h has some similarities to huffman algorithm but is not a variation of this algorithm these optimal alphabetic binary trees are often used as binary search treesthe canonical huffman codeif weights corresponding to the alphabetically ordered inputs are in numerical order the huffman code has the same lengths as the optimal alphabetic code which can be found from calculating these lengths rendering hutucker coding unnecessary the code resulting from numerically reordered input is sometimes called the canonical huffman code and is often the code used in practice due to ease of encodingdecoding the technique for finding this code is sometimes called huffmanshannonfano coding since it is optimal like huffman coding but alphabetic in weight probability like shannonfano coding the huffmanshannonfano code corresponding to the example is  which having the same codeword lengths as the original solution is also optimal but in canonical huffman code the result is applicationsarithmetic coding can be viewed as a generalization of huffman coding in the sense that they produce the same output when every symbol has a probability of the form k in particular it tends to offer significantly better compression for small alphabet sizes huffman coding nevertheless remains in wide use because of its simplicity and high speed intuitively arithmetic coding can offer better compression than huffman coding because its code words can have effectively noninteger bit lengths whereas code words in huffman coding can only have an integer number of bits therefore there is an inefficiency in huffman coding where a code word of length k only optimally matches a symbol of probability k and other probabilities are not represented as optimally whereas the code word length in arithmetic coding can be made to exactly match the true probability of the symbolhuffman coding today is often used as a backend to some other compression methods deflate pkzips algorithm and multimedia codecs such as jpeg and mp have a frontend model and quantization followed by huffman coding or variablelength prefixfree codes with a similar structure although perhaps not necessarily designed by using huffmans algorithmclarification neededsee also    adaptive huffman coding    data compression    group  compression    huffyuv    lempelzivwelch    modified huffman coding  used in fax machines    shannonfano coding    varicodenoteswikimedia commons has media related to huffman coding    huffman d  a method for the construction of minimumredundancy codes pdf proceedings of the ire    doijrproc edit    van leeuwen jan  on the construction of huffman trees pdf icalp  retrieved  february     see ken huffman     hu t c tucker a c  optimal computer search trees and variablelength alphabetical codes siam journal on applied mathematics    doi jstor  editreferences    da huffman a method for the construction of minimumredundancy codes proceedings of the ire september  pp  huffmans original article    ken huffman profile david a huffman scientific american september  pp     thomas h cormen charles e leiserson ronald l rivest and clifford stein introduction to algorithms second edition mit press and mcgrawhill  isbn  section  pp hide    v    t    edata compression methodslossless entropy type     unary    arithmetic    golomb    huffman        adaptive        canonical        modified    range    shannon    shannonfano    shannonfanoelias    tunstall    universal        expgolomb        fibonacci        gamma        levenshteindictionary type     byte pair encoding    deflate    lempelziv        lz  lz lz  lz        lzjb        lzma        lzo        lzrw        lzs        lzss        lzw        lzwl        lzx        lz        statisticalother types     bwt    ctw    delta    dmc    mtf    paq    ppm    rleaudio concepts     bit rate        average abr        constant cbr        variable vbr    companding    convolution    dynamic range    latency    nyquistshannon theorem    sampling    sound quality  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privacy policy wikipedia is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation inc a nonprofit organizationparanoiafrom wikipedia the free encyclopediathis article is about the thought process for other uses see paranoia disambiguation and paranoid disambiguationparanoiac redirects here for the film see paranoiac filmit has been suggested that paranoid social cognition be merged into this article discuss proposed since march paranoiaclassification and external resourcesicd f f f ficd   mesh dparanoia is a thought process believed to be heavily influenced by anxiety or fear often to the point of irrationality and delusion paranoid thinking typically includes persecutory beliefs or beliefs of conspiracy concerning a perceived threat towards oneself eg everyone is out to get me paranoia is distinct from phobias which also involve irrational fear but usually no blame making false accusations and the general distrust of others also frequently accompany paranoia for example an incident most people would view as an accident or coincidence a paranoid person might believe was intentionalcontents     history     use in modern psychiatry     symptoms     causes         social and environmental         