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Buddhist Monasticism (Buddhist Studies)

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Jun 11th, 2018
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  1.  
  2. Introduction
  3. In symbiosis with the laity, Buddhist monasticism has played a major role in the development of Buddhism in China. Starting shortly after the beginning of the Common Era, in the Later Han Dynasty, monasteries developed to become an essential part of Chinese society. Even today, although monastics are less numerous than they used to be throughout most of Chinese history, Buddhist monasteries still have an influential voice. The first monastic activities that scholars focused on were the translation efforts conducted by prominent masters and the pilgrimages undertaken by famous Chinese Buddhist monks. In their travel accounts, monks described the roads both to India and to Southeast Asia and the way they saw the land of the Buddha. The institutionalization of Buddhist monasteries also became an important topic. In historical research, the political and social role of monasteries attracted growing attention. These first studies were very text-oriented. Gradually, other materials were also analyzed, such as archaeological findings, architectural layout, inscriptions, murals, musical instruments, and other artifacts. Over recent years, interdisciplinary research combining data and studies of different fields has been published, and the study of Buddhist monasticism has expanded. It now analyzes the role of Buddhist monastics over a wide area of fields, discussing the impact of monasteries in many, often interacting, contexts: religious, historical, social, political, economic, ethical, and so on. A very new approach, still to be expanded, is based on anthropological fieldwork. The study of monasticism is relatively complex and broad, and source materials are scattered but often pertinent to the particular monastic feature one wishes to study. As far as possible, they have been included in the relevant sections of this article.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6. The complexity and the wide range of fields and sources have prevented a comprehensive study of Chinese Buddhist monasticism. Nevertheless, broad studies on several aspects of Buddhism involving monks and monasteries have made a rich contribution to our understanding of the role and impact of monasticism in China. This is the case with the standard works Ch’en 1964, Ch’en 1973, and Zürcher 2007 (first published in 1959) that discuss how Buddhism became an integral part of Chinese society. Mechanisms that allowed this to happen, or, on the contrary, that might have hampered this development, are discussed in Heirman and Bumbacher 2007. The general role and impact of monasteries in specific periods of Chinese history are discussed in Ebrey and Gregory 1993 and Jones 1999. Ebrey and Gregory also compare the impact of Buddhism on Daoism and other religious movements, a comparative approach also used by Goossaert 2000 in its careful analysis of monasteries and temples throughout Chinese history. An interesting viewpoint is offered by Bodiford 2005, which draws attention to institutional recognition as an essential requirement for any monastic movement. Andrews, et al. 2017 offers a discussion of important monastic issues in Medieval China.
  7.  
  8. Andrews, Susan, Jinhua Chen, and Cuilan Liu, eds. Rules of Engagement: Medieval Traditions of Buddhist Monastic Regulation. Hamburg Buddhist Studies 9. Bochum, Germany: Projekt Verlag, 2017.
  9.  
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  11.  
  12. An interesting collection of papers on monastic issues in medieval China and beyond. Particularly stimulating are the several discussions on the implementation of monastic regulations, including debates on clothing, on transgressions, and on astrology. The volume is equally important for its contribution to the study of the history of Chinese monastic regulations.
  13.  
  14. Find this resource:
  15.  
  16. Bodiford, William, ed. Going Forth, Visions of Buddhist Vinaya. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2005.
  17.  
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19.  
  20. An essential study on the development of ordination practices in China and Japan. Its major focus is on interpretations of Buddhist monastic ordinations in the sociocultural contexts of medieval East Asia.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24. Ch’en, Kenneth. Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964.
  25.  
  26. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27.  
  28. Although a bit outdated, this work remains a standard contribution to research on the development of Buddhism in China. It pays particular attention to the social and political role of Buddhist monasteries.
  29.  
  30. Find this resource:
  31.  
  32. Ch’en, Kenneth. The Chinese Transformation of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973.
  33.  
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  35.  
  36. Discussion of how Buddhism became an integrated part in Chinese society in the 6th to 13th century. Analyzing the ethical, political, economic, literary, educational, and social features of Buddhism, the book enhances our understanding of the role played by Buddhist monasteries in the Chinese context.
  37.  
  38. Find this resource:
  39.  
  40. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Peter N. Gregory, eds. Religion and Society in T’ang and Sung China. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1993.
  41.  
  42. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  43.  
  44. A comprehensive analysis of the relationship between religion and society in Tang and Song China. The impact of Buddhism, Daoism, and other religious movements is extensively discussed, with a focus on the role of monastics and monasteries.
  45.  
  46. Find this resource:
  47.  
  48. Goossaert, Vincent. Dans les temples de la Chine: Histoire des cultes, vie des communautés. Paris: Albin Michel, 2000.
  49.  
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  51.  
  52. A carefully researched work on the development of religious institutions in China, approaching Buddhist, Daoist, and Confucian monasteries and temples in a comparative way.
  53.  
  54. Find this resource:
  55.  
  56. Heirman, Ann, and Stephan Peter Bumbacher, eds. The Spread of Buddhism. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007.
  57.  
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  59.  
  60. Discusses the mechanisms that stimulated or hampered the spread of Buddhism and of Buddhist monasticism in Central Asia, Tibet, China, and Korea.
  61.  
  62. Find this resource:
  63.  
  64. Jones, Charles Brewer. Buddhism in Taiwan, Religion and the State 1660–1990. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999.
  65.  
  66. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  67.  
  68. An excellent overview of the development of Buddhism in Taiwan, it provides an extensive discussion of the role of monks, monasteries, and institutions. Most interesting is the analysis of how the identity of Taiwanese Buddhism was shaped through the arrival (after 1949) of Mainland Chinese monks.
  69.  
  70. Find this resource:
  71.  
  72. Zürcher, Erik. The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China. 3d ed. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007.
  73.  
  74. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004156043.i-472Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75.  
  76. A standard work on the development of early Buddhism in China, with a particular focus on institutions and their interactions with the Chinese sociopolitical and religious contexts. Although originally published in 1959, the book remains an essential work on the formative phase of Chinese Buddhism, drawing particular attention to the essential role of monks and monasteries.
  77.  
  78. Find this resource:
  79.  
  80. Reference Works
  81. Sources on Buddhist monasticism can be found among a wealth of data on China, such as Buddhist, historical, and archaeological data. Only a very few works have a main focus on monasticism, e.g., Yuyama 1979, where an overview of Vinaya sources is provided. More recent is Clarke 2015. One of the most relevant overviews of the development of Chinese monastic life, with a focus on Dunhuang from the Tang to the Song dynasties, is Hao 2010. The encyclopedic work Johnston 2000 offers many interesting entries on Chinese Buddhist monasticism as well as useful reading suggestions.
  82.  
  83. Clarke, Shayne. “Vinayas.” In Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 1, Literatures and Languages. Edited by Jonathan A. Silk, 60–87. Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston: Brill, 2015.
  84.  
  85. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  86.  
  87. An excellent overview and detailed discussion of monastic legal and disciplinary texts translated from an Indian language into Chinese. A point of reference for all scholars starting to work on Vinaya texts.
  88.  
  89. Find this resource:
  90.  
  91. Hao, Chunwen. “The Social Life of Buddhist Monks and Nuns in Dunhuang during the Late Tang, Five Dynasties, and Early Song.” Asia Major, 3d ser., 23.2 (2010): 77–95.
  92.  
  93. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  94.  
  95. A very bibliographical summary of the author’s findings, published in his monograph on Dunhuang monks and nuns, Hao 1998 (cited under Monastic Practices). Many Dunhuang documents listed by Hao can be consulted via the website of the International Dunhuang Project.
  96.  
  97. Find this resource:
  98.  
  99. Johnston, William M., ed. Encyclopedia of Monasticism. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2000.
  100.  
  101. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  102.  
  103. Focusing on Christian and Buddhist monasticism, this encyclopedia includes many interesting entries related to Chinese Buddhist monasticism. Each entry also offers very useful suggestions for further reading.
  104.  
  105. Find this resource:
  106.  
  107. Yuyama, Akira. Systematische Übersicht über die buddhistische Sanskrit-Literatur, Erster Teil: Vinaya-Texte. Wiesbaden, West Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1979.
  108.  
  109. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  110.  
  111. A very useful, although a bit outdated, overview of Vinaya sources, including (contrary to what the title indicates) Chinese Vinaya sources, mostly referring to the Japanese Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō (大正新脩大藏經) canon, also available via the SAT Daizōkyō Text Database or via the Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association website, based at Fagushan in Taiwan. The latter website also includes other collections or canons useful for the study of Chinese Buddhism.
