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Works on the Ancient Celts

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  1. Misc.
  2. -J. Hall, Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity (1997).
  3. UNANNOTATED WORKS
  4. -A. King, Roman Gaul and Germany (1990), 42ff.
  5. -A. Ross, Pagan Celtic Britain (1967).
  6. -N. Glazer and P. Moynihan (eds.), Ethnicity (1975).
  7. -Branigan, K. 2005. From Clan to Clearance. Oxford: Oxbow. Brunaux,
  8. -J. L. 1988. The Celtic Gauls. London: Seaby.
  9. -Carr-Gomm, P. 1993. The Druid Way. Shaftesbury: Element
  10. -Castleden, R.1987. The Stonehenge People. London and New York: Routledge.
  11. ———1993. The Making of Stonehenge. London and New York: Routledge.
  12. ———1996. The Cerne Giant. Wincanton: Dorset Publishing Company.
  13. ———2000. King Arthur: The truth behind the legend. London and New York: Routledge.
  14. ———Ancient British Hill Figures. Seaford: S. B. Publications.
  15. -Chapman, M. 1992. The Celts: The construction of a myth. London: St Martin’s Press.
  16. -Collis, J. 2003. The Celts: Origins, myths, inventions. Stroud: Tempus.
  17. ———The European Iron Age (1984).
  18. -Cunliffe, B. 1999. The Ancient Celts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  19. ———2001. The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek. London: Penguin Books.
  20. ———2001. Facing the Ocean: The Atlantic and its people. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  21. -Davies, J. 2000. The Celts. London: Cassell.
  22. -Green, M. 1986. The Gods of the Celts. Gloucester: Alan Sutton.
  23. ———1989. Symbol and Image in Celtic Religious Art. London: Routledge.
  24. ———1992. Animals in Celtic Life and Myth. London and New York: Routledge.
  25. ———1997. Exploring the World of the Druids. London: Thames & Hudson.
  26. -Green, M. A. 2001. Dying for the Gods: Human Sacrifice in Iron Age & Roman Europe. Stroud: Tempus.
  27. -Harding, D. A. 2007. The Archaeology of Celtic Art. Abingdon: Routledge.
  28. -Harding, D. W. 1974. The Iron Age in Lowland Britain. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
  29. -James, S. 1999. The Atlantic Celts: Ancient people or modern invention? London: British Museum Press.
  30. -Konstam, A., and Bull. P. 2006. The Forts of Celtic Britain. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
  31. -Laing, L. 1979. Celtic Britain. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  32. -Loomis, R. S. 1993. Celtic Myth and Arthurian Romance. London: Constable.
  33. -MacCana, P. 1970. Celtic Mythology. London: Hamlyn.
  34. -Miles, D. 2005. The Tribes of Britain. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
  35. -Miles, D., Palmer, S., Lock, G., Gosden, C., and Cromarty, A. 2003. Uffington White Horse and its Landscape. Oxford Archaeology Monograph No. 18.
  36. -A. Momigliano, Alien Wisdom (1975), ch. 3.
  37. -Morse, M. A. 2005. How the Celts came to Britain: Druids, skulls and the birth of archaeology. Stroud: Tempus.
  38. -Newman, P. 1997. Lost Gods of Albion: The chalk hill-figures of Britain. Stroud: Sutton Publishing
  39. -Piggott, S. 1974. The Druids. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
  40. -Potter, T. W. and Johns, C. 1992. Roman Britain. London: British Museum Press.
  41. -Powell, T. G. E. The Celts (1958).
  42. -Pryor, F. 2004. Britain BC: Life in Britain and Ireland before the Romans. London: HarperCollins
  43. ———2004. Britain AD: A quest for Arthur, England and the Anglo-Saxons. London: HarperCollins.
  44. -Raftery, B. 1994. Pagan Celtic Ireland. London: Thames & Hudson.
  45. -Ross, A. 1970. The Pagan Celts. London: Batsford.
  46. -Rankin, H. D. Celts and the Classical World (1987).
  47. ———1992. Pagan Celtic Britain. London: Constable.
  48. ———and Robins, D. 1989. The Life and Death of a Druid Prince. London: Guild Publishing. Salway. P. 1981. Roman Britain. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  49. -Sharkey, J. 1975. Celtic Mysteries. London: Book Club Associates.
  50. -Spence, L. 1920. An Encyclopaedia of Occultism. London: Routledge.
  51. ———1949. The Magic Arts in Celtic Britain. London: Constable.
  52. -Tanner, M. 2004. The Last of the Celts. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.
  53. -Waddington, C. 2011. Massacre at Fin Cop. Current Archaeology 255, 20–27.
  54. -Webster, G. 1986. The British Celts and their Gods under Rome. London: Batsford.
  55. -Woodward , A . 1992. Shrines and Sacrifice . London: Batsford/ English Heritage.
  56. GALATIANS: GAULS IN THE HELLENISTIC WORLD
  57. Gabbert, Janice J. 1997. Antigonus II Gonatas: A political biography. London: Routledge. Up-to-date reconstruction of the policy of one of the protagonists of this period.
  58. Nachtergael, Georges. 1977. Les Galates en Grèce et les Sotéria de Delphes: Recherches d'histoire et d'épigraphie hellénistique. Brussels: Palais des Académies. Excellent study of the impact of the Galatian invasion of the early 3rd century BCE and its exploitation by Antigonos Gonatas and the Aetolian League, based on inscriptions.
  59. Scholten, Joseph B. 2000. The politics of plunder: Aetolians and their Koinon in the early Hellenistic era, 279–217 B.C. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Reliable reconstruction of the political impact of the Aetolian League on Hellenistic history.
  60. ST. PAUL’S EPISTLE TO THE GALATIANS
  61. Elliott, Susan M. Cutting Too Close for Comfort: Paul’s Letter to the Galatians in Its Anatolian Cultic Context. Library of New Testament Studies 248. London and New York: T&T Clark, 2003. Highlighting the Galatians addressed as Celts/Gauls, Elliott focuses on the Anatolian religious culture and its norms rather than a Jewish context per se, especially the cult of the Mother Goddess and the mutilation it involved, bringing a new perspective to topics that arise in the letter like slavery and circumcision, and thus why Paul opposed them as threatening to return them to their pre-Christian condition
  62. Howard, George. Paul: Crisis in Galatia: A Study in Early Christian Theology. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Revised from the original 1979 edition, and often focuses on theology in keeping with prevailing norms of the time. Howard grapples with how the situation in Galatia should be constructed to make sense of Paul’s arguments, which are specifically targeted to address the inclusion of Gentiles, and not to explain how Christ-believing Jews were to behave. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511470448
  63. Kahl, Brigitte. Galatians Re-Imagined: Readings with the Eyes of the Vanquished. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2009. Kahl, Brigitte. Galatians Re-Imagined: Reading with the Eyes of the Vanquished. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2010. Paul’s “justification by faith” argument is not opposed to a legalistic Judaism, as much previous scholarship has contended, but, rather, to legalistic imperial monotheism. Provides new insights about the Romans’ perception of the inhabitants of Galatia, social relationships between Greeks and Judeans in Galatia, and Galatian material culture.