physical     theories and mechanisms         abnormal reasoning         anomalous perceptual experiences         motivational factors     violence and paranoia     see also     notes     references     further readinghistorythe word paranoia comes from the greek paa paranoia madness and that from pa para beside by and  noos mind the term was used to describe a mental illness in which a delusional belief is the sole or most prominent feature in this definition the belief does not have to be persecutory to be classified as paranoid so any number of delusional beliefs can be classified as paranoiacitation needed for example a person who has the sole delusional belief that he is an important religious figure would be classified by kraepelin as having pure paranoiaaccording to michael phelan padraig wright and julian stern  paranoia and paraphrenia are debated entities that were detached from dementia praecox by kraepelin who explained paranoia as a continuous systematized delusion arising much later in life with no presence of either hallucinations or a deteriorating course paraphrenia as an identical syndrome to paranoia but with hallucinations even at the present time a delusion need not be suspicious or fearful to be classified as paranoid a person might be diagnosed as a paranoid schizophrenic without delusions of persecution simply because their delusions refer mainly to themselvesuse in modern psychiatryin the dsmivtr paranoia is diagnosed in the form of    paranoid personality disorder f    paranoid schizophrenia a subtype of schizophrenia f    the persecutory type of delusional disorder which is also called querulous paranoia when the focus is to remedy some injustice by legal action faccording to clinical psychologist p j mckenna as a noun paranoia denotes a disorder which has been argued in and out of existence and whose clinical features course boundaries and virtually every other aspect of which is controversial employed as an adjective paranoid has become attached to a diverse set of presentations from paranoid schizophrenia through paranoid depression to paranoid personalitynot to mention a motley collection of paranoid psychoses reactions and statesand this is to restrict discussion to functional disorders even when abbreviated down to the prefix para the term crops up causing trouble as the contentious but stubbornly persistent concept of paraphreniasymptomsa popular symptom of paranoia is the attribution bias these individuals typically have a biased perception of the world often exhibiting more hostile beliefs a paranoid person may view someone elses accidental behavior as though it is with intent or threateningan investigation of a nonclinical paranoid population found that feeling powerless and depressed isolating oneself and relinquishing activities are characteristics that could be associated with those exhibiting more frequent paranoia some scientists have created different subtypes for the various symptoms of paranoia including erotic persecutory litigious and exalted in addition sigmund freuds analerotic character triad is a salient symptom of the paranoid person some traits of this character can make group activities challenging which may lead to other social dilemmasdue to the suspicious and troublesome personality traits of paranoia it is unlikely that someone with paranoia will thrive in interpersonal relationships most commonly paranoid individuals tend to be of a single status according to some research there is a hierarchy for paranoia the least common types of paranoia at the very top of the hierarchy would be those involving more serious threats social anxiety is at the bottom of this hierarchy as the most frequently exhibited level of paranoiacausessocial and environmentalsocial circumstances appear to be highly influential on paranoid beliefs based on data collected by means of a mental health survey distributed to residents of juarez mexico and el paso texas paranoid beliefs seem to be associated with feelings of powerlessness and victimization enhanced by social situations potential causes of these effects included a sense of believing in external control and mistrust which can be strengthened by lower socioeconomic status those living in a lower socioeconomic status may feel less in control of their own lives in addition this study explains that females have the tendency to believe in external control at a higher rate than males potentially making females more susceptible to mistrust and the effects of socioeconomic status on paranoiaemanuel messinger reports that surveys have revealed that those exhibiting paranoia can evolve from parental relationships and distrustworthy environments these environments could include being very disciplinary stringent and unstable it was even noted that indulging and pampering thereby impressing the child that he is something special and warrants special privileges can be contributing backgrounds experiences likely to enhance or manifest the symptoms of paranoia include increased rates of disappointment stress and a hopeless state of minddiscrimination has also been reported as a potential predictor of paranoid delusions such reports that paranoia seemed to appear more in older patients that had experienced higher