  112.  
  113. Find this resource:
  114.  
  115. Disciplinary Rules
  116. Monastic life relies on various sets of rules. The first disciplinary rules, Vinaya Rules, were introduced from India into China. In China, numerous other sets have been compiled in order to clarify, to supplement, to actualize, or to replace earlier guidelines. All these various compilations of disciplinary rules became the topic of several studies, and some have been translated into a Western language.
  117.  
  118. Vinaya Rules
  119. For a study on monasticism, we have a wealth of monastic guidelines at our disposal. A common term for all (Indian) disciplinary guidelines is Vinaya, translated in Chinese as lü律, “rule” or “law.” The Vinaya texts, compiled in India in the first centuries after the demise of the historical Buddha, can be considered as key texts for monastic discipline in India, in China, or in both. Most of these survive only in their Chinese translations—translations that underpinned the formation of Chinese monastic life. At the beginning of the 5th century, four Vinayas were translated into Chinese. A fifth one followed at the beginning of the 8th century. Apart from Hirakawa, et al. 1982, Heirman 2002, and Karashima 2012, translations of large sections of these into any Western language have not yet been realized. Many Vinaya scholars focus on the Pali Vinaya, a tradition that survived in an Indian language, but some studies go beyond the Indian context and make a comparison with the Chinese Vinayas. This is notably the case in Karashima 2012 and in two comprehensive works by Hirakawa—Hirakawa 1998 and Hirakawa 1999–2000, respectively—on monks and nuns. Pachow 2000 can be interesting for a first comparison of disciplinary rules in the various traditions. Since Germany has long been a stronghold for Vinaya studies, German is an important language in the field. Two works that take both Indian and Chinese sources into account extensively are Chung 1998 and Hu-von Hinüber 1994.
  120.  
  121. Chung, Jin-il. Die Pravāraṇā in den kanonischen Vinaya-Texten der Mūlasarvāstivādin und der Sarvāstivādin. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998.
  122.  
  123. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  124.  
  125. An extensive study of the pravāraṇā or invitation ceremony (a ceremony held at the end of the rainy or summer season), based on Indian, Chinese, and Tibetan source material.
  126.  
  127. Find this resource:
  128.  
  129. Heirman, Ann. “The Discipline in Four Parts,” Rules for Nuns According to the Dharmaguptakavinaya. 3 Parts. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2002.
  130.  
  131. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  132.  
  133. A translation of the rules for nuns according to the now standard tradition in China, the Dharmaguptaka tradition, as well as a detailed annotation. It also contains an introductory discussion, indices, and a glossary.
  134.  
  135. Find this resource:
  136.  
  137. Hirakawa, Akira, with Zenno Ikuno, and Paul Groner. Monastic Discipline for the Buddhist Nuns: An English Translation of the Chinese Text of the Mahāsāṃghika-Bhikṣuṇī-Vinaya. Patna, India: Kashi Jayaswal Research Institute, 1982.
  138.  
  139. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  140.  
  141. An annotated translation of the rules for nuns according to the Mahāsāṃghikavinaya, a Vinaya translated into Chinese in the 5th century.
  142.  
  143. Find this resource:
  144.  
  145. Hirakawa Akira 平川彰. Bikuni-Ritsu no kenkyū (比丘尼律の研究). Tokyo: Shunjūsha, 1998.
  146.  
  147. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  148.  
  149. A comprehensive work that discusses Vinaya rules for nuns.
  150.  
  151. Find this resource:
  152.  
  153. Hirakawa Akira 平川 彰. Ritsuzō no kenkyū (律蔵の研究) 2 vols. Tokyo: Shunjūsha, 1999–2000.
  154.  
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  156.  
  157. A reworked version, in two volumes, of an edition of 1960 that was based on Hirakawa’s doctoral dissertation. The work offers an extensive study on Vinaya rules for monks.
  158.  
  159. Find this resource:
  160.  
  161. Hu-von Hinüber, Haiyan. Das Poṣadhavastu: Vorschriften für die buddhistische Beichtfeier im Vinaya der Mūlasarvāstivādins. Reinbek, Germany: Dr. Inge Wezler Verlag für Orientalistische Fachpublikationen, 1994.
  162.  
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  164.  
  165. A detailed study of the poṣadha ceremony (a fortnightly ceremony during which the disciplinary rules are recited), based on Indian, Chinese, and Tibetan source material.
  166.  
  167. Find this resource:
  168.  
  169. Karashima, Seishi, ed. and trans. Die Abhisamācārikā Dharmāḥ: Verhaltensregeln für buddhistische Mӧnche der Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādins. 3 vols. Tokyo: The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University, 2012.
  170.  
  171. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  172.  
  173. A meticulous comparative study of a manuscript of the Abhisamācārikā Dharmāḥ (rules on good behavior) of the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādins with its Chinese Mahāsāṃghika parallel.
  174.  
  175. Find this resource:
  176.  
  177. Pachow, Wang. A Comparative Study of the Prātimokşa: On the Basis of Its Chinese, Tibetan, Sanskrit and Pāli Versions. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000.
  178.  
  179. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  180.  
  181. A revised and enlarged version of the 1955 first edition, it offers a comparative overview of Vinaya disciplinary rules according to the various extant traditions.
  182.  
  183. Find this resource:
  184.  
  185. Chinese Mahayana Rules
  186. In the 5th century, the so-called bodhisattva rules increased in popularity, with the intention of providing the Chinese Buddhist community with a guideline of Mahayana moral precepts. The most influential of these texts was the Fanwang jing (梵 網 經), the Brahmā’s Net Sutra, which in the second of its two fascicles contains a set of fifty-eight rules. Given its importance in the Japanese monastic community, the text has been extensively studied in connection to its development and use in Japan. These studies, such as Groner 1990, Hankó 2003, and Ishida 1971 equally contain very useful resources on China. This is also the case in Muller 2012, which approaches the Fanwang jing from the basis of Korean source material. The Fanwang jing has been translated into several Western languages, such as French (De Groot 1893), German (Hankó 2003), and English (Muller 2012).
  187.  
  188. De Groot, Jan Jacob Maria. Le code du Mahâyâna en Chine, son influence sur la vie monacale et sur le monde laïque. Amsterdam: Johannes Müller, 1893.
  189.  
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  191.  
  192. Despite being a very early translation and study of the Fanwang jing, it nevertheless contains inspiring suggestions. Text available online.
  193.  
  194. Find this resource:
  195.  
  196. Groner, Paul. “The Fan-wang ching and Monastic Discipline in Japanese Tendai: A Study of Annen’s Futsū jubosatsukai kōshaku.” In Chinese Buddhist Apocrypha. Edited by Robert E. Buswell, 251–290. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1990.
  197.  
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199.  
  200. Although focusing on Japan, Groner’s article contains particularly interesting views on the context and influence of the Fanwang jing in China.
  201.  
  202. Find this resource:
  203.  
  204. Hankó, László. Der Ursprung der japanischen Vinaya-Schule Risshū 律宗 und die Entwicklung ihrer Lehre und Praxis. Göttingen, Germany: Cuvillier Verlag, 2003.
  205.  
  206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207.  
  208. Mainly a study of the origins of the Japanese Vinaya school, the work contains a translation and discussion of the rules (prātimokşasūtra) for monks of the Dharmaguptaka tradition, as well as the rules of the Fanwang jing.
  209.  
  210. Find this resource:
  211.  
  212. Ishida Mizumaro 石田瑞麿. Bonmōkyō (梵網経). Tokyo: Daizō Shuppansha, 1971.
  213.  
  214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215.  
  216. A comprehensive work on the Fanwang jing, containing a detailed discussion of each of the fifty-eight rules.
  217.  
  218. Find this resource:
  219.  
  220. Muller, Charles, ed. and trans. The Collected Works of Korean Buddhism. Vol. 11, Exposition of the Sutra of Brahmā’s Net. Seoul: Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism, 2012.
  221.  
  222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223.  
  224. A detailed study on the Fanwang jing as commented upon by the Korean monk Taehyeon (8th century). Also contains a carefully annotated translation into English of the full Fanwang jing. Table of contents available online.
  225.  
  226. Find this resource:
  227.  