  64. Nanos, Mark D., ed. The Galatians Debate: Contemporary Issues in Rhetorical and Historical Interpretation. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2002a. Essays in the “The Galatian Situation(s)” section include Harvey, “The Opposition to Paul”; Jewett, “The Agitators and the Galatian Congregation”; Martyn, “A Law-Observant Mission to Gentiles: The Background of Galatians”; Walter, “Paul and the Opponents of the Christ-Gospel in Galatia”; Barclay, “Mirror-Reading a Polemical Letter: Galatians as a Test Case”; Lategan, “The Argumentative Situation of Galatians”; Nanos, “The Inter- and Intra-Jewish Political Context of Paul’s Letter to the Galatians”; Mitternacht, “Foolish Galatians?—A Recipient-Oriented Assessment of Paul’s Letter.”
  65. Scott, James M. Paul and the Nations: The Old Testament and Jewish Background of Paul’s Mission to the Nations with Special Reference to the Destination of Galatians. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 84. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1995. A new approach to the discussion of the provenance of the letter’s recipients, which revolves around the question whether the Galatians were in the Northern ethnic territory of the Celtic tribes or the southern part of the Roman province, which includes the cities such as Antioch, Iconium, and Lystra. Scott proposes they are in the south, based on the theory that Paul worked from the Jewish notion of the Table of the Nations (Genesis 10) to fashion his itineraries and for the identification of his recipients as Galatians.
  66. Mitchell, Stephen. Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1993. Mitchell’s discussion of “The Imperial Cult” (1.100–117) is insightful, noting imperial temples in three excavated cities in central Anatolia: Ancyra, Pessinus, and Pisidian Antioch. He argues that in addition to advancing imperial claims and symbolizing the relationship of ruler and ruled, the cult made a significant contribution to the material conditions and behaviors of provincial life.
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  69. GENERAL AND REFERENCE WORKS/ ALSO ON CELTICISM
  70. Brown, Terence, ed. Celticism. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996. An interdisciplinary collection of essays that is of particular value in the attention given to James MacPherson’s Ossian in the context of Celtic discourse in 18th-century Europe. It includes important essays by historians, linguists, and literary critics concerning Celticism in French Enlightenment contexts, Scottish Celticism, and Celticism in relation to both nationalism and colonialism.
  71. Chadwick, Nora. The Celts. 2d ed. London: Penguin, 1997. Drawing upon her extensive knowledge of archaeological and linguistic studies of the origins of Celtic civilization in Ireland, Britain, and Brittany, Chadwick has written a very useful introduction to the religious, artistic, and literary features of Celtic culture in its earliest phase. It is a work also alert to the myths about Celtic peoples that emerges strongly in 18th-century Europe.
  72. Collis, John. The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions. Stroud, UK: Tempus, 2003. Coming from the field of archaeology, Collis contrasts the evidence for Celtic civilization in Britain and Ireland against the ideas of the Celts that emerged in the 16th and later centuries. The work offers an important appraisal of myths and historical evidence for Celtic civilization.
  73. Cunliffe, Barry W. The Ancient Celts. London: Penguin, 1999. The most exhaustive account in a single work of pre-Christian Celtic civilization and settlements throughout Europe from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic fringe. Examining patterns of migration, the work is rich in illustrations of major Celtic settlements and artifacts from across Europe. It identifies important distinctions between tribes considered to be the original Celts and those tribes that were later “Celticized.”
  74. Green, Miranda. Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997. A comprehensive source-reference work, containing entries on all aspects of Celtic religion, mythology, and legend covering the period 500 BCE to 400 CE.
  75. Hale, Amy, and Philip Payton, eds. New Directions in Celtic Studies. Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 2000. An engaging collection of scholarly essays that offers a fresh interdisciplinary approach to the study of Celticism. The volume includes important essays on the commercial representations of Celticism in popular music and film, a comparative study of Celtic culture and tourism in the West of Ireland and in Brittany, and a consideration of the reinvention of Australia as Celtic.
  76. Koch, John T., ed. Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006. This is the largest source-reference work for Celtic Studies, containing 1,500 entries by leading scholars of Celticism from across a range of disciplines covering all aspects of Celtic civilization, historically and geographically.
  77. Maier, Bernhard. The Celts: A History from Ancient Times to the Present. Translated by Kevin Windle. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2003. A highly engaging survey of Celtic civilization that draws on archaeological, historical, literary, and linguistic evidence. It is organized effectively into three sections: ancient Celtic civilization on the European continent (Germany, Iberia, Italy, Asia Minor); the period from the end of the Roman Empire to the late Middle Ages; the gradual assimilation of Celtic into the national cultures of Britain, France, and Ireland. DOI: 10.3366/edinburgh/9780748616053.001.0001
  78. O’Hógáin, Dáithí. The Celts: A History. Cork, Ireland: Collins, 2002. A work of impressive breadth and scholarship concerning the history of Celtic civilization in Europe from 2,500 BCE to the Middle Ages that is particularly useful for its engagement and appraisal of classical Roman sources concerning Celtic civilization, along with comparative linguistic and archaeological studies of modern times.
  79. Wood, Juliette. “Folklore Studies at the Celtic Dawn: The Rôle of Alfred Nutt as Publisher and Scholar.” Folklore 110 (1999): 3–12. A rare examination of a figure whose ethnological writings—along with those of Andrew Lang, James Frazer, and Max Müller—exerted significant influence on the Celtic Revival at the end of the 19th century. DOI: 10.1080/0015587X.1999.9715976
  80. Berresford Ellis, Peter. Celtic Dawn: The Dream of Celtic Unity. Rev. ed. Talybont, Wales: Y Lolfa, 2002. Originally published in 1993. This is an invaluable and sympathetic appraisal of the Pan-Celtic movement in the 20th century, addressing cultural and political questions dealing with Celtic languages and identities in Galicia, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, Brittany, and Cornwall.
  81. Hughes, J. B. “The Pan-Celtic Society, 1888–1891.” The Irish Monthly 81.953 (January 1953): 15–20. In this close analysis of this society that later merged into the Irish Literary Society, Hughes considers the figures involved and the influence of earlier ideas of the Young Ireland movement.
  82. Koch, John T., and Antone Minard, eds. The Celts: History, Life, and Culture. Vol. 1, A–H. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2012. An excellent reference work, this volume contains copious references to Celtic writers, stories, and legends, in addition to entries on the Pan-Celtic movement in Ireland, Scotland Wales, Cornwall, Brittany, and the Isle of Man.
  83. MacMullen, Ramsey. “The Celtic Renaissance.” Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 14.1 (1965): 93–104. An important archaeological account of the revival of Celtic art and design in the later 2nd and in the 3rd centuries CE that predate the Roman conquest of western Europe. The essay is especially important to the field of Celtic studies in noting the influences—as well as the differences—among Celtic, Greek, and Scythian styles during this period.
  84. O’Leary, Philip. “‘Children of the Same Mother’: Gaelic Relations with other Celtic Revival Movements, 1882–1916.” Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium 6 (1986): 101–130. Close consideration of how the movements to revive the Welsh and Scottish languages influenced the work to revive the Irish language from the 1880s, particularly that of the Gaelic League.
  85. Durkacz, Victor Edward. The Decline of the Celtic Languages: A Study of Linguistic and Cultural Conflict in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland from the Reformation to the Twentieth Century. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1983. Focusing mainly on Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh, the author portrays a group of languages whose use has generally declined since the 16th century, though their history has also seen a series of revivals.
