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Czech Reformation and Hussite Revolution

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Czech Reformation of the 15th century has long been overshadowed by the Protestant reformations that swept across Europe in the 16th century, but it was one of the most important social, intellectual, and political movements of the early modern period. The Czech Reformation produced the first national church separate from Roman authority, the first radical apocalyptic religious movements of the early modern period, and the first pacifist protestant church. However, research on this period has been hampered by the fact that most of the original and secondary sources have been published only in Czech. Jan Hus is the dominant figure of the Czech Reformation, and a separate bibliography on Hus is provided in this series. Hus’s followers, including his successor at Bethlehem Chapel, Jakoubek of Stříbro (d. 1429), were more radical than he was. In 1414, Jakoubek decisively broke with over 200 years of Catholic teaching by allowing laypersons to drink the wine representing the blood of Christ from the chalice (sub utraque species) in the mass. The practice of taking communion “in both kinds” was called Utraquism, and the chalice quickly became one of the most potent symbols of the Czech Reformation. By 1419, there was a clear division in the realm between the Catholic Church, which controlled a few important bishoprics such as Olomouc, and the Bohemian (or Utraquist) Church. In the summer of 1419, tens of thousands of people gathered for a massive outdoor religious service on a hill christened Mt. Tabor. The Taborites practiced a form of communal economy that has been of great interest to Marxist historians. After five crusades failed to suppress the Hussites, Catholic officials at the Council of Basel in 1434 grudgingly sanctioned the use of the lay chalice in Czech lands, but following the defeat of Czech Protestants at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, the Habsburgs successfully recatholicized Bohemia and Moravia, ending the Czech Reformation. In contrast to the Utraquists, the Jednota Bratrska (Unity of the Brethren) was a small but influential Hussite Church, established by Gregory the Patriarch in 1457 or 1458, in eastern Bohemia. Like the later Anabaptists, the Brethren insisted on separation of church and state and were pacifists. The Brethren translated the Bible into Czech and published several hymnals, confessions of faith, and catechisms. The most famous member of the Unity of the Brethren was John Amos Comenius (1592–1670) who was the last bishop of the Moravian branch of the church. When Czechs were forced to convert to Catholicism or leave Bohemia and Moravia in the 1620s, thousands of Brethren fled to Poland where the church endured for about a century.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. Many Czech historians consider the Czech Reformation the most important period of the nation’s history. František 1836–1867 and Gindley 1856–1858 highlight the importance of the Unity of the Brethren for the development of Czech culture. Höfler 1856–1866 rejects this view, asserting instead that the Czech Reformation retarded the development of Bohemia. Betts 1969, in contrast, provides a general orientation to the complexities of Czech history for Anglophone scholars. Macek 1965 presents one of the most succinct interpretations of the Hussite movement as a precursor to Marxism. Leff 1967 remains one of the most thorough, accurate, and even-handed treatments of the Czech Reformation in the context of late medieval dissent generally. Seibt 1987, a collection of articles on various aspects of the Czech Reformation and Hussite Revolution, comprises a useful overview of the whole period.
  8.  
  9. Betts, Reginald Robert. Essays in Czech History. London: Athlone, 1969.
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  11. Includes essays on the Czech Reformation within the context of Czech history generally.
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  13. František, Palacký. Geschichte von Böhme. 5 vols. Prague: Kronberger and Weber, 1836–1867.
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  15. This classic work of Czech scholarship inaugurated the modern era of critical historical scholarship written by Czechs. Palacký considered the Hussite Revolution to be the crucial period of Czech history, and he devoted a great deal of time to recovering the documents of that period.
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  17. Gindley, Anton. Geschichte der böhmischen Brüder. Prague, 1856–1858.
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  19. Though focused on the history of the Unity of the Brethren, this work serves as an introduction to the Czech Reformation generally.
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  21. Höfler, Konstanin von. Geschichtsschreiber der husitischen Bewegung. 3 vols. Vienna: Kaiserliche und königliche Hof- und Staatsdrückerie, 1856–1866.
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  23. An unsympathetic study of the Hussite movement that argues that the movement was doomed to failure because of internal dissent. Volume 2 includes the very important Chronicon Taboritarum, one of the oldest sources on the history of Tabor.
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  25. Leff, Gordon. Heresy in the Later Middle Ages: The Relation of Heterodoxy to Dissent, c. 1250–c. 1450. 2 vols. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1967.
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  27. Leff examines a variety of late-medieval protest movements and charts their inter-relationships. He is particularly helpful on the relationship of the Waldensians to the Hussites.
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  29. Macek, Josef. The Hussite Movement in Bohemia. Translated by Vilèm Fried and Ian Milner. Prague: Orbis, 1965.
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  31. Macek interprets the Czech Reformation from a Marxist historical perspective, paying particular attention to the Taborites as proto-communist revolutionaries.
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  33. Seibt, Ferdinand. Hussitenstudien: Personen, Ereignisse, Ideen einer frühen Revolution. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1987.
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  35. A collection of articles on the entire Hussite movement by one of the premier German historians of the early modern period. Seibt is particularly insightful in his analysis of the motivations of individuals in this period.