  228. Chinese “Rules of Purity”
  229. Based on many centuries of Vinaya texts and compilations, a new genre started to develop in China from the 8th century onward, the so-called “rules of purity” (qing gui 清規). The Buddhist tradition attributes the first of these rules to the monk Baizhang Huaihai 百丈懷海 (749–814). This attribution is still highly debated, as discussed in Foulk 1993, Yifa 2002, Jia 2005, and Poceski 2003. The oldest extant code is the Chanyuan qing gui (禪苑清規), “the pure rules for the Chan monastery,” compiled in 1103 and translated into English in Yifa 2002. Other compilations were added in successive centuries, such as the Ruzhong riyong (入眾日用), “daily life in the assembly,” compiled in 1209 and translated into English in Foulk 1995, and the very influential Chixiu Baizhang qing gui (敕修百丈清規), “Baizhang’s rules of purity revised on imperial order,” compiled between 1335 and 1343 and translated into English in Shohei 2006. In Fritz 1994, Foulk 1993, Yifa 2002, and Poceski 2005, the focus is on the background and the impact on the Chinese monastic community of the rules of purity.
  230.  
  231. Foulk, T. Griffith. “Myth, Ritual and Monastic Practice in Sung Ch’an Buddhism.” In Religion and Society in T’ang and Sung China. Edited by Patricia B. Ebrey and Peter N. Gregory, 147–208. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1993.
  232.  
  233. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  234.  
  235. An extensive and very useful study on the background and development of Chan monastic practices in China.
  236.  
  237. Find this resource:
  238.  
  239. Foulk, T. Griffith. “Daily Life in the Assembly.” In Buddhism in Practice. Edited by Donald S. Lopez, 455–472. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995.
  240.  
  241. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  242.  
  243. A translation of the Ruzhong riyong, with a short, but very relevant, introduction.
  244.  
  245. Find this resource:
  246.  
  247. Fritz, Claudia. Die Verwaltungsstruktur der Chan-Klöster in der späten Yuan-Zeit, Das 4. Buch der Chixiu Baizhang qinggui, übersetzt, annotiert und mit einer Einleitung versehen. Bern: Peter Lang, 1994.
  248.  
  249. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250.  
  251. A translation of the fourth chapter of the Chixiu Baizhang qing gui, extensively annotated and commented upon.
  252.  
  253. Find this resource:
  254.  
  255. Jia, Jinhua. “The Creation and Codification of Monastic Regulations at Mount Baizhang.” Journal of Chinese Religions 33 (2005): 39–59.
  256.  
  257. DOI: 10.1179/073776905804759931Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  258.  
  259. A careful discussion on the role of the monk Baizhang Huaihai in the establishment of the rules of purity in China.
  260.  
  261. Find this resource:
  262.  
  263. Poceski, Mario. “Xuefeng’s Code and the Chan School’s Participation in the Development of Monastic Regulations.” Asia Major, 3d ser., 16.2 (2003): 33–56.
  264.  
  265. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  266.  
  267. A detailed study of the role of the Chan monks Baizhang Huaihai (b. 749–d. 814) and Xuefeng Yicun (b. 822–d. 908) in the development of Chinese Buddhist monasticism.
  268.  
  269. Find this resource:
  270.  
  271. Poceski, Mario. “Guishan jingce (Guishan’s Admonitions) and the Ethical Foundations of Chan Practice.” In Zen Classics: Formative Texts in the History of Zen Buddhism. Edited by Steven Heine and Dale S. Wright, 15–42. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
  272.  
  273. DOI: 10.1093/0195175255.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  274.  
  275. A revealing study of a text on monastic discipline and morality composed by the most important disciple of the monk Baizhang Huaihai.
  276.  
  277. Find this resource:
  278.  
  279. Shohei, Ichimura. The Baizhang Zen Monastic Regulations. Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2006.
  280.  
  281. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  282.  
  283. A translation of the Chixiu Baizhang qing gui into English. Does not provide annotations, but has a useful glossary and index.
  284.  
  285. Find this resource:
  286.  
  287. Yifa. The Origins of Buddhist Monastic Codes in China: An Annotated Translation and Study of the Chanyuan qinggui. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2002.
  288.  
  289. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  290.  
  291. Both a carefully annotated translation into English of the Chanyuan qing gui and an essential study on the development of the rules of purity in China.
  292.  
  293. Find this resource:
  294.  
  295. Development of Monasticism
  296. When discussing the development of Chinese monasticism, three periods are usually pointed out: a formative period up to the Tang dynasty, a period that saw the rise of bodhisattva rules and Chan monasticism, and a modern period. Of course, these periods can also overlap, and research is not necessarily limited to one of them.
  297.  
  298. Formative Period of Chinese Monasticism
  299. Works on early Chinese monasticism typically focus on the formative period, going from the first centuries CE to the Sui and Tang dynasties. An excellent overview is given in Kieschnick 2010. Early institutionalization has also attracted attention. Funayama 2004 and Funayama 2012 provide representative examples of this kind of research. In Satō 1986 and Chen 2007, developments of monasticism starting in the early Tang are analyzed, while in Xie and Bai 1990 an interesting overview of Chinese monastic organization from the 4th century to the Qing dynasty is provided. The so-called Vinaya School, a school that gains importance from the 7th century onward and one that particularly focuses on monastic guidelines, is important for the development of Chinese monasticism. An extensive study of this school is found in Wang 2008.
  300.  
  301. Chen, Huaiyu. The Revival of Buddhist Monasticism in Medieval China. New York: Peter Lang, 2007.
  302.  
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  304.  
  305. The book discusses monasticism as envisioned by the Vinaya master Daoxuan 道宣 (b. 596–d. 667). It discusses the use of relics, ordination rituals, and views on property extensively.
  306.  
  307. Find this resource:
  308.  
  309. Funayama, Tōru. “The Acceptance of Buddhist Precepts by the Chinese in the Fifth Century.” Journal of Asian History 38.2 (2004): 97–119.
  310.  
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  312.  
  313. A very useful exposition on the introduction of monastic precepts into China.
  314.  
  315. Find this resource:
  316.  
  317. Funayama, Tōru. “Guṇavarman and Some of the Earliest Examples of Ordination Platforms (jietan) in China.” In Images, Relics and Legends: The Formation and Transformation of Buddhist Sacred Sites. Essays in Honour of Professor Koichi Shinohara. Edited by James A. Benn, Jinhua Chen, and James Robson, 21–45. Oakville, ON: Mosaic Press, 2012.
  318.  
  319. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  320.  
  321. A concise and thorough study of the first ordination platforms in China.
  322.  
  323. Find this resource:
  324.  
  325. Kieschnick, John. “Buddhist Monasticism.” In Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220–589 AD). Edited by John Lagerwey and Lü Pengzhi, 545–574. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  326.  
  327. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328.  
  329. A most relevant overview of the early phase of Buddhist monasticism in China.
  330.  
  331. Find this resource:
  332.  
  333. Satō Tatsugen 佐藤逹玄. Chūgoku bukkyō ni okeru kairitsu no kenkyū (中国仏教における戒律の研究). Tokyo: Mokujisha, 1986.
  334.  
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  336.  
  337. An excellent and comprehensive study of Chinese monasticism, with a focus on Chinese compilations and interpretation of monastic guidelines. It contains detailed chapters (pp. 67–298) on the Vinaya master Daoxuan (b. 596–d. 667) and on his ideas and impact on Chinese monasticism.
  338.  
  339. Find this resource:
  340.  
  341. Wang Jianguang 王建光. Zhongguo lüzong tongshi (中国律宗通史). Nanjing, China: Fenghuang Chubanshe, 2008.
  342.  
  343. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  344.  
  345. A comprehensive general history of the Chinese Vinaya school from its commencement to the 20th century.
  346.  
  347. Find this resource:
  348.  
  349. Xie Chongguang 謝重光 and Bai Wengu 白文固. Zhongguo sengguan zhidu shi (中國僧官制度史). Qinghai, China: Qinghai Renmin Chubanshe, 1990.
  350.  
  351. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  352.  
  353. An interesting overview of the development of monastic organization from the 4th century to the Qing dynasty.
  354.  
  355. Find this resource:
  356.  
  357. Development of Monasteries in Premodern China
  358. Starting from approximately the 5th century, Buddhism developed into an important institution in Chinese society. Ordinations were no longer solely based on Vinaya texts, but also involved bodhisattva precepts. Such ordinations are studied comprehensively in Groner 1990. The focus of researchers also turned to the various types of monasteries, as in Forte 1983 and Schlütter 2005. In addition, the geographical distribution of temples has often attracted attention, although it still remains a complex issue, as was already shown in Eberhard 1964, which covers a period from the 7th to the early 20th century. Also useful in this respect are Wang 1984, a translation and study with a focus on medieval Buddhism, and Goossaert 2000, which concentrates on the Qing dynasty. Brook 1993 focuses on the impact of financial patronage of monasteries in the Ming dynasty. An extensive study on the history and development of one individual monastery is Shahar 2008.