  86. Stover, Justin D. “Modern Celtic Nationalism in the Period of the Great War: Establishing Transnational Connections.” Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium 32 (2012): 286–301. Considers the fate of Pan-Celtic movements during the First World War. Notes how the Celtic Literary Society, the Pan-Celtic Congress, and the Celtic Association tried to develop international relations for the various cultural nationalist organizations within Ireland, Britain, and Brittany in the years before the outbreak of the First World War and how the war affected their activities and outlooks.
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  95. Fishwick, Duncan. 1978. The development of provincial ruler worship in the western Roman Empire. Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischer Welt 2.16.2: 1201–1253. An examination of the imperial cult in the western provinces of the Roman Empire, by the greatest authority on the subject.
  96. Webster, J. 2001. Creolizing the Roman provinces. American Journal of Archaeology 105.2: 209–225. Discussion of the use of the term “Romanization,” as well as an analysis of the blending of Roman and local Celtic cultures. DOI: 10.2307/507271
  97. Elton, Hugh. 1996. Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350–425. Oxford: Clarendon.An account of relationships between Rome and “barbarians” in Germanic areas and in Britain, focusing on the organization of the late Roman army, with a section on fortifications.
  98. Woolf, G. 1998. Becoming Roman: The origins of provincial civilization in Gaul. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Critiquing the concept of “Romanization,” Woolf demonstrates the nuances and intricacies of the forging of a (mostly elite) hybrid Roman/native culture in provincial Gaul during the Early Principate.DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511518614
  99. Mattingly, D. J., ed. 1997. Dialogues in Roman imperialism: Power, discourse, and discrepant experience in the Roman Empire. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 23. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. Collection of essays with an emphasis on Gaul and Britain. Many, though not all, challenge the continued usefulness of “Romanization” as a conceptual tool.
  100. Dyson, S. L. 1985. The creation of the Roman frontier. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. Employs archaeological evidence in order to reconstruct the Roman frontier in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, and Corsica.
  101. Chadwick, Nora K. 1955. Poetry and letters in early Christian Gaul. London: Bowes and Bowes. Literary essays by an expert on Gallic culture. Chapter 2, on Ausonius, covers a wide area in a small compass, including comments on the Druids that Ausonius mentions.
  102. Frakes, James F. D. 2009. Framing public life: The portico in Roman Gaul. Vienna: Phoibos. Interesting study of porticoes and fora from a phenomenological perspective, focusing on porticoed spaces as a vital part of acculturation by structuring society. Extensive catalogue.
  103. Fauduet, Isabelle. 1993. Les Temples de tradition celtique en Gaule romaine. Paris: Editions Errance. Demonstrates that there is no clear relationship between architectural form and specific Roman-Celtic cults, but that differences rather depend on region and urbanistic context.
  104. Bessac, Jean-Claude. 1988. Influences de la conquête romaine sur le travail de la pietre en Gaule Mediterranéene. Journal of Roman Archaeology 1:57–72. Examines the evidence for changes in the use of stone construction in southern Gaul following the Roman conquest, and asks stimulating questions on the process of change and transmission of techniques in what was essentially a Hellenistic Greek tradition adopted by Roman builders.
  105. Webster, J. 1996. Ethnographic barbarity: Colonial discourse and ‘Celtic warrior societies.’ In Roman imperialism: Post-colonial perspectives: Proceedings of a symposium held at Leicester University in November 1984. Edited by Jane Webster and Nicholas Cooper, 111–123. Leicester Archaeology Monographs 3. Leicester, UK: School of Archaeological Studies, Univ. of Leicester. Webster provides a postmodern archaeologically informed perspective on Roman imperial ethnography of the barbarian.
  106. Adler, Eric. 2011. Valorizing the barbarians: Enemy speeches in Roman historiography. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press. Adler uses a nuanced historiographic parsing of enemy speeches in the Roman historians to show how they could use a foreign voice to criticize empire and imperialism.
  107. Barlow, Jonathan. 1998. Noble Gauls and their other in Caesar’s propaganda. In Julius Caesar as artful reporter: The war commentaries as political instruments. Edited by Kathryn Welch and Anton Powell, 139–170. London: Duckworth. Barlow shows through close verbal analysis how Caesar uses two different characterizations in order to display pro-Roman Gauls as respected nobles and anti-Roman Gauls as barbaric outsiders.
  108. Erickson, Brice. 2002. Falling masts, rising masters: The ethnography of virtue in Caesar’s account of the Veneti. American Journal of Philology 123.4: 601–622. Erickson argues that Caesar’s naval ethnography of the Veneti (Gallic Wars 3.8–15), which has previously been dismissed as an awkward insertion, presages the cultural superiority and virtue of the Romans that secures their victory in the end. DOI: 10.1353/ajp.2003.0004
  109. Krebs, Christopher B. 2006. Imaginary geography in Caesar’s Bellum Gallicum. American Journal of Philology 127.1: 111–136. As Clarke 2001 and Sundwall 1996 before him, Krebs examines imagined or mental geography and argues that Caesar’s rhetoric and allusions to prior geographic narratives make his Germany into an infinite no-man’s-land at the edge of the world; thus Caesar is made to play the role of Alexander the Great and other world conquerors at the ends of the earth. DOI: 10.1353/ajp.2006.0015
  110. Sundwall, Gavin. 1996. Ammianus geographicus. American Journal of Philology 117.4: 619–643. Sundwall convincingly argues first that the Romans generally did not have a modern “map consciousness” but rather thought of geography through words; he presents Julius Caesar’s famous introduction to De Bello Gallico as representative and then shows how Ammianus’s geographic digressions provide “mental maps” that situate the narrative so as to guide his reader through in an orderly fashion. DOI: 10.1353/ajp.1996.0059
  111. Hunter, Fraser. 2015. Interpreting Celtic art on the Roman frontier: The development of a frontier culture in Britain? In Limes XXII: Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Ruse, Bulgaria, September 2012. Edited by Lyudmil Vagalinski and Nicolay Sharankov, 721–728. Sofia: National Archaeological Institute with Museum of the Bulgarian Academy of Science. Innovative article on how a composite form of decorated metalwork may have spanned military and civilian communities in the frontier regions of Britannia.
  112. Carroll, Maureen. 2001. Romans, Celts and Germans: The German provinces of Rome. Stroud, UK: Tempus. An account of Roman Germany with a chapter on conquest and the frontiers and also accounts of native communities and their responses to Roman conquest and incorporation.
  113. Birley, Anthony R. 2002. The Roman army in the Vindolanda tablets. In Limes XVIII: proceedings of the XVIIIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, held in Amman, September 2000. 2 vols. Edited by Philip Freeman, Julian Bennett, Zbigniew T. Fiema, and Birgitta Hoffmann, 925–930. Oxford: Archaeopress. A summary of the information provided by the important discovery of writing tablets at the Roman fort of Vindolanda (Northumberland).
  114. Cahill Wilson, Jacqueline, ed. 2014. Romans and Roman material in Ireland: A wider social perspective. In Late Iron Age and “Roman” Ireland. By Jacqueline Cahill Wilson, 11–58. Discovery Programme Report 8. Dublin: Wordwell. A thorough survey of Roman contact with and Roman materials from Ireland, resulting from a major project run by The Discover Programme in Dublin.