levels of discrimination throughout their lives in addition to this it has been noted that immigrants are quite susceptible to forms of psychosis this could be due to the aforementioned effects of discriminatory events and humiliationphysicala paranoid reaction may be caused from a decline in brain circulation as a result of high blood pressure or hardening of the arterial wallsbased on data obtained by the dutch nemisis project in  there was an association between impaired hearing and the onset of symptoms of psychosis which was based on a fiveyear follow up some older studies have actually declared that a state of paranoia can be produced in patients that were under a hypnotic state of deafness this idea however generated much skepticism during its timetheories and mechanismsabnormal reasoningmany researcherswho like to believe that individuals with paranoia have some sort of cognitive deficit or impairment in reasoning ability studies have shown that there may not be a direct relationship between the impairments and psychotic delusions but they rather impact other areas of an individuals life such as social circumstances which can be important factors for delusions other research has shown that cognitive abilities may be altered when threats were involved this appears to be a common theme among those exhibiting psychotic delusions an investigation involving one hundred delusional patients did actually reveal that these individuals may have a tendency to jump to conclusions rather than looking for other potential informationanomalous perceptual experiencesa very prominent example of this theory is the capgras delusion or syndrome named after the psychiatrist joseph capgras this involves an individual perceiving that a certain important person within their life has been taken over by an impersonator ellis and young  report that the capgras delusion may be a result of an impaired ability of recognition such as brain damage those suffering from the capgras syndrome tend to have more suspicious personalities and have unusual visualizations about the world and surrounding environmentshyperacute attention is said to be more common in those with paranoia by being able to attend to unfavorable emotions at a higher level it is also likely that because paranoid personalities focus on threatening events and believe that most intentions are against them they will be more inclined to recognize these behaviors more frequentlymotivational factorsthe attribution model has been well talked about regarding paranoid or delusional individuals the idea is that they like to assign issues to external events motivation behind this characteristic may involve the need for that person to develop a better selfimage and maintain selfconfidence there have been debates about whether or not paranoid individuals are more likely to have a low or high selfperception and results have been generated for both of these hypotheses researchers have made a distinction between positive selfesteem and negative selfesteem revealing that paranoid delusional individuals have more of a negative selfevaluationviolence and paranoiait has generally been agreed upon that individuals with paranoid delusions will have the tendency to take action based on their beliefs more research is needed on the particular types of actions that are pursued based on paranoid delusions some researchers have made attempts to distinguish the different variations of actions brought on as a result of delusions wessely et al  did just this by studying individuals with delusions of which more than half had reportedly taken action or behaved as a result of these delusions however the overall actions were not of a violent nature in most of the informants the authors note that other studies such as one by taylor  have shown that violent behaviors were more common in certain types of paranoid individuals mainly those with a history of being offensive such as prisonersother researchers have found associations between childhood abusive behaviors and the appearance of violent behaviors in psychotic individuals this could be a result of their inability to cope with aggression as well as other people especially when constantly attending to potential threats in their environment the attention to threat itself has been proposed as one of the major contributors of violent actions in paranoid people although there has been much deliberation about this as well other studies have shown that there may only be certain types of delusions that promote any violent behaviors persecutory delusions seem to be one of thesehaving resentful emotions towards others and the inability to be able to understand what other people are feeling seem to have an association with violence in paranoid individuals this was based on a study of paranoid schizophrenics one of the common mental disorders that exhibit paranoid symptoms theory of mind capabilities in relation to empathy the results of this study revealed specifically that although the violent patients were more successful at the higher level theory of mind tasks they were not as good at being able to interpret others feelingssee alsowikiquote has quotations related to paranoia    anxiety    borderline personality disorder    conspiracy