  359.  
  360. Brook, Timothy. Praying for Power: Buddhism and the Formation of Gentry Society in Late-Ming China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
  361.  
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363.  
  364. A detailed study of the history of Chinese monasteries in the Ming dynasty. It draws special attention to the patterns and impact of financial patronage of monasteries by the social elite.
  365.  
  366. Find this resource:
  367.  
  368. Eberhard, Wolfram. “Temple-Building Activities in Medieval and Modern China.” Monumenta Serica 23 (1964): 264–318.
  369.  
  370. DOI: 10.1080/02549948.1964.11731046Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371.  
  372. Although now a little outdated, the work still contains very useful research on the construction of temples from the medieval period to the early 20th century, based on data collected in local gazetteers.
  373.  
  374. Find this resource:
  375.  
  376. Forte, Antonino. “Daiji 大寺 (Chine).” In Hôbôgirin: Dictionnaire encyclopédique du bouddhisme d’après les sources chinoises et japonaises. Fasc. 6, Da–Daijizaiten. Edited by Sylvain Lévi and J. Takakusu, 682–704. Tokyo: Maison Franco-Japonaise, 1983.
  377.  
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379.  
  380. An excellent study on a specific type of monasteries, the “Grand Monasteries” of medieval China, linked to the imperial family.
  381.  
  382. Find this resource:
  383.  
  384. Goossaert, Vincent. “Counting the Monks: The 1736–1739 Census of the Chinese Clergy.” Late Imperial China 21.2 (2000): 40–85.
  385.  
  386. DOI: 10.1353/late.2000.0009Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387.  
  388. A careful study on the distribution of Buddhist and Daoist monastics, based on an 18th-century census.
  389.  
  390. Find this resource:
  391.  
  392. Groner, Paul. “The Ordination Ritual in the Platform Sūtra within the Context of the East Asian Buddhist Vinaya Tradition.” In Fo Kuang Shan Report of International Conference on Ch’an Buddhism. By Fo Kuang Shan Academy of Chinese Buddhism, 220–250. Kaohsiung, Taiwan: Fo-kuang shan, 1990.
  393.  
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395.  
  396. A hard-to-find but very useful study on early bodhisattva ordinations in China.
  397.  
  398. Find this resource:
  399.  
  400. Schlütter, Morten. “Vinaya Monasteries, Public Abbacies, and State Control of Buddhism under the Song (920–1279).” In Going Forth, Visions of Buddhist Vinaya, Essays Presented in Honor of Professor Stanley Weinstein. Edited by William M. Bodiford, 136–160. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2005.
  401.  
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403.  
  404. A most interesting study on the various types of monastic institutions in Song China.
  405.  
  406. Find this resource:
  407.  
  408. Shahar, Meir. The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2008.
  409.  
  410. DOI: 10.21313/hawaii/9780824831103.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411.  
  412. A meticulous study of the history of the Shaolin monastery, and especially of the development throughout history of Chinese martial arts promoted by the monastery.
  413.  
  414. Find this resource:
  415.  
  416. Wang, Yi-t’ung. A Record of Buddhist Monasteries in Lo-yang, by Yang Hsüan-chih. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984.
  417.  
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419.  
  420. A carefully annotated translation of a description of Buddhist monasteries in the capital Luoyang, written by Yang Xuanzhi in c. 547.
  421.  
  422. Find this resource:
  423.  
  424. Modern Monastic Developments
  425. Monastic institutions in 20th-century China went through a great deal of turmoil. Invaluable material on the first half of the 20th century is collected in Welch 1967 and Welch 1968. Goossaert and Palmer 2011 offers a comprehensive analysis of religious institutions in contemporary Mainland China, while the development of monasteries in Taiwan is discussed in Günzel 1998. Ji 2013 offers useful figures on monastic population in contemporary Mainland China. A very useful introduction to the fate of Chinese Buddhist monasticism at the beginning of the 21st century is in Birnbaum 2003. Chandler 2004 is an account of the most influential Taiwanese monastery, Foguangshan.
  426.  
  427. Birnbaum, Raoul. “Buddhist China at the Century’s Turn.” In Religion in China Today. Edited by Daniel L. Overmyer, 122–144. The China Quarterly Special Issues, New Series 3. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  428.  
  429. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  430.  
  431. Focuses on religious institutions in Mainland China at the beginning of the 21st century.
  432.  
  433. Find this resource:
  434.  
  435. Chandler, Stuart. Establishing a Pure Land on Earth: The Foguang Buddhist Perspective on Modernization and Globalization. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2004.
  436.  
  437. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  438.  
  439. A comprehensive study of a prominent Taiwanese Buddhist monastery and its founder Xingyun. The work also carefully investigates the position of the monastery with respect to modernity and globalization.
  440.  
  441. Find this resource:
  442.  
  443. Goossaert, Vincent, and David A. Palmer. The Religious Question in Modern China. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2011.
  444.  
  445. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226304182.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  446.  
  447. A very original and comprehensive analysis of religion and especially of religious organizations in modern China. The work discusses religion (including Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity, popular religion, and others) in one unified story, thus offering an overall and intriguing perspective on the fate of contemporary religious institutions in Mainland China.
  448.  
  449. Find this resource:
  450.  
  451. Günzel, Marcus. Die Taiwan-Erfahrung des chinesischen Sangha: Zur Entwicklung des buddhistischen Mönchs- und Nonnenordens in der Republik China nach 1949. Göttingen, Germany: Seminar für Indologie und Buddhismuskunde, 1998.
  452.  
  453. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  454.  
  455. Studies the development of Buddhist monasticism in Taiwan, with a focus on the period after 1949.
  456.  
  457. Find this resource:
  458.  
  459. Ji, Zhe. “Chinese Buddhism as a Social Force: Reality and Potential of Thirty Years of Revival.” Chinese Sociological Review 45.2 (2013): 8–26.
  460.  
  461. DOI: 10.2753/CSA2162-0555450201Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  462.  
  463. A useful article containing recent figures on male and female monastic populations in Mainland China and on the number of monasteries. It also discusses the role of Buddhist institutions in contemporary society.
  464.  
  465. Find this resource:
  466.  
  467. Welch, Holmes. The Practice of Chinese Buddhism 1900–1950. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967.
  468.  
  469. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  470.  
  471. A detailed study of Chinese monastic life in the first half of the 20th century, based on documentary material and numerous interviews with monks who left China after 1949. Although the interviews may offer a nostalgic view of Mainland Chinese monasteries, the work offers invaluable insights into monastic practices.
  472.  
  473. Find this resource:
  474.  
  475. Welch, Holmes. The Buddhist Revival in China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968.
  476.  
  477. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  478.  
  479. In the same vein as his earlier work, The Practice of Chinese Buddhism 1900–1950, Welch studies early 20th-century Chinese Buddhism, based on documentary material and interviews. This second work contains chapters on building of Buddhist monasteries, monastic education, publishing, and social action.
  480.  
  481. Find this resource:
  482.  
  483. Biographical Accounts from Medieval China
  484. Institutions only flourish because of people shaping and guiding their development. In monastic institutions, monks and nuns thus play a fundamental role. Some are particularly concerned with monastic life and institutional organization. In this context, some very influential monks of medieval China were at the basis of Chinese monastic institutionalization.
  485.  
  486. Prominent Masters
  487. Some monks have played an essential role in the development of Chinese Buddhist monasticism. Such a monk is certainly master Daoxuan (b. 596–d. 667), known, among other things, for his Vinaya commentaries. A very useful introduction to this monk is in Satō 1986, cited under Formative Period of Chinese Monasticism. Tan 2002 and McRae 2005 draw attention to Daoxuan’s endeavors to strengthen Chinese Buddhist ordination practices. Kieschnick 1997 provides a more comprehensive view and analyzes medieval Buddhist monasticism through the life of prominent monks.
  488.  
  489. Kieschnick, John. The Eminent Monk: Buddhist Ideals in Medieval Chinese Hagiography. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1997.
  490.  
  491. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  492.  
  493. An essential study of medieval monastic life, based on a careful analysis of biographies of Chinese Buddhist monks.
  494.  
  495. Find this resource:
  496.  
  497. McRae, John. “Daoxuan’s Vision of Jetavana, The Ordination Platform Movement in Medieval Chinese Buddhism.” In Going Forth, Visions of Buddhist Vinaya, Essays Presented in Honor of Professor Stanley Weinstein. Edited by William M. Bodiford, 68–100. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2005.
  498.  
  499. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  500.  
  501. An interesting study of the so-called ordination platform movement, strongly sponsored by the monk Daoxuan, who aimed at legitimizing the Chinese Buddhist monastic lineages.
  502.  
  503. Find this resource:
  504.  
  505. Tan, Zhihui. “Daoxuan’s Vision of Jetavana: Imagining a Utopian Monastery in Early Tang.” PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2002.
  506.  
  507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508.  
  509. A study of the monk Daoxuan and of his vision of ideal monastic organization in China. The work also contains an annotated translation of Daoxuan’s Zhong Tianzhu Shewei guo Qihuan si tujing (中天竺舍衛國祇洹寺圖經), in which he gives a visionary description of the Jetavana monastery in Śrāvastī in Central India.
  510.  
  511. Find this resource:
  512.  
  513. Monastic Pilgrims
  514. Some interesting views on the development of Chinese Buddhist monasticism can be found in travel accounts compiled by prominent monastic pilgrims, such as Faxian (end of the 4th–beginning of the 5th century), Xuanzang (b. c. 596–d. 664) and Yijing (b. 635–d. 713). The historical value of such travel accounts is studied in Deeg 2005b. Wang 1988 and Wang 1995 analyze two reports of Yijing, and Deeg 2005a analyzes the account of Faxian. Mayer 1992 is an interesting study on the biography of the monk Xuanzang, including his travels in India. Translated versions of these works in English can be found under Translations of Travel Accounts and Biographies.
  515.  
  516. Deeg, Max. Das Gaoseng-Faxian-Zhuan als religionsgeschichtliche Quelle: Der älteste Bericht eines chinesischen buddhistischen Pilgermönchs über seine Reise nach Indien mit Übersetzung des Textes. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2005a.
  517.  
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519.  
  520. A detailed study of the travel account of the monk Faxian, with a comparative analysis of the writings of the later monk Xuanzang. It contains an interesting critical view on how Indian monasticism was perceived and portrayed in medieval China.
  521.  
  522. Find this resource:
  523.  
  524. Deeg, Max. “Was haben ein Mönch und Fisch gemeinsam? Monastische Regeln und Lebensrealität und der Aussagewert chinesischen Pilgerberichte.” In Im Dickicht der Gebote, Studien zur Dialektik von Norm und Praxis in der Buddhismusgeschichte Asiens. Edited by Peter Schalk, et al., 99–151. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala Universitet, 2005b.
  525.  
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527.  
  528. A revealing article on the historical interpretation of pilgrimage records and the information they can offer on medieval monasticism.
  529.  
  530. Find this resource:
  531.  
  532. Mayer, Alexander Leonhard. Xuanzang, Übersetzer und Heiliger. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1992.
  533.  
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535.  
  536. An excellent study on the monk Xuanzang. This work is the first volume of an ongoing series on Xuanzang’s biography, carefully analyzed and compared with its Old Turkic translation.
  537.  
  538. Find this resource:
  539.  
  540. Wang Bangwei 王邦維. Da Tang Xiyu qiu fa gaoseng zhuan jiao zhu (大唐西域求法高僧傳校注). Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1988.
  541.  
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543.  
  544. Studies the Da Tang Xiyu qiu fa gaoseng zhuan, a series of biographies of eminent Chinese monks who went to the Western Regions in search of the Buddhist law, compiled by the monk Yijing.
  545.  
  546. Find this resource:
  547.  
  548. Wang Bangwei 王邦維. Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan jiao zhu (南海寄歸內法傳校注). Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1995.
  549.  
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551.  
  552. Studies the Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan, a personal travel account written by the monk Yijing.
  553.  
  554. Find this resource:
  555.  
  556. Translations of Travel Accounts and Biographies
  557. Travel accounts of Chinese monks who went to India or Southeast Asia or Japanese monks who went to China can offer their readers a view of medieval Chinese monastic life and institutions as compared with those in other parts of the world. The most extensive and famous accounts have been translated into English. While Reischauer 1955 and Lahiri 1986 contain extensive annotations, this is not the case for Li 1995, Li 1996, Li 2000, and Li 2002. However, the latter translations are carefully done and offer accessible and interesting reading material.
  558.  
  559. Lahiri, Latika. Chinese Monks in India: Biography of Eminent Monks Who Went to the Western World in Search of the Law during the Great T’ang Dynasty. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986.
  560.  
  561. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  562.  
  563. An annotated translation of the Da Tang Xiyu qiu fa gaoseng zhuan (大唐西域求法高僧傳; Wang 1988, cited under Monastic Pilgrims), an account made by the monk Yijing of Chinese monks who travelled to Southeast Asia.
  564.  
  565. Find this resource:
  566.  
  567. Li, Rongxi. A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty. Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1995.
  568.  
  569. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  570.  
  571. A careful and fluent translation of the biography of Xuanzang, containing an account of his travels to India.
  572.  
  573. Find this resource:
  574.  
  575. Li, Rongxi. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions. Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1996.
  576.  
  577. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  578.  
  579. A careful and fluent translation of the travel account of the monk Xuanzang.
  580.  
  581. Find this resource:
  582.  
  583. Li, Rongxi. Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia: A Record of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas. Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2000.
  584.  
  585. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  586.  
  587. A careful and fluent translation of the travel account of the monk Yijing.
  588.  
  589. Find this resource:
  590.  
  591. Li, Rongxi. Lives of Great Monks and Nuns. Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2002.
  592.  
  593. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  594.  
  595. A careful and fluent translation of the travel account of the monk Faxian. It also contains a translation of a collection of biographies of nuns compiled in the 6th century, also discussed in the section Nunneries, and a translation of the biographies of a few medieval Chinese monks.
  596.  
  597. Find this resource:
  598.  
  599. Reischauer, Edwin O. Ennin’s Diary: The Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law. New York: Ronald, 1955.
  600.  
  601. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  602.  
  603. An annotated translation of the travel account of the 9th-century Japanese monk Ennin to China.
  604.  
  605. Find this resource:
  606.  
  607. Biographical Accounts of Modern Masters
  608. While many monks of the medieval period shaped, organized, and developed Chinese Buddhist monasticism, later masters continued to reform Buddhist institutions in order to fit contemporary needs. Some monks have a particular and lasting influence, such as the Late Ming master Zhuhong, studied by Yü 1981; the 20th-century reformist monk Taixu, discussed by Pittman 2001; and the authoritative modern Vinaya master Hongyi, whose ideas on life and death are studied by Birnbaum 2007. The autobiography of master Xuyun, translated by Luk and revised and edited by Hunn (Xuyun 1988), provides inside information on 20th-century monastic challenges. A most interesting discussion on several influential modern and contemporary religious leaders is provided by Ownby, et al. 2017.
  609.  
  610. Birnbaum, Raoul. “The Deathbed Image of Master Hongyi.” In The Buddhist Dead: Practices, Discourses, Representations. Edited by Bryan J. Cuevas and Jacqueline I. Stone, 175–207. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007.
  611.  
  612. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  613.  
  614. An intriguing discussion of the life and death of the renowned Buddhist Master Hongyi (b. 1880–d. 1942), popular for his implementation of Buddhist practices and (Vinaya) precepts in everyday life. This study pays particular attention to Hongyi’s ideas on the end of life, as physically displayed by way of a photograph taken just after his death.
  615.  
  616. Find this resource:
  617.  
  618. Ownby, David, Vincent Goossaert, and Ji Zhe, eds. Making Saints in Modern China. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
  619.  
  620. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  621.  
  622. A fascinating work on religious leaders in modern and contemporary China. It includes biographies and discussions on highly influential Buddhist and Daoist leaders, as well as leaders of other religious associations. Focusing on virtuosity and religious charisma, the chapters discuss how religious lives have been experienced and interpreted, and in the ways they had an impact on, but were also influenced by, modern Chinese society. Essential for Buddhist monasticism are the masters Yinguang (b. 1861–d. 1940), by Kiely (pp. 30–77); Xuyun (b. c. 1864–d. 1959), by Campo (pp. 99–136); Hongyi (b. 1880–d. 1942), by Birnbaum (pp. 161–208); and Longlian (b. 1909–d. 2006), by Bianchi (pp. 272–311).
  623.  
  624. Find this resource:
  625.  
  626. Pittman, Don A. Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu’s Reforms. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001.
  627.  
  628. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  629.  
  630. A thorough study of the life and thought of the reformist monk Taixu (b. 1890–d. 1947), who strongly promoted engaged Buddhism.
  631.  
  632. Find this resource:
  633.  
  634. Xuyun. Empty Cloud: The Autobiography of the Chinese Zen Master Xu-Yun. Translated by Charles Luk, and revised and edited by Richard Hunn. Shaftesbury, UK: Element Books, 1988.
  635.  
  636. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  637.  
  638. An intriguing autobiography of master Xuyun (b. 1840?–d. 1959), one of the most influential Chinese monks of modern times. It provides rare inside information on the challenges faced by Buddhist monks and their institutions in difficult times.
  639.  
  640. Find this resource:
  641.  
  642. Yü, Chün-fang. The Renewal of Buddhism in China: Chu-hung and the Late Ming Synthesis. New York: Columbia University Press, 1981.
  643.  
  644. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  645.  
  646. Based on Yü’s doctoral dissertation, this work is a meticulous study of the monk Zhuhong (Chu-hung) (b. 1535–d. 1615), known for his monastic reforms and innovations in the field of lay Buddhist movements. The study contains interesting illustrations and extensive translations from Zhuhong’s work.
  647.  
  648. Find this resource:
  649.  
  650. Female Monasticism
  651. Monastic institutes inhabited or run by female monastics always had a less prominent role to play in Chinese Buddhist monasticism. Despite this, their presence was not insignificant, and their impact, although less frequently documented, has been studied by several researchers. In modern society, they have become more visible, especially in Taiwan, and research has intensified.
  652.  
  653. Nunneries
  654. Female monastics are less represented in extant sources, making it more difficult and complex to study the development and impact of female monasticism. Some textual material has survived, however, most importantly a collection of biographies of nuns compiled in the 6th century. This collection is studied in Georgieva 2000 and translated in Tsai 1994 and Li 2002 (cited under Translations of Travel Accounts and Biographies). The role of 5th-century Buddhist nuns in the introduction of a female ordination line in China is studied in Heirman 2001. Grant 2009 focuses on a much later period and studies the impact of eminent Chan teachers of the 17th century. Apart from printed material, other sources, such as archaeological findings, can offer some help. Memorial niches and inscriptions have revealed new material, which has attracted new research, of which Adamek 2009 is a representative example. A totally different but very revealing study is Bianchi 2001, on the introduction and development of female Tibetan monasticism in China.
  655.  
  656. Adamek, Wendi. “A Niche of Their Own: The Power of Convention in Two Inscriptions for Medieval Chinese Buddhist Nuns.” History of Religions 49.1 (2009): 1–26.
  657.  
  658. DOI: 10.1086/605900Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659.  
  660. An interesting study of 7th-century memorial niches for Chinese Buddhist nuns, revealing how Buddhist nunneries found their place in the monastic world.
  661.  
  662. Find this resource:
  663.  
  664. Bianchi, Ester. The Iron Statue Monastery, Tiexiangsi: A Buddhist Nunnery of Tibetan Tradition in Contemporary China. Florence: Leo S. Olschki Editore, 2001.
  665.  
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667.  
  668. Both an intriguing study of how the Tibetan monastic tradition was introduced into Central China and a very good introduction to the contemporary organization of a nunnery in the suburbs of Chengdu, in Sichuan province.
  669.  
  670. Find this resource:
  671.  
  672. Georgieva, Valentina. “Buddhist Nuns in China, from the Six Dynasties to the Tang.” PhD diss., Leiden University, 2000.
  673.  
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675.  
  676. A useful doctoral dissertation on the status of Buddhist nuns in medieval China.
  677.  
  678. Find this resource:
  679.  
  680. Grant, Beata. Eminent Nuns: Women Chan Masters of Seventeenth-Century China. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2009.
  681.  
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683.  
  684. A study of the lives of 17th-century Buddhist nuns, mainly based on their own writings and self-representations.
  685.  
  686. Find this resource:
  687.  
  688. Heirman, Ann. “Chinese Nuns and Their Ordination in Fifth-century China.” Journal of the International Association of Chinese Studies 24.2 (2001): 275–304.
  689.  
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691.  
  692. A study of the introduction of a dual ordination (ordination held first in the nuns’ and then in the monks’ community) in 5th-century China.
  693.  
  694. Find this resource:
  695.  
  696. Tsai, Kathryn Ann. Lives of the Nuns, Biographies of Chinese Buddhist Nuns from the Fourth to the Sixth Centuries. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1994.
  697.  
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699.  
  700. An annotated translation of the Biqiuni zhuan (比丘尼傳), a 6th-century compilation of biographies of Chinese nuns.
  701.  
  702. Find this resource:
  703.  
  704. Contemporary Taiwanese Nuns
  705. Contemporary development of Taiwanese nunneries and the influential role they play in the Taiwanese Buddhist community have attracted the attention of several scholars. Li 2000 and DeVido 2010 study the impact of various initiatives of Taiwanese nunneries. In Cheng 2007, a comparative approach is taken and the female communities of Taiwan and Sri Lanka are discussed from a feminist perspective. Yao 2012 focuses on the humanistic Tzu-chi movement.
  706.  
  707. Cheng, Wei-Yi. Buddhist Nuns in Taiwan and Sri Lanka: A Critique of the Feminist Perspective. London: Routledge, 2007.
  708.  
  709. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  710.  
  711. An interesting comparative study of Buddhist nuns in contemporary Taiwan and Sri Lanka, discussing the feminist perspective.
  712.  
  713. Find this resource:
  714.  
  715. DeVido, Elise Anne. Taiwan’s Buddhist Nuns. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010.
  716.  
  717. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  718.  
  719. An influential study of the impact of Taiwanese nuns in the contemporary Buddhist community of Taiwan.
  720.  
  721. Find this resource:
  722.  
  723. Li, Yu-chen. “Crafting Women’s Religious Experience in a Patrilineal Society: Taiwanese Buddhist Nuns in Action (1945–1999).” PhD diss., Cornell University, 2000.
  724.  
  725. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  726.  
  727. A useful dissertation on various initiatives of female monastics in 20th-century Taiwan.
  728.  
  729. Find this resource:
  730.  
  731. Yao, Yu-Shuang. Taiwan’s Tzu Chi as Engaged Buddhism: Origins, Organization and Social Impact. Leiden, The Netherlands: Global Oriental, 2012.
  732.  
  733. DOI: 10.1163/9789004231320Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  734.  
  735. A study of the development, organization, and appeal of the Taiwanese Tzu-chi (Ciji) movement, a humanistic Buddhist movement mainly led and stimulated by women, both monastic and lay.
  736.  
  737. Find this resource:
  738.  
  739. Monks and the State
  740. Monastic institutions have always had a complex relationship with the state, ranging from strong mutual support to fierce rejection. There are many such instances throughout Chinese history. Here only some of the most representative examples can be pointed out. An important period in the formation of Buddhist monasticism, and its relation to the state, is the period of the Southern Dynasties, focused on in Forte 2003 and De Rauw 2008, and the ensuing Sui and Tang dynasties, the focus in Chen 2002, Chen 2007, and Forte 2005. In the later period, the Chan monasteries played an increasing political role, as shown in Welter 2006. On modern relations between state and monastic institutions, Katz 2003 offers an interesting study of the Taiwanese context.
  741.  
  742. Chen, Jinhua. Monks and Monarch, Kinship and Kingship. Kyoto: Scuola Italiana di Studi sull’Asia Orientale, 2002.
  743.  
  744. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  745.  
  746. A detailed study on the relationship between monks and the imperial court during the Sui dynasty, with a focus on the role of the monk Tanqian (b. 542–d. 607) and his influence on the ensuing Tang period.
  747.  
  748. Find this resource:
  749.  
  750. Chen, Jinhua. Philosopher, Practitioner, Politician: The Many Lives of Fazang (643–712). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007.
  751.  
  752. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004156135.i-542Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  753.  
  754. In the tradition of Antonino Forte, Jinhua Chen has written a meticulous work on the life of the monk Fazang, including his intriguing relationship to the imperial court.
  755.  
  756. Find this resource:
  757.  
  758. De Rauw, Tom. “Beyond Buddhist Apology: The Political Use of Buddhism by Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty (r. 502–549).” PhD diss., Ghent University, 2008.
  759.  
  760. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  761.  
  762. A useful doctoral dissertation on the complex relationship between Emperor Wu and the Buddhist monastic communities.
  763.  
  764. Find this resource:
  765.  
  766. Forte, Antonino. “Daisōjō 大僧正.” In Hôbôgirin: Dictionnaire encyclopédique du bouddhisme d’après les sources chinoises et japonaises. Fasc. 6, Da–Daijizaiten. Edited by Sylvain Lévi and J. Takakusu, 1043–1070. Tokyo: Maison Franco-Japonaise, 2003.
  767.  
  768. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  769.  
  770. An excellent study of the control mechanisms of the state on monastic institutions in the Southern Dynasties (4th–6th centuries).
  771.  
  772. Find this resource:
  773.  
  774. Forte, Antonino. Political Propaganda and Ideology in China at the End of the Seventh Century. Kyoto: Italian School of East Asian Studies, 2005.
  775.  
  776. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  777.  
  778. A revised and enlarged version of the original of 1976. An exemplary and most influential study on the interplay of the monastic community and the imperial court at the time of Empress Wu Zetian.
  779.  
  780. Find this resource:
  781.  
  782. Katz, Paul R. “Religion and the State in Post-war Taiwan.” In Religion in China Today. Edited by Daniel L. Overmyer, 89–106. The China Quarterly Special Issues, New Series 3. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  783.  
  784. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  785.  
  786. A concise and interesting overview of the relationship between religious institutions and the Taiwanese state, particularly after the ending of martial law in 1987.
  787.  
  788. Find this resource:
  789.  
  790. Welter, Albert. Monks, Rulers, and Literati: The Political Ascendancy of Chan Buddhism. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  791.  
  792. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195175219.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  793.  
  794. A comprehensive study on the sociopolitical context of the emergence and development of the Chan monastic institution, with a focus on the early Song period (10th and 11th centuries).
  795.  
  796. Find this resource:
  797.  
  798. Monasteries and Economy
  799. Monastic communities were deeply involved in economic activities. This is shown in Gernet 1995 (originally 1956), a basic and influential study. Comprehensive studies on this issue are Zhang 1977, He 1986, and Huang 1989. Agricultural activities and land-tenure systems are focused on in Twitchett 1956, You 2003, and Walsh 2010. Sen 2005 provides an international aspect to the monasteries’ commercial activities.
  800.  
  801. Gernet, Jacques. Buddhism in Chinese Society: An Economic History from the Fifth to the Tenth Centuries. New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.
  802.  
  803. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  804.  
  805. English translation of Les aspects économiques du bouddhisme de la société chinoise du Ve au Xe siècle, first published in 1956. A basic and influential work on how economic activities were part of Buddhist monastic organizations in medieval China.
  806.  
  807. Find this resource:
  808.  
  809. He Ziquan 何茲全, ed. Wushinian lai Han-Tang fojiao siyuan jingji yanjiu (五十年來漢唐佛教寺院經濟研究). Beijing: Beijing Shifan Daxue Chubanshe, 1986.
  810.  
  811. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  812.  
  813. An interesting compilation of research conducted between 1934 and 1984 on the economic activities of Buddhist monasteries in medieval China.
  814.  
  815. Find this resource:
  816.  
  817. Huang Minzhi 黃敏枝. Songdai fojiao shehui jingji shi lunji (宋代佛教社會經濟史論集). Taibei: Xueshengshu, 1989.
  818.  
  819. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  820.  
  821. A detailed study of the economic activities of Buddhist monasteries during the Song period.
  822.  
  823. Find this resource:
  824.  
  825. Sen, Tansen. Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400. Honolulu: Association for Asian Studies and University of Hawai‘i Press, 2005.
  826.  
  827. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  828.  
  829. An analysis of the role of Buddhism in the diplomatic and commercial relations between India and China.
  830.  
  831. Find this resource:
  832.  
  833. Twitchett, Denis C. “Monastic Estates in T’ang China.” Asia Major, n.s., 5.2 (1956): 123–146.
  834.  
  835. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  836.  
  837. A study of the role monastic institutions played in the land-tenure system of the Tang dynasty.
  838.  
  839. Find this resource:
  840.  
  841. Walsh, Michael J. Sacred Economies: Buddhist Monasticism and Territoriality in Medieval China. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.
  842.  
  843. DOI: 10.7312/wals14832Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  844.  
  845. An interesting study on commercial activities of medieval Chinese monasteries, with a focus on the Tiantong monastery in southeast China.
  846.  
  847. Find this resource:
  848.  
  849. You Biao 游彪. Song dai si yuan jingji shigao (宋代寺院经济史稿). Baoding: Hebei Daxue Chubanshe, 2003.
  850.  
  851. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  852.  
  853. A study of temple finance in the Song dynasty (960–1279), with a focus on agricultural activities.
  854.  
  855. Find this resource:
  856.  
  857. Zhang Mantao 張曼濤, ed. Fojiao jingji yanjiu lunji (佛教經濟硏究論集). Taibei: Dacheng Wenhua Chuban Sheyinhang, 1977.
  858.  
  859. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  860.  
  861. An interesting compilation of articles on economic activities of Buddhist monasteries between the 3rd and 14th centuries.
  862.  
  863. Find this resource:
  864.  
  865. Architectural Organization of Chinese Buddhist Monasteries
  866. The physical organization of Buddhist monasteries can tell us a great deal about how Buddhist monks and nuns envision monastic life. The relation between architecture and monasticism, however, has remained relatively understudied, and more research would be most welcome. A very useful overview of the layout of Buddhist compounds in late imperial times and its impact on monastic organization is provided by Charleux and Goossaert 2003. Invaluable information on the first half of the 20th century is given by Welch 1967 (cited under Modern Monastic Developments) and Prip-Møller 1937.
  867.  
  868. Charleux, Isabelle, and Vincent Goossaert. “The Physical Buddhist Monastery in China.” In The Buddhist Monastery: A Cross-cultural Survey. Edited by Pierre Pichard and François Lagirarde, 305–350. Paris: Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient, 2003.
  869.  
  870. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  871.  
  872. A detailed overview of the physical organization of Buddhist monasteries in late imperial times. It contains detailed information on the layout of Buddhist monastic compounds.
  873.  
  874. Find this resource:
  875.  
  876. Prip-Møller, Johannes. Chinese Buddhist Monasteries: Their Plan and Its Function as a Setting for Buddhist Monastic Life. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1937.
  877.  
  878. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  879.  
  880. An excellent description of Chinese Buddhist monasteries and monastic life in the early 20th century. The work contains numerous sketches and over 200 photographs.
  881.  
  882. Find this resource:
  883.  
  884. Monastic Practices
  885. Monastic practices form an integral part of monastic life and have attracted the attention of a number of researchers. In the following, some representative examples are pointed out. A few studies offer a relatively broad perspective, thus giving useful analyses of what monastic life ideally looked like. This is the case in Benn, et al. 2009 and in Heirman and Torck 2012. Adamek 2007 concentrates on Chan monasteries and investigates how such monasteries were supposed to (ideally) function on a daily basis. Chinese monastics also form part of society and were frequently in contact with laypeople. This aspect is discussed in detail in Hao 1998 and Yao 2004.
  886.  
  887. Adamek, Wendi. The Mystique of Transmission: On an Early Chan History and Its Context. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
  888.  
  889. DOI: 10.7312/adam13664Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  890.  
  891. A useful contextualized study of early Chan history, with a focus on the organization of Chan monastic practices. The work also contains an annotated translation of the Lidai fabao ji (曆代法寶記), an 8th-century text containing a sectarian history of Chinese Buddhism, particularly of Chan Buddhism.
  892.  
  893. Find this resource:
  894.  
  895. Benn, James, Lori Meeks, and James Robson, eds. Buddhist Monasticism in East Asia: Places of Practice. London: Routledge, 2009.
  896.  
  897. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  898.  
  899. An analysis of various religious, cultural, and political practices of Buddhist monasteries in medieval China and Japan. It contains a very interesting introduction by James Robson on how to address historical and cultural issues of Buddhist monasteries.
  900.  
  901. Find this resource:
  902.  
  903. Hao Chunwen 郝春文. Tang hou qi Wu dai Song chu Dunhuang sengni de shehui shenghuo (唐后期五代宋初敦惶僧尼的社会生活). Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue, 1998.
  904.  
  905. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  906.  
  907. A most interesting and detailed study of the social life of Dunhuang monks and nuns in the Late Tang, Five Dynasties, and Early Song periods, based on a thorough analysis of many primary documents.
  908.  
  909. Find this resource:
  910.  
  911. Heirman, Ann, and Mathieu Torck. A Pure Mind in a Clean Body: Bodily Care in the Buddhist Monasteries of Ancient India and China. Ghent, Belgium: Academia Press, 2012.
  912.  
  913. DOI: 10.26530/OAPEN_466590Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  914.  
  915. A study of bodily care in Buddhist monasteries in India and medieval China, focusing on bathing, toilet use, tooth cleaning, shaving the hair, and trimming the nails.
  916.  
  917. Find this resource:
  918.  
  919. Yao Ping 姚平. Tang dai funü de shengming lichen 唐代婦女的生命歷程). Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, 2004.
  920.  
  921. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  922.  
  923. A detailed study on the life and position of women in the Tang dynasty, including Buddhist nuns (pp. 226–246).
  924.  
  925. Find this resource:
  926.  
  927. Ascetic Practices
  928. Ascetic practices are often connected to monastic life. Practices that involve bodily restraint or pain are the most frequently discussed in research. Prime examples of such studies are Kieschnick 2000 and Benn 2007, a comprehensive work on self-immolation. Goossaert 2002 discusses how these practices could be used as fund-raising activities.
  929.  
  930. Benn, James. Burning for the Buddha: Self-immolation in Chinese Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007.
  931.  
  932. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  933.  
  934. An essential and comprehensive work on the development of the practice of self-immolation in China.
  935.  
  936. Find this resource:
  937.  
  938. Goossaert, Vincent. “Starved of Resources: Clerical Hunger and Enclosures in Nineteenth-Century China.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 62.1 (2002): 77–133.
  939.  
  940. DOI: 10.2307/4126585Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  941.  
  942. A discussion of a particular practice of fund-raising by means of spectacular bodily asceticism while enclosed in a cage.
  943.  
  944. Find this resource:
  945.  
  946. Kieschnick, John. “Blood Writing in Chinese Buddhism.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 23.2 (2000): 177–194.
  947.  
  948. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  949.  
  950. A well-structured and very informative article on the origin and development of the practice of blood writing in China.
  951.  
  952. Find this resource:
  953.  
  954. Food and Clothing
  955. Food and clothing are seen by Buddhist monastics as essential markers of a Buddhist community. Benn 2005, Kieschnick 2005, and Heirman and De Rauw 2006 provide overviews of the development of food restrictions, while in Mather 1981 the focus is on how food should be obtained. Guo 2001 is a comprehensive and nicely illustrated overview of clothing. In Kieschnick 1999 and Adamek 2000, on the other hand, the discussion is on the symbolic impact of monastic clothing.
  956.  
  957. Adamek, Wendi. “Robes Purple and Gold: Transmission of the Robe in the Lidai fabao ji (Record of the Dharma-Jewel through the Ages).” History of Religions 40.1 (2000): 58–81.
  958.  
  959. DOI: 10.1086/463616Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  960.  
  961. An interesting view on the use of the so-called purple robe, a robe that during the Tang and Song dynasties was used as a symbol of special eminence. The study focuses on the Lidai fabao ji, an 8th-century text containing a sectarian history of (Chan) Buddhism.
  962.  
  963. Find this resource:
  964.  
  965. Benn, James A. “Buddhism, Alcohol and Tea in Medieval China.” In Of Tripod and Palate: Food, Politics, and Religion in Traditional China. Edited by Roel Sterckx, 213–236. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
  966.  
  967. DOI: 10.1057/9781403979278Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  968.  
  969. Intriguing information on the use and symbolic value of alcohol and tea in medieval Chinese Buddhism.
  970.  
  971. Find this resource:
  972.  
  973. Guo Huizhen 郭慧珍. Hanzu fojiao sengjia fuzhuang zhi yanjiu (漢族佛教僧伽服裝之研究). Taibei: Fagu Wenhua, 2001.
  974.  
  975. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  976.  
  977. A detailed study of traditional Chinese monastic clothing, with numerous relevant illustrations.
  978.  
  979. Find this resource:
  980.  
  981. Heirman, Ann, and Tom De Rauw. “Offenders, Sinners and Criminals: The Consumption of Forbidden Food.” Acta Orientalia 59.1 (2006): 57–83.
  982.  
  983. DOI: 10.1556/AOrient.59.2006.1.5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  984.  
  985. A discussion of the development of food restrictions in Chinese monasteries and the involvement of the state in food issues.
  986.  
  987. Find this resource:
  988.  
  989. Kieschnick, John. “The Symbolism of the Monk’s Robe in China.” Asia Major, 3rd ser. 12.1 (1999): 9–32.
  990.  
  991. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  992.  
  993. Focuses on the symbolic value of monastic robes in China.
  994.  
  995. Find this resource:
  996.  
  997. Kieschnick, John. “Buddhist Vegetarianism in China.” In Of Tripod and Palate: Food, Politics, and Religion in Traditional China. Edited by Roel Sterckx, 186–212. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
  998.  
  999. DOI: 10.1057/9781403979278Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1000.  
  1001. An interesting overview of the development of vegetarianism among Chinese Buddhists.
  1002.  
  1003. Find this resource:
  1004.  
  1005. Mather, Richard B. “The Bonze’s Begging Bowl: Eating Practices in Buddhist Monasteries of Medieval India and China.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 101.4 (1981): 417–424.
  1006.  
  1007. DOI: 10.2307/601214Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1008.  
  1009. A short but basic article on the practice of begging for food and its alternatives in medieval China against the background of Indian disciplinary guidelines.
  1010.  
  1011. Find this resource:
  1012.  
  1013. Material Culture, Music, and Entertainment
  1014. Material culture is part of daily life, in Buddhist monasteries as elsewhere. An essential introduction to the impact of artifacts on monastic business is Kieschnick 2003. Related to the domain of art is the role played by monastic music, as discussed in Picard 2012 and Szczepanski 2012. Entertainment is often criticized as a potential distraction from the Buddhist way of life. Yet, as analyzed by Magnin 1998, it can also be part of a Buddhist lifestyle when organized in a proper way. This certainly goes for tea drinking, as discussed by Benn 2015.
  1015.  
  1016. Benn, James A. Tea in China: A Religious and Cultural History. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2015.
  1017.  
  1018. DOI: 10.21313/hawaii/9780824839635.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1019.  
  1020. A comprehensive work on the development of tea drinking in traditional China. It includes very interesting research on the impact of Chan monastics on tea culture.
  1021.  
  1022. Find this resource:
  1023.  
  1024. Kieschnick, John. The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.
  1025.  
  1026. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027.  
  1028. An essential work on the impact of Buddhist monastic practices on material culture in China, with a focus on symbols of power and charisma, merit making, and some material artifacts (such as the chair, sugar, and tea).
  1029.  
  1030. Find this resource:
  1031.  
  1032. Magnin, Paul. “Le divertissement dans le bouddhisme chinois, entre ascèse et ‘moyens appropriés.’” Extrême-Orient, Extrême-Occident 20 (1998): 31–62.
  1033.  
  1034. DOI: 10.3406/oroc.1998.1054Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1035.  
  1036. A pioneer article on the role of entertainment in medieval Chinese Buddhist monasticism.
  1037.  
  1038. Find this resource:
  1039.  
  1040. Picard, François. L’incantation du Patriache Pu’an: Les avatars du syllabaire sanskrit dans la musique chinoise. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2012.
  1041.  
  1042. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1043.  
  1044. Detailed study of the musical composition Pu’an zu shi shen zou (普庵祖師神咒), which despite its attribution to the 12th-century monk Pu’an cannot be traced back earlier than the late 16th century. This study has a particular focus on the religious impact of the Pu’an zu shi shen zou on Chinese monasticism, and, as such, it is a rare example of an anthropological work in the field of Chinese Buddhism.
  1045.  
  1046. Find this resource:
  1047.  
  1048. Szczepanski, Beth. The Instrumental Music of Wutaishan’s Buddhist Monasteries: Social and Ritual Contexts. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2012.
  1049.  
  1050. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1051.  
  1052. Based on field research at Wutaishan, one of the most prominent holy mountains in Mainland China, the work presents an interesting history of Wutaishan and its music, with a strong focus on how monastic music has been adapted to current political, social, religious, and economic circumstances.
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