  115. Hingley, Richard. 2010. Tales of the frontier: Diasporas on Hadrian’s Wall. In Roman diasporas: Archaeological approaches to mobility and diversity in the Roman empire. Edited by Hella Eckardt, 227–234. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series No. 78. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. An account of the far-flung origins of the Roman communities living along Hadrian’s Wall and the consequences for the marketing of the World Heritage Site.
  116. Breeze, David J. 2009. Edge of empire: The Antonine Wall. Edinburgh: Birlinn. A well-illustrated introduction to the wall and its surviving remains.
  117. Breeze, David J. 2009. The frontiers of the Roman Empire: The Antonine Wall. Edinburgh: Historic Scotland. A succinct account of the wall arising from the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site initiative in English and German.
  118. Bidwell, Paul, ed. 2008. Understanding Hadrian’s Wall: Papers from a conference held at South Shields, 3rd–5th November 2006. Kendal, UK: Arbeia Society. A collection of papers containing studies of the function of the wall, supplies along the frontier, and the contemporary value of the monument.
  119. Breeze, David J. 2006. J. Collingwood Bruce’s handbook to the Roman Wall 14th edition. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK: Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne. The latest edition of the long-running handbook, with accounts of all the archaeological remains and a summary of the history and context of the wall.
  120. Breeze, David J. 2011. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: Hadrian’s Wall. Hexham, UK: Hadrian’s Wall Trust. A succinct account of the wall arising from the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site initiative in English, German, and French.
  121. Breeze, David, and Brian Dobson. 2000. Hadrian’s Wall. 3d ed. London: Penguin. A handy and influential account that will warrant a further reprint.
  122. Collin, Rob, and Matthew Symonds, eds. 2013. Breaking down boundaries: Hadrian’s Wall in the 21st century. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 93. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. An edited volume of papers that addresses new approaches to Hadrian’s Wall, aiming to challenge previous preconceptions of the monument and its landscape.
  123. Perring, Dominic. 2002. The Roman house in Britain. London and New York: Routledge. Based on a useful compendium of Romano-British town houses and villas, argues the somewhat controversial view that the inclusion of elements from the Roman Mediterranean represents the full-scale adoption of Roman cultural and social practices as well.
  124. Woolf, Greg. 2011. Tales of the barbarians: Ethnography and empire in the Roman west. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. This recent monograph examines ethnographic writing about outsiders in history and other genres of the Roman imperial world; Woolf does a great job collecting pertinent Greek and Latin passages in English translation and situates his discussion in modern anthropological theory. DOI: 10.1002/9781444390810
  125. Welch, Kathryn, and Anton Powell, eds. 1998. Julius Caesar as artful reporter: The war commentaries as political instruments. London: Duckworth. This collection of papers succeeds at showing how artfully Caesar composed his historical works in order to make them say what he wanted others to hear, even though his commentaries are not lengthy rhetorical histories.
  126. Vasaly, Ann. 2009. Characterization and complexity: Caesar, Sallust, and Livy. In The Cambridge companion to the Roman historians. Edited by Andrew Feldherr, 245–260. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Vasaly deals generally with the tendency of ancient historiography to concentrate on great individuals and specifically explores examples in three major Roman historians; she makes it clear that the characterizations were meant to have didactic moral importance. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL9780521854535
  127. Hunter, Fraser. 2002. Problems in the study of Roman and native. In Limes XVIII: Proceedings of the XVIIIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, held in Amman, September 2000. 2 vols. Edited by Philip Freeman, Julian Bennett, Zbigniew T. Fiema, and Birgitta Hoffmann, 43–50. Oxford: Archaeopress. Addresses the impact of Rome beyond its northern frontiers by addressing imported materials, with a particular focus on Scotland and Ireland.
  128. Salinas de Frías, Manuel. 1996. Conquista y romanización de Celtiberia. Acta Salmanticensia, Estudios Históricos y Geográficos 50. Salamanca, Spain: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. Investigation of the literary sources for the Roman conquest of Celtiberia, followed by a study of the effects of the Roman conquest on the material culture, urbanization, religious belief, and economy of the region through the 3rd century CE.
  129. Curchin, Leonard A. 1991. Roman Spain: Conquest and assimilation. London and New York: Routledge. Curchin explores the history of the Roman conquest of Spain in the first part of this book, followed by a discussion of the increased urbanization and cultural and economic changes that followed in the reign of Augustus and later.
  130. Richardson, J. S. 1996. The Romans in Spain. History of Spain. Oxford: Blackwell. Readable basic history in English of the Roman encounter with Spain, from the years before the Second Punic War to 409 CE. Notes point the reader to the most-important ancient sources on the Iberian Peninsula.
  131. Alarcão, Jorge de. 1988. Roman Portugal. 4 vols. Warminster, UK: Aris & Phillips. A thorough treatment of the Romans in Portugal; the first volume contains an overview of the Roman presence, while Vols. 2–4 provide a detailed gazetteer and bibliography of Roman archaeological sites, with many useful maps and plans. Still useful despite its age.
  132. Keay, Simon J. 1988. Roman Spain. Exploring the Roman World. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Although now rather dated, this is still the only good overview of the society and material culture of Roman Spain, with many maps and plans and end-of-chapter guides to further reading.
  133. Caballos Rufino, Antonio, and Sabine Lefebvre, eds. 2011. Roma generadora de identidades: La experiencia hispana. Papers presented at a conference held in May 2008 in Seville, Spain. Collection de la Casa de Velázquez 123. Madrid: Casa de Velázquez. Collection of papers dealing with provincial identities in the Roman Republic and Empire, with a focus on Hispania. Useful as a guide to current Spanish thinking on the topics of identity and ethnicity, and how these changed in the wake of the coming of Rome.
  134. Curchin, Leonard A. 2003. The Romanization of central Spain: Complexity, diversity, and change in a provincial hinterland. Routledge Classical Monographs. London and New York: Routledge. Curchin uses inscriptions as a primary source for examining the ways in which the Roman conquest altered indigenous society. Extensive discussion of onomastics, urban development, and elements of identity such as indigenous and Roman tribes.
  135. Keay, Simon J. 2001. Romanization and the Hispaniae. In Italy and the West: Comparative issues in Romanization. Edited by Simon Keay and Nicola Terrenato, 117–144. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Broad overview of Rome’s contact with Spain and the processes of cultural change and exploitation that resulted from the Roman conquest. The role of local elites in the development of a “Roman” culture in Spain is emphasized.
  136. Santos Yanguas, Juan, and Gonzalo Cruz Andreotti, eds. 2012. Romanización, fronteras y etnias en la Roma antigua: El caso hispano. Revisiones de Historia Antigua 7. Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain: Universidad del País Vasco. Twenty-five contributions covering the ways in which Romans and indigenous inhabitants in Spain interacted in the wake of the Roman conquest. Topics include colonies, the organization of territory, geography, clientela, religion, ethnicity, and law.
  137. Jiménez Díez, Alicia. 2008. Imagines hybridae: Una aproximación postcolonialista al estudio de las necrópolis de la Bética. Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueología 43. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. An examination of funerary practices in three cities in Baetica (now Andalusia): Córdoba, Baelo Claudia, and Castulo. Particularly strong for its theoretical grounding. Jiménez rejects traditional notions of “Romanization” in favor of a process of identity renegotiation through cultural hybridity.
