), to relate the story of early 16th-century diplomatic and political conflict between Venice and the Ottoman Empire over commercial issues and trade alliances. Useful guide to the disruptions in the spice trade between Venice and Egypt after the Portuguese circumnavigation of Africa.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Doumerc, Bernard. Venise et l’émirate hafside de Tunis (1231–1535). Paris: L’Harmattan, 1999.
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  447. This study looks at Venice’s political relationship with the Hafsid dynasty and the economic role of North Africa in Venetian shipping and commerce to relations with the Hafsid dynasty in North Africa. Extensive archival research demonstrates that Venice successfully competed against Genoese and Catalan contenders through the 15th century.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Hocquet, Jean Claude. Le sel et la fortune de Venise. 2 vols. Villeneuve-d’Ascq, France: Publications de l’Université de Lille III, 1978.
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  451. Argues that salt, often overlooked for more glamorous luxury trade, underpinned Venice’s system of maritime trade and public finance. Sees Venetian expansion in the Adriatic as an attempt to control sources of salt and its trade.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Merchants and Merchant Colonies
  454.  
  455. Unlike Florence, there are few extant account books from Venetian merchants, making the individuals associated with the few that do exist relatively famous. Luzzato 1943 is one of the earliest studies to reconstruct the trade interests of a Venetian patrician by using his correspondence. Lane 1967 is a classic study that highlights the career pattern within Venetian merchant families, as typified by Andrea Barbarigo, while Bertelè and Dorini 1956 and Bertelè 2002 demonstrate the widespread interests of a Venetian trading in Constantinople. Both Vallet 1999 and Tucci 1957 trace the activities of merchants resident in Syria, allowing for a comparison of changing conditions in the region. Mueller 2003 emphasizes the intertwined political and economic interests of the Giustianian family in Corfu. Christ 2012 also reconstructs the political and economic career of an individual, Biagio Dolfin, but places him in a larger network of political and economic actors and emphasizes the complicated nature of cross-cultural trade.
  456.  
  457. Bertelè, Giovanni, ed. Il Libro dei Conti di Giacomo Badoer (Costantinopoli 1436–1440): Complemento e indici. Padua, Italy: Esedra, 2002.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Analytic indexes and explanatory material for Bertelè and Dorini 1956.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Bertelè, Tommaso, and Umberto Dorini, eds. I Libri dei Conti di Giacomo Badoer (Costantinopoli 1436–1440). Rome: Istituto poligrafico dello Stato, Libreria dello Stato, 1956.
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  463. Giacomo Badoer was a Venetian merchant resident in Constantinople in the mid-15th century, and his account book, reproduced here in a near-facsimile edition, is one of the first completely preserved examples to use double-entry bookkeeping and Arabic numerals. Indexes and explanatory material published separately in Bertelè 2002.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Christ, Georg. Trading Conflicts: Venetian Merchants and Mamluk Officials in Late Medieval Alexandria. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
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  467. In-depth study of the Venetian merchant community in Alexandria, based on the papers of the merchant and consul Biago Dolfin but augmented with other Venetian and Arabic sources. A thoughtful analysis of the realities of cross-cultural interaction, commercial practice, and diplomatic negotiation; contains editions of four letters from Dolfin’s papers.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Lane, Frederic C. Andrea Barbarigo: Merchant of Venice; 1418–1449. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967.
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  471. First published in 1944 and reprinted several times, this is a classic study of a Venetian patrician’s career as a commercial agent overseas and then as a sedentary investor in Venice.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Luzzato, Gino. “L’attività commerciale di un patrizio veneziano del Quattrocento.” Rivista di Storia Economica 8 (1943): 1–22.
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  475. Under the pseudonym G. Padovan; reprinted in Studi di Storia Economica Veneziana (Gino Luzzatto, ed. Padua, Italy: CEDAM, 1954), pp. 167–193. Uses the Venetian patrician Guglielmo Querini’s commercial correspondence to reconstruct his 15th-century business interests, which spanned the Mediterranean.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Mueller, Reinhold C. “A Venetian Commercial Enterprise in Corfu, 1440–42.” In Money and Markets in the Palaeologan Era. Edited by N. G. Moschonas, 81–94. Athens, Greece: Institute for Byzantine Research, 2003.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Uses the account book of Zaccaria Giustinian, representative of the Giustinian commercial company on Corfu, to illuminate commercial life on Corfu, particularly the role of barter and the significant role of Jewish merchants in the economy.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Tucci, Ugo, ed. Lettres d’un marchand venitien Andrea Berengo (1553–1556). Paris: SEVPEN, 1957.
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  483. Andrea Berengo was a Venetian merchant resident in Aleppo in the mid-16th century, and his letters reveal his trading interests in Syria, Cyprus, and the eastern Mediterranean. Text in Italian; preface and notes in French.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Vallet, Eric. Marchands vénitiens en Syrie à la fin du XVe siècle: Pour l’honneur et le profit. Paris: Association pour le développement de l’histoire économique, 1999.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Study of the mechanisms and practices of trade in Syria through the correspondence of two Venetian merchants, Zuan Alvise Morosini and Ambrosio Malipiero, both resident between 1481 through 1487 and 1489 through 1491. Includes appendixes with ship arrivals, prices and products, and a list of other Venetians in Syria.
  488. Find this resource:
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