theory    delusions of reference               distrust    fusion paranoia    ideas of reference    monomania    narcissistic personality disorder    paranoid personality disorder    paranoid social cognition    pronoia    querulant    religious paranoia    schizophrenia    whispers the voices of paranoianotes    world english dictionary collins english dictionary  complete  unabridged th edition  william collins sons  co ltd  informal sense intense fear or suspicion esp when unfounded    paa henry george liddell robert scott a greekenglish lexicon on perseus digital library    pa henry george liddell robert scott a greekenglish lexicon on perseus digital library     henry george liddell robert scott a greekenglish lexicon on perseus digital library    phelan wright and stern     american psychiatric association diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders    american psychiatric association diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders p    american psychiatric association diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders p    mckenna  p    bentall and taylor  p     freeman et al     deutsch and fishman p     deutsch and fishman  p     deutch and fishman  p    freeman et al  p    mirowski and ross     deutsch and fishman  p     deutsch and fishman  p     bentall and taylor  p     bentall and taylor  p    bentall and taylor     freeman et al  p     capgras and reboullachaux     ellis and young  p    bentall and taylor  p     barrowclough et al     bental and taylor  p     wessely et al     bentall and taylor p     bentall and taylor  p     bjorkly     abuakel and abushualeh references    american psychiatric association diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders dsmivtr fourth edition text revision      abuakel a abushualeh k  theory of mind in violent and nonviolent patients with paranoid schizophrenia schizophrenia research elsevier bv    dois inactive  pmid     barrowclough c tarrier n humphreys l ward j gregg l andrews b  selfesteem in schizophrenia relationships between selfevaluation family attitudes and symptomatology journal of abnormal psychology american psychological association    doix pmid     bentall rp taylor jl  psychological processes and paranoia implications for forensic behavioural science behavioral sciences and the law wiley interscience    doibsl pmid  retrieved april      bjorkly s  psychotic symptoms and violence toward others  a literature review of some preliminary findings part  delusions aggression and violent behavior elsevier ltd    dois    capgras j reboullachaux j  illusion des  sosies  dans un dlire systmatis chronique history of psychiatry sage publications    doix retrieved  april     deutsch alberted fishman helened  paranoia the encyclopedia of mental health vol iv the encyclopedia of mental health iv new york ny us franklin watts pp  doi retrieved april      ellis hd young aw  accounting for delusional misidentifications the british journal of psychiatry royal college of psychiatrists    doibjp pmid  retrieved  april     freeman d garety pa bebbington pe smith b rollinson r fowler d kuipers e ray k dunn g  psychological investigation of the structure of paranoia in a nonclinical population pdf the british journal of psychiatry the royal college of psychiatrists    doibjp retrieved march      freeman d garety pa fowler d kuipers e bebbington pe dunn g  why do people with delusions fail to choose more realistic explanations for their experiences an empirical investigation journal of consulting and clinical psychology american psychological association    doix pmid     mckenna pj  schizophrenia and related syndromes great britain psychology press isbn     mirowski j ross ce  paranoia and the structure of powerlessness   american sociological association pp  jstor     phelan michael wright padraig stern julian  core psychiatry philadelphia saunders isbn     wessely s buchanan a reed a cutting j everitt b garety p taylor pj  acting on delusions i prevalence the british journal of psychiatry the royal college of psychiatrists   doibjp pmid further reading    canneti elias  crowds and power translated from the german by carol stewart gollancz london     deutsch alberted fishman helened  paranoia the encyclopedia of mental health vol iv the encyclopedia of mental health iv new york ny us franklin watts pp  doi retrieved april      farrell john  paranoia and modernity cervantes to rousseau cornell university press    freeman d  garety p a  paranoia the psychology of persecutory delusions hove psychology press isbn x    igmade stephan trby et al eds  codes architecture paranoia and risk in times of terror birkhuser  isbn     kantor martin  understanding paranoia a guide for professionals families and sufferers westport praeger press isbn     munro a  delusional disorder cambridge cambridge university press isbn x    sant p  delusional disorder punjab panjab university chandigarh isbn x    sims a  symptoms in the mind an introduction to descriptive psychopathology rd edition edinburgh elsevier science ltd isbn     siegel ronald k  whispers the voices of paranoia new york crown isbn show    v    t    eemotions listshow    v    t    emental 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