  138. Abad Casal, Lorenzo, Simon Keay, and Sebastián F. Ramallo Asensio, eds. 2006. Early Roman towns in Hispania Tarraconensis. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. This volume is important for its presentation of work in urbanism in northern and eastern Spain, with a pair of articles on northwestern Spain. Particularly valuable for the extensive articles on important sites not often discussed in English publications, particularly Labitolosa in the Pyrenees and the Celtiberian sites of Segeda and Segobriga.
  139. Carreté, Josep-Maria, Simon Keay, and Martin Millet. 1995. A Roman provincial capital and its hinterland: The survey of the territory of Tarragona, Spain, 1985–1990. Ann Arbor, MI: Cushing-Malloy. One of the few comprehensive published archaeological surveys in Spain prior to 2000, this project focused on the region around Tarragona (ancient Tarraco). The survey covered the late Iron Age to the Late Empire, with a focus on the Republic and Early Empire. The results showed a close integration between the town and its rural hinterland at least until the later Roman Empire.
  140. Fear, Arthur T. 1996. Rome and Baetica: Urbanization in southern Spain c. 50 BC–AD 150. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford: Clarendon. Baetica possessed the greatest density of urban centers in all of Roman Spain, and Fear looks at the evidence for urbanism by combining textual and archaeological sources. He argues against the thesis that the urbanization of Baetica developed as a result of Roman initiative, instead contending that it was the product of social interactions within the largely indigenous local elites.
  141. Haley, Evan W. 2003. Baetica felix: People and prosperity in southern Spain from Caesar to Septimius Severus. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press. Analysis of Early Imperial Baetica from a socioeconomic viewpoint. Useful as a general history of Roman Baetica. Seeks to extend scholarly discussion beyond the major urban centers through an examination of rural communities.
  142. Keay, Simon, ed. 1998. The archaeology of early Roman Baetica. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. The papers in this volume form an excellent synthesis of our understanding of Baetica in the Early Imperial period at the end of the 20th century. Covers the development of urbanism, mints, the rural economy, and Baetica’s role in the larger Roman economy.
  143. Osland, Daniel. 2006. The early Roman cities of Lusitania. BAR International Series 1519. Oxford: Archaeopress. A synthetic discussion of urbanism in Lusitania to the start of the Flavian period. Useful for its catalogue of cities and their architectural remains, and for the comprehensive bibliography.
  144. Pérez Vilatela, Luciano. 2000. Lusitania: Historia y etnología. Publicaciones del Gabinete de Antigüedades, Bibliotheca Archaeologica Hispana 6. Madrid: Real Academia de Historia. Historical and linguistic study of the indigenous peoples of Lusitania. Discusses the major ancient literary sources and employs a study of personal names and toponyms to attempt to define the ethnic and political makeup of what would become Lusitania in the period prior to Augustus.
  145. Curchin, Leonard A. 2008. Los topónimos de la Galicia romana: Nuevo estudio. Cuadernos de Estudios Gallegos 55.121: 109–136. Study of Roman place names in Galicia by using literary and epigraphic sources. Curchin argues that the Roman conquest did not markedly affect local place names, since the majority continue to be derived from Celtic or non-Latin Indo-European languages. DOI: 10.3989/ceg.2008.v55.i121.41
  146. Tranoy, Alain. 1981. La Galice romaine: Recherches sur le nord-ouest de la Péninsule Ibérique dans l’Antiquité. Publications du Centre Pierre Paris 7. Paris: Diffusion de Boccard. A synthetic treatment of Roman Galicia, beginning with the pre-Roman inhabitants and extending through the creation of the Suevic Kingdom in the 5th century CE. Treatment focuses on literary and epigraphic sources. Many very useful maps.
  147. Mackie, Nicola. 1983. Local administration in Roman Spain, A.D. 14–212. BAR International Series 172. Oxford: Archaeopress. Originally a doctoral dissertation, the author uses epigraphy to examine the structure of local government, with a discussion of local elites, community organization, and citizenship. Issues of patronage and the construction and maintenance of public buildings are also treated.
  148. Richardson, J. S. 1983. The Tabula Contrebiensis: Roman law in Spain in the early first century B.C. Journal of Roman Studies 73:33–41. Important early publication and discussion of the unique bronze tablet found in 1979 near Zaragoza that details a water rights dispute between two local tribes. The analysis here is the starting point for all later discussion of the text. DOI: 10.2307/300071
  149. Keay, Simon J. 1988. Roman Spain. Exploring the Roman World. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Has a strong focus on the material culture of Spain and provides a good introduction to the material evidence relating to issues such as urbanism, infrastructure, villas, pottery production, mining, the army, and religion.
  150. Keay, Simon, John Creighton, and José Remesal Rodríguez. 2000. Celti (Peñaflor): The archaeology of a Hispano-Roman town in Baetica; Survey and excavations, 1987–1992. University of Southampton Department of Archaeology Monograph 2. Oxford: Oxbow. The archaeological work done at Celti in southern Spain is an excellent example of a multidisciplinary approach to urban studies. Survey, excavation, remote sensing, faunal and pollen analysis, and pottery studies all are combined to paint a detailed picture of the life of Celti from its pre-Roman origins through Late Antiquity.
  151. Mierse, William E. 1999. Temples and towns in Roman Iberia: The social and architectural dynamics of sanctuary designs from the third century B.C. to the third century A.D. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Mierse situates the urban temple complex within its larger architectural frame, using examples from throughout the Iberian Peninsula. The chronological focus is the late Republic through the Flavian period, the time of greatest temple construction. Mierse argues for the role of the temple as an expression of local identity within a larger Roman cultural milieu.
  152. Revell, Louise. 2009. Roman imperialism and local identities. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  153. A comparative study of urban development in Roman Britain and Spain, through a series of case studies looking at the construction of public buildings in these centers during the 1st through 3rd centuries CE. Revell looks both to common patterns and local variation as expressions of different ways of “being Roman” within the empire.
  154. Harris, W. V. 2006. War and imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 BC. Oxford: Clarendon. The most influential metrocentric interpretation over the last generation of the nature of Roman Republican imperialism. Originally published in 1979.
  155. Woolf, G. 1998. Becoming Roman: The origins of provincial civilization in Gaul. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Critiquing the concept of “Romanization,” Woolf demonstrates the nuances and intricacies of the forging of a (mostly elite) hybrid Roman/native culture in provincial Gaul during the Early Principate. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511518614
  156. Chadwick, Nora K. 1955. Poetry and letters in early Christian Gaul. London: Bowes and Bowes. Literary essays by an expert on Gallic culture. Chapter 2, on Ausonius, covers a wide area in a small compass, including comments on the Druids that Ausonius mentions.
  157. Riggsby, Andrew M. 2006. Caesar in Gaul and Rome: War in words. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press. Riggsby's recent book is a close literary analysis of Caesar as historian of the Gallic wars. Riggsby uses case studies of key topics (spatial representation, ethnography, concepts of virtus, technology, genre, and the just war), augmented by more synthetic discussions using evidence from other Roman and Greek texts, to treat the relationship of Gallic and Roman national identity as part of Caesar's self-presentation.
  158. Verboven, Koenraad. “Magistrates, Patrons and Benefactors of Collegia: Status Building and Romanisation in the Spanish, Gallic and German Provinces.” In Transforming Historical Landscapes in the Ancient Empires: Proceedings of the First Workshop, December 16–19 2007, Area of Research in Studies from Antiquity. Edited by Borja Antela-Bernárdez and Toni Ñaco del Hoyo, 159–167. British Archaeological Reports International Series 1986. Oxford: John and Erica Hedges, 2009. In Roman Gaul and Germany, the spread of associations (all adopting municipal patrons) had the effect of integrating local elites and businessmen into the Roman order. This did not occur as much in Spain, where associations were not as common.
  159. Futrell, Alison. 1997. Blood in the arena: The spectacle of Roman power. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press. Includes a chapter on amphitheaters in the western provinces (pp. 53–76). Questions the straightforward assumption that they attest particularly strong Romanization, pointing to the marked presence of amphitheaters in rural Gaul, and to the departure from the canonical type in Gallic amphitheaters, which are frequently mixed edifices combining theater and amphitheater.
  160. Mullen, Alex. 2013a. The language of the potteries: Communication in the production and trade of Gallo-Roman terra sigillata. In Seeing red: New economic and social perspectives on terra sigillata. Edited by Michael G. Fulford and Emma Durham, 97–110. London: Institute of Classical Studies. A discussion of the nature of the language mixture in the graffiti from La Graufesenque (see Marichal 1988), demonstrating that we may have to be more cautious than Adams 2003 (cited under General Overviews) about recovering individual bilingualism and may need to add Greek to the Latin and Gaulish in the mix.
  161. Mullen, Alex. 2013b. Southern Gaul and the Mediterranean: Multilingualism and multiple identities in the Iron Age and Roman periods. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. A new assessment of the linguistic and cultural interactions of Southern Gaul in the Iron Age and Roman periods combining sociolinguistic, historical, and archaeological material and approaches. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139105743
  162. Mullen, Alex. 2013a. The language of the potteries: Communication in the production and trade of Gallo-Roman terra sigillata. In Seeing red: New economic and social perspectives on terra sigillata. Edited by Michael G. Fulford and Emma Durham, 97–110. London: Institute of Classical Studies. A discussion of the nature of the language mixture in the graffiti from La Graufesenque (see Marichal 1988), demonstrating that we may have to be more cautious than Adams 2003 (cited under General Overviews) about recovering individual bilingualism and may need to add Greek to the Latin and Gaulish in the mix.
  163. Blom, Alderik H. 2009. Lingua gallica, lingua celtica: Gaulish, Gallo-Latin, or Gallo-Romance? Keltische Forschungen 4:7–54. A detailed discussion of the testimonia for, and meanings of, the adjectives gallica(na), celtica, and associated adverbs used to refer to language in Roman and medieval sources. Concludes that the terms cannot be uncritically translated as “Gaulish” and “Celtic” (and may mean Gallic Latin, Gallo-Romance, a specific style of speech, etc.) and a full account must include the precise context, genre, date, and provenance of the material in question.
  164. Evans, David Ellis. 1983. Language contact in pre-Roman and Roman Britain. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.29. Edited by Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase, 949–987. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. An excellent survey of what we know, and what we do not know, about linguistic contacts in pre-Roman and Roman Britain from a renowned Celticist.
  165. Gratwick, Adrian S. 1982. Latinitas Britannica: Was British Latin Archaic? In Latin and the vernacular languages in early medieval Britain. Edited by Nicholas P. Brooks, 1–79. Leicester, UK: Leicester Univ. Press. An at times shockingly vitriolic attack on Jackson 1953, but which makes important points and has informed subsequent research. Gratwick is correct in attacking Jackson’s construction of an archaic Latinitas Britannica, but not always for the right reasons.
  166. Jackson, Kenneth H. 1953. Language and history in Early Britain: A chronological survey of the Brittonic languages, first to twelfth century A.D. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. The most influential book on language in early Britain, still revered by Celticists (though questioned) and unfairly overlooked by Classicists. Classicists ignore this at their peril because, although it is now over sixty years old, it contains much information on late pre-Roman Iron Age and Roman Britain, and nothing has come close to replacing it.
  167. Simkin, Oliver. 2012. Language contact in the pre-Roman and Roman Iberian peninsula. In Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman worlds. Edited by Alex Mullen and Patrick James, 77–105. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. A very good English-language starting point to try to make sense of a complex scholarship written largely in Romance languages. Highlights what we can and cannot know about language contact in the Iberian peninsula. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139012775
  168. Beltrán Lloris, Francisco. 1999. Writing, language and society: Iberians, Celts and Romans in northeastern Spain in the second and first centuries BC. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 43:131–151. Clear discussion of the linguistic and epigraphic situation in northeastern Spain in the early phase of Roman involvement. DOI: 10.1111/j.2041-5370.1999.tb00482.x
  169. Luján, Eugenio R., and Juan Luis García Alonso, eds. 2011. A Greek man in the Iberian street: Papers in linguistics and epigraphy in honour of Javier de Hoz. Innsbruck, Austria: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität Innsbruck. Multiple papers dedicated to de Hoz, a specialist on Iberian languages, several of which pertain to our theme. See, especially, the chapter on Greek–Latin code-switching by de Hoz García-Bellido and the chapter on linguistic contact between Celtiberian and Latin by Gorrochategui.
  170. Creighton, John. 2006. Britannia: The creation of a Roman province. London: Routledge. Examines the variety of urban origins and expressions of elite power and, in some cases, continuity with the past, through the structure and foci of those towns and “Roman” building types. DOI: 10.4324/9780203412749
  171. Woolf, Greg. 1998. Becoming Roman: The origins of provincial civilization in Gaul. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Analyzes the evolution of early imperial Romano-Gallic civilization. The city, a product of the new political reality, was, like other features of “Roman” culture, used by aristocratic groups to strengthen their position within society but was not a veneer. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511518614
  172. Abad Casal, Lorenzo, Simon J. Keay, and Sebastián F. Ramallo Asensio, eds. 2006. Early Roman towns in Hispania Tarraconensis. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplement 62. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. Papers demonstrate both continuity and development in local cultures from the 1st century BCE into the 1st century CE. Urban environments show a mix of broad similarities alongside variation in the adoption of “Roman” ideas.
  173. Curchin, Leonard A. 2004. The Romanization of central Spain: Complexity, diversity and change in a provincial hinterland. London: Routledge. Problematizes the debates over “Romanization,” using the term as denoting a process of cultural exchange. Real cities appear from the early empire, although many pre-Roman settlements demonstrate continued occupation. Municipalization started with Augustus.
  174. Fear, Andrew T. 1996. Rome and Baetica: Urbanization in southern Spain c. 50 BC–AD 150. Oxford: Clarendon. Challenges the usual position that Baetica was heavily Romanized by the mid-1st century CE. Points to a mosaic of cultures in Roman Baetica.
  175. Keay, Simon J., ed. 1998. The archaeology of early Roman Baetica. Papers presented at a session titled “Roman Baetica: A Reappraisal,” held at the Roman Archaeological Conference, University of Reading, Spring 1995. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplement 29. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  176. Wacher, John S. 1995. The towns of Roman Britain. 2d ed. London: Batsford. Major work on the cities of Britain, dealing with the different city types. “Romanization” is used to describe urbanization and native reactions to Roman rule. Urbanization is a “top-down” phenomenon. First published in 1974.
  177. Revell, Louise. 2009. Roman imperialism and local identities. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Examines Roman identity through urban public architecture in Spain and Britain in the first half of the 2nd century CE. Includes a clear explanation of structuration theory and its application by archaeologists.
  178. Mattingly, David J. 2007. An imperial possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, 54 BC–AD 409. Penguin History of Britain 1. London: Penguin. Uses “identity” to understand cultural change. Towns were not an imposition on the Britons, but Mattingly emphasizes their practical role for Roman imperialism, particularly in early phases; urban development was generally slow and “declined” early.
  179. Millett, Martin. 1990. The Romanization of Britain: An essay in archaeological interpretation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Influential study of Britain and the mechanics of Romanization (conceived as a two-way process of acculturation). Romanization was driven by local elites emulating elements of Roman culture in order to bolster their social position; the wider population imitated these elites.
  180. Collingwood, Robin G. 1932. Roman Britain. Oxford: Clarendon. A reaction against the top-down view of Romanization in Haverfield 1913 and Mommsen 1854–1885. Roman culture in Britain is neither Roman nor Celtic, but Romano-British. Romano-British is a fusion of cultures, not the imposition of culture by the Romans. New revised edition published in 1994 (New York: Barnes & Noble).
  181. Hingley, Richard. 2005. Globalizing Roman culture: Unity, diversity and empire. London: Routledge. Examines concepts of Romanization and identity in the provinces and, in doing so, includes useful assessments of much work since the late 20th century on the subject. Argues against the idea that one coherent argument could explain all processes of acculturation across the empire.
  182. Fentress, Elizabeth, ed. 2000. Romanization and the city: Creation, transformations, and failures; Proceedings of a conference held at the American Academy in Rome to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the excavations at Cosa, 14–16 May 1998. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplement 38. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. Chapters examine cities from Britain to Syria and different elements of the life cycle of cities. Not just urbanization but also the idea of the city and “Romanization” as a concept is considered.
  183. Sivan, Hagith. 1993. Ausonius of Bordeaux: Genesis of a Gallic aristocracy. London: Routledge. Portrait of Ausonius, a Gallic aristocrat who became tutor of the future emperor Gratian.
  184. Van Dam, Raymond. 1985. Leadership and community in Late Antique Gaul. Berkeley: University of California Press. On the transformations of Gallic society between the 3rd and the 6th centuries.
  185. Koch, John T., ed. The Celtic Heroic Age: Literary Sources for Ancient Celtic Europe and Early Ireland and Wales. 2d ed. Translated by John Carey. Celtic Studies Publication Series. Malden, MA: Celtic Studies, 1995. Collection of text excerpts relating to the Continental Celts as well as Britain and Ireland from the 5th century BCE to the early Middle Ages.
  186. Snyder, Christopher A. The Britons. Peoples of Europe. Oxford: Blackwell, 2003. History of the Britons from the Iron Age to the late Middle Ages. Role of the Arthurian legends in the formation of Brittonic/Welsh identity is discussed. DOI: 10.1002/9780470758366
  187. Grant, Robert M. 1997. Irenaeus of Lyons. Early Fathers of the Church. London: Routledge. Introduction to the life and works of Irenaeus.
  188. McNeill, John T., and Helena Margaret Gamer. Medieval Handbooks of Penance: A Translation of the Principal Libri Poenitentiales and Selections from Related Documents. New York: Columbia University Press, 1938. Collection of translations of early medieval Irish and Germanic penitentials, showing interesting parallels between these catalogues of dues and penalties with the Celtic and Germanic secular laws.
  189. Dumville, David. Councils and Synods of the Gaelic Early and Central Middle Ages. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Celtic, 1997. Dumville’s brief book is a first-rate introduction to the subject.
  190. Haddan, Arthur W., and William Stubbs. Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland. Edited, after Spelman and Wilkins, by Arthur West Haddan and William Stubbs. 3 vols in 4. Rpt. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, 2007. Originally published 1869–1878 (Oxford: Clarendon). Haddan and Stubbs brought the editing of British conciliar texts into modern form. Their work going up to 870 formed the basis for the later work of Powicke and Cheney 1964 and Whitelock, et al. 1981.
  191. Carr, A. D. “Sir Lewis John: A Medieval London Welshman.” Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 22 (1967): 260–270. Gives a full account of Lewis John’s long and varied career. Also contains information about Thomas Chaucer.
  192. Gelling, Margaret. “Why Aren’t We Speaking Welsh?” Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History 6 (1993): 51–56. Uses the survival of British place names to challenge long-held ideas that linguistic arguments “prove” that native British people were put to the sword or driven out by the Anglo-Saxons.
  193. Reynolds, Susan. “What Do We Mean by ‘Anglo-Saxon’ and ‘Anglo-Saxons’?” Journal of British Studies 24.4 (1985): 395–414. A pioneering discussion of ethnicity and its limitations both in early medieval Britain and in the writing of the early history of England. Available online for purchase or subscription. DOI: 10.1086/385844
  194. Charles-Edwards, Thomas M. “The Making of Nations in Britain and Ireland in the Early Middle Ages.” In Lordship and Learning: Studies in Memory of Trevor Aston. Edited by Ralph Evans, 11–32. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2004. Thoughtful study of the relationship among politics, language, and power in the early Middle Ages, with especially interesting comparisons between the English and the Irish.
  195. Frazer, William O., and Andrew Tyrrell, eds. Social Identity in Early Medieval Britain. London: Leicester University Press, 2000. An uneven collection of essays, but a number that are well worth reading because they look at specific types of evidence from the period, with which they characterize the kinds of complex and multiple identities many people had in the early Middle Ages.
  196. Hines, John. “The Becoming of the English: Identity, Material Culture, and Language in Early Anglo-Saxon England.” Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History 7 (1994): 49–59. A carefully articulated argument about the ways Anglo-Saxon material culture and language were transformed by immigrants once they settled in England.
  197. Pohl, Walter, and Helmut Reimitz, eds. Strategies of Distinction: The Construction of Ethnic Communities, 300–800. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1998. A seminal collection on the ways people across Europe in the early Middle Ages expressed who they were and marked themselves as different from others. An indispensable work for those interested in ethnicity and identity.
  198. ark, Ken R. Civitas to Kingdom: Power and Politics in Britain, 300–800. Leicester, UK: Leicester University Press, 1994. A study of the Celtic regions of Britain, which argues that there was considerable continuity in Britain between the late Roman period and the early Middle Ages.
  199. Campbell, Ewan. Continental and Mediterranean Imports to Atlantic Britain and Ireland, AD 400–800. York, UK: Council for British Archaeology, 2007. Evidence from western Britain for the resumption of trade between British elites an
  200. Ward-Perkins, Brian. “Why Did the Anglo-Saxons Not Become More British?” English Historical Review 115.462 (2000): 513–533. Rethinks the relationship between the Celts and the Anglo-Saxons and the ways in which these ethnicities were both constructed and operated. DOI: 10.1093/ehr/115.462.513
  201. Anthony, David W. “Prehistoric Migration as Social Process.” In Migrations and Invasions in Archaeological Explanation. Edited by John Chapman and Helena Hamerow, 21–32. Oxford: Archaeopress, 1997. Useful suggestions by an anthropology professor about how early medieval historians might fruitfully think about migration.
  202. Budd, Paul, Andrew Millard, Carolyn Chenery, Sam Lucy, and Charlotte Roberts. “Investigating Population Movement by Stable Isotope Analysis: A Report from Britain.” Antiquity 78.299 (2004): 127–141. An investigation into the variety of isotopes trapped in the bones and teeth of excavated skeletons and how they can help us determine which skeletons in England belong to natives and which to immigrants. Available online by subscription.