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  37. Journals and Bibliographies
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  39. There are few organizations dedicated to the study of the Czech Reformation. The Czech Academy of Sciences, which has gone by many names over the past century due to political changes in Czech lands, has been responsible for much of the research on the Czech Reformation. The great 19th century Czech histories, František 1836–1867 (cited under General Overviews), Goll, et al. 1873–1932, Sedlák 1913–1919, and Gindley 1856–1858 (cited under General Overviews), bring to light many documents and publish most of the surviving original sources related to the period. Zeman 1977 remains a useful bibliography of the entire Czech Reformation, and its topical organization guides researchers into different aspects of the period. Unfortunately, some topics, such as music, are not covered. The journals Communio Viatorum, published by the theology faculty of Charles University and Journal of Moravian History sometimes include articles on religious aspects of the Czech Reformation. The journal Pomůcka ke Studiu Historie Českobratrské Církve Evangelické a Jejích Sboru is dedicated to the history of Czech Protestantism and includes articles on the Czech Reformation. Unitas Fratrum: Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Gegenwartsfragen der Brüdergemeine focuses on the history of the Moravian Church, but includes articles on the Czech Unity of the Brethren. Most of the articles are in German. The most ambitious new research project on the Czech Reformation is the Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice, which is a biennial conference sponsored by the Czech Academy of Sciences. The conference papers are published in English, French, and German.
  40.  
  41. Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice.
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  43. Most of the leading researchers in the area of the Czech Reformation present papers at this biennial conference in Prague, sponsored by the Czech Academy of Sciences. Most of the papers are in English (many translated by Zdeněk David).
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  45. Communio Viatorum.
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  47. A journal of the Ecumenical Institute of the Comenius Faculty of Protestant Theology Prague and the International Secretariat of the Christian Peace Conference. Includes several articles related to religious and theological aspects of the Czech Reformation.
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  49. Goll, Jaroslav, J. Emler, J. Gebauer, J. V. Simak, and V. Novotny. Fontes Rerum Bohemicarum. 8 vols. Prague: František Palacký, 1873–1932.
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  51. One of the most important collections of Czech historical texts, including the most important documents of the Czech Reformation.
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  53. Journal of Moravian History.
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  55. A publication of the Moravian Historical Society, provides continuation of Transactions of the Moravian Historical Society. Unlike that earlier work, this is a peer-reviewed academic journal that includes articles on the Czech Reformation.
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  57. Pomůcka ke Studiu Historie Českobratrské Církve Evangelické a Jejích Sboru. Prague, 1982.
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  59. Extensive bibliography of primarily Czech-language works on Czech Protestantism.
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  61. Sedlák, Jan. Studie a texty k náboženským dějinám českým. 2 vols. Olomouc: Nákl. Matice Cyrilometodějské. 1913–1919.
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  63. An important collection of original texts and articles on Bohemian religious history, including many from the period of the Czech Reformation.
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  65. Unitas Fratrum: Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Gegenwartsfragen der Brüdergemeine.
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  67. The major focus of this journal, published in Herrnhut, Germany, is the Brüdergemine of Count Zinzendorf, which claims to be the successor of the Unity of the Brethren, but it does include some articles about the Brethren.
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  69. Zeman, Jarold Knox. The Hussite Movement and the Reformation in Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia 1350–1650: A Bibliographical Study Guide. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan, 1977.
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  71. Though dated, this remains a useful bibliography of resources on the Czech Reformation available in North American research libraries. It is organized by topic.
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  73. Radicalization of Hussite Theology
  74.  
  75. There is a general scholarly consensus that Jan Hus tried to remain within the framework of late medieval scholastic theology and did not view his reform effort as a rejection of the Catholic Church. However, his followers developed the implications of his thought in revolutionary ways. Patapios 2002 examines the genesis of the idea of Utraquism in Hus’s thought and shows that Hus and his student Jakoubek relied heavily on the writings of the church fathers to show that the Catholic Church had erred in denying the chalice to the laity. Holeton 1984 explores the radical implications of the Hussite’s insistence that all baptized children should receive the Eucharist and Cook 1975 explains why the eucharist was so central in Hussite theology. Kaminsky 1956 demonstrates that there were many streams of religious radicalism, other than the theology of Hus, that fueled the millennialism of the Taborites who made up the bulk of the Hussite armies. In Polišensky 1957, an English Lollard named Peter Payne plays a critical role in radicalizing early Hussite theology and making it a revolutionary force. The Waldensians probably also helped radicalize Hussite thought. They were a loosely organized medieval dissenter group that challenged Catholic claims to apostolic succession and who rejected the union of church and state. Cameron 2000 and Gonnet and Molnár 1974 are well-researched histories of the Waldensians, but Gonnet and Molnár gives greater attention to the Waldensians in Bohemia. Fudge 1995 examines the way Hussites used the image of the Antichrist to motivate anti-papal protest in Bohemia.
  76.  
  77. Cameron, Euan. Waldenses: Rejections of Holy Church in Medieval Europe. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
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  79. Cameron investigates the complicated history of one of the most persistent medieval heretical groups, from its beginnings in Laon to its transformation in the Reformation. He challenges the idea that medieval Waldensians were proto-protestants.