  203. Hills, Catherine. The Origins of the English. Duckworth Debates in Archaeology. London: Duckworth, 2003. A succinct and balanced presentation of the linguistic, textual, and, especially, archaeological evidence on early Anglo-Saxon migration, by an excavator of Spong Hill, one of the largest and most important cemeteries of the period.
  204. Durkacz, Victor Edward. The Decline of the Celtic Languages: A Study of Linguistic and Cultural Conflict in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland from the Reformation to the Twentieth Century. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1983. Focusing mainly on Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh, the author portrays a group of languages whose use has generally declined since the 16th century, though their history has also seen a series of revivals.
  205. Palmer, Patricia Ann. Language and Conquest in Early Modern Ireland: English Renaissance Literature and Elizabethan Imperial Expansion. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Palmer sets the linguistic issues of England’s political conquests in Ireland in the context of colonial expansions in other regions. She argues for a close connection between the actions against the Irish language and the flowering of English literature in this period.
  206. Goetinck, Glenys. Peredur: A Study of Welsh Tradition in the Grail Legends. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1975. A valuable consideration of Peredur, one of the so-called “Three Romances” whose connection to three of Chrétien de Troyes’s romances is still controversial.
  207. Bromwich, Rachel. “Celtic Elements in Arthurian Romance.” In The Legend of Arthur in the Middle Ages. Edited by P. B. Grout, R. A. Lodge, C. E. Pickford, and E. K. C. Varty, 41–55. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1983. A succinct presentation of the author’s views (developed in greater detail elsewhere) that the foundation of the Arthurian legend was located in Celtic tradition. Bromwich concluded that Arthurian names and themes derive from Celtic sources but enter Continental lore separately.
  208. Lloyd-Morgan, Ceridwen, ed. Arthurian Literature XXI: Celtic Arthurian Material. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2004. A collection of valuable studies of romance or texts related to French romances. See especially articles by Sioned Davies on Culhwch ac Olwen (pp. 29–51), Helen A. Roberts on Gereint and Chrétien’s Erec (pp. 53–72), and Lloyd-Morgan’s commentary (pp. 115–136) on the presentation and transmission—oral or literate—of Welsh texts dealing with Arthur.
  209. Padel, O. J. Arthur in Medieval Welsh Literature. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2000. A concise and authoritative survey of early Welsh texts that contain references to Arthur. Emphasis is on the nature and purpose of the texts and on the evolution of Arthur’s character. The author considers Arthur to be a folk-hero rather than a historical personage. Recommended as a fine introduction to Arthur in Welsh sources.
  210. Koch, John T., ed. and trans. The Gododdin of Aneirin: Text and Context from Dark-Age North Britain. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1997.
  211. Edited and English translation of Y Gododdin, a text—not a romance—that contains what is likely the first mention of Arthur. Extensive commentary.
  212. Ford, Patrick K., trans. and ed. The Mabinogi, and Other Medieval Welsh Tales. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977. Among the best available translations; authoritative, accurate, and readable. Ford omits several texts often published with the Mabinogion; excluded, among others, are the “Three Romances” that have analogues in the romances of Chrétien de Troyes.
  213. Gantz, Jeffrey, trans. The Mabinogion. New York: Penguin, 1976. A straightforward translation preceded by a helpful introduction. The volume includes the so-called “Three Romances.” Each tale is preceded by a brief but helpful introduction.
  214. Fulton, Helen, ed. A Companion to Arthurian Literature. Chichester, UK: Blackwell, 2009. An extensive collaborative volume dealing with Arthurian origins and texts from the earliest Latin and Welsh works to literary, cinematic, and other developments of the Arthurian legend to the early 21st century. DOI: 10.1002/9781444305821
  215. Bromwich, Rachel, ed. and trans. Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Triads of the Island of Britain. 3d ed. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1998. The definitive and magisterial work on the Welsh triads, which are groupings of three names, some of them Arthurian, recorded together as a mnemonic device. First published in 1961.
  216. Koch, John T., ed. and trans. The Gododdin of Aneirin: Text and Context from Dark-Age North Britain. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1997. Edited and English translation of Y Gododdin, a text—not a romance—that contains what is likely the first mention of Arthur. Extensive commentary.
  217. Bromwich, Rachel, and D. Simon Evans, eds. Culhwch and Olwen: An Edition and Study of the Oldest Arthurian Tale. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1992. Authoritative edition, accompanied by a substantial introduction and an encyclopedic section of notes.
  218. Davidson, Hilda Roderick Ellis. Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions. New York; Syracuse University Press, 1988. Examines holy places, rituals, and ancestor rites in the context of a comparative approach, considering whether similarities between Scandinavian and Celtic religions is due to a common ancestry or Viking contact.
  219. Urbańczyk, Przemysław. “Ethnic Aspects of the Settlement of Iceland.” Collegium Medievale 15 (2002): 156–165. Looks at Old Icelandic sagas to investigate anthropologically why settlers came to Iceland and how “foreigners” (Celtic, Sami, German) were integrated into the society.
  220. Fulton, Helen, ed. A Companion to Arthurian Literature. Chichester, UK: Blackwell, 2009. An extensive collaborative volume dealing with Arthurian origins and texts from the earliest Latin and Welsh works to literary, cinematic, and other developments of the Arthurian legend to the early 21st century. DOI: 10.1002/9781444305821
  221. Goodrich, Peter, ed. The Romance of Merlin: An Anthology. New York: Garland, 1990. Presents a good many excerpts, most of them very brief, from Welsh sources, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Robert de Boron, Middle English romances, and Merlin material in the 19th and 20th centuries. All major sections have a separate editor who offers useful introductions.
  222. Lacy, Norris J., and James J. Wilhelm, eds. The Romance of Arthur. 3d ed. New York: Routledge, 2013. A collection of translated medieval texts from the earliest Welsh and Latin documents through Malory; represented are French, Norse, Latin, and Middle English narratives (presented in their entirety where possible). This third edition offers several new translations, among them Grail excerpts from French and German romances.
  223. Morris, Rosemary. The Character of King Arthur in Medieval Literature. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1982. Useful study of Arthur’s personal attributes and relationships, his character in war and peace, and his personal attributes and relationships. Study based on Welsh, Latin, English, French, and Hispanic sources before about 1500.
  224. Lacy, Norris J., ed. A History of Arthurian Scholarship. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2006. Chapters are devoted to most aspects of the Arthurian legend, from origins to the early 21st century; the central portion treats all the major medieval literatures (Latin, Welsh, French, etc.). The volume contains three indexes, devoted to scholars and critics, works, and subjects and themes.
  225. Koch, John T., and Antone Minard, eds. The Celts: History, Life, and Culture. Vol. 1, A–H. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2012. An excellent reference work, this volume contains copious references to Celtic writers, stories, and legends, in addition to entries on the Pan-Celtic movement in Ireland, Scotland Wales, Cornwall, Brittany, and the Isle of Man.
  226. MacMullen, Ramsey. “The Celtic Renaissance.” Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 14.1 (1965): 93–104. An important archaeological account of the revival of Celtic art and design in the later 2nd and in the 3rd centuries CE that predate the Roman conquest of western Europe. The essay is especially important to the field of Celtic studies in noting the influences—as well as the differences—among Celtic, Greek, and Scythian styles during this period.
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