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  81. Cook, William R. “The Eucharist in Hussite Theology.” Archiv für reformationsgeschichte 66 (1975): 23–35.
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  83. As with any social upheaval, there were many factors that led to the Czech Reformation and Hussite rebellion, but Cook focuses attention on the most visible symbol of religious revolt in Bohemia, namely the transformation of the Eucharist into a popular ritual shared equally by all people.
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  85. Fudge, Thomas. “The Night of the Antichrist: Popular Culture, Judgment and Revolution in Fifteenth-century Bohemia.” Communio Viatorum 37 (1995): 33–45.
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  87. Fudge addresses the critical question of how the preaching of a medieval scholastic theologian like Jan Hus could incite insurrection by focusing on the popularization of his criticisms of the Church through means of popular media.
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  89. Gonnet, J., and A. Molnár. Les Vaudois au moyen âge. Turin: Claudiana, 1974.
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  91. Czech historian Amedeo Molnár was one of the world’s leading authorities on what he termed the “First Reformation,” which included medieval heretical movements like the Waldensians. This work is particularly useful in showing links between the Waldensians and Czech sects like the Unity of the Brethren.
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  93. Holeton, David R. “The Communion of Infants and Hussitism.” Communio Viatorum 27 (1984): 207–225.
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  95. Holeton examines the history and significance of the Utraquists’ decision to include all baptized persons, even infants, in the ritual of Holy Communion. This may have been the most radical aspect of the Bohemian Church until its suppression in the 17th century.
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  97. Kaminsky, Howard. “Hussite Radicalism and the Origins of Tabor, 1415–1418.” Medievalia et Humanistica 10 (1956): 102–130.
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  99. Kaminsky examines the various streams of religious radicalism that transformed some of the followers of Hus into apocalyptic warriors.
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  101. Patapios, Hieromonk. “Sub utruque specie: The Arguments of John Hus and Jacoubek of Stříbro in Defence of Giving Communion to the Laity under Both Kinds.” Journal of Theological Studies 53 (2002): 503–522.
  102. DOI: 10.1093/jts/53.2.503Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103. This is one of the few studies in English of the theology behind the Hussite decision to allow the laity to drink from the chalice in violation of canon law.
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  105. Polišensky, Josef, ed. Addresses and Essays in Commemoration of the Life and Works of the English Hussite Peter Payne-Englis 1456–1956. Prague: Charles University, 1957.
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  107. It is well known that the writings of John Wyclif played a crucial role in the Czech Reformation; less well known is the fact that one of the English Lollards travelled to Bohemia in the hopes of reforming the Church there, since it was impossible to reform the English Church. These essays explore various aspects of Peter Payne’s life and work as a religious and social agitator in Prague.
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  109. Hussite Revolution
  110.  
  111. One of the most fruitful areas of research in the Czech Reformation has been the period of the Hussite Revolution, especially the years 1419–1424. The leaders of the revolution, especially Jan Žižka remain Czech national heroes, as presented in Kejř 1988. Bartoš 1965–1966, Bartoš 1986, and Šmahel 1993 provide extensive accounts of the revolution and subsequent Hussite Wars. Almost simultaneously with the first defenestration of Prague (July 30, 1419), radical Hussites gathered in southern Bohemia to declare the coming of the Kingdom of God on earth. For the next fifteen years, Bohemia experienced a series of religious wars that included five crusades launched by the papacy, all of which were defeated by the Hussite armies led by the one-eyed knight Jan Žižka. Heymann 1955 presents the basic biography of Žižka, in so far as it can be determined, and his legendary military victories. Despite the English title, Kaminsky 1967 is not a history of the whole revolution. It focuses on the five-year period from the first defenestration of Prague to 1424, when the priests of Tabor decided to expel people they considered too radical, heretical, or bloodthirsty. Fudge 1998 offers a different perspective on the first twenty-five years of the Czech Reformation by examining the role of popular religion and propaganda in the revolt. Klassen 1999 investigates the important role that women played early in the revolt, which sometimes offended moderate and conservative Hussites.
  112.  
  113. Bartoš, František M. Husitká revoluce. 2 vols. Prague: Academy of Sciences, 1965–1966.
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  115. Though dated, this remains the classic Czech-language study of the Hussite revolution, written from a nationalistic perspective.
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  117. Bartoš, František M. The Hussite Revolution 1424–1437. Translated and edited John M. Klassen. New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1986.
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  119. Klassen’s translation of the second volume of Bartoš’s Husitká revoluce makes the work of one of the foremost Czech historians accessible to Anglophone researchers. Bartoš provides an analysis of the latter stages of the Hussite wars and the ultimate defeat of the radicals by the Czech nobility and bourgeoisie of Prague. This is a useful companion to Heymann 1955, but the author assumes familiarity with Czech history.
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  121. Fudge, Thomas. The Magnificent Ride: The First Reformation in Hussite Bohemia. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998.
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  123. This is a nuanced and detailed study of the early years of the Hussite revolution rather than a complete account of the Czech Reformation itself, despite the title. Fudge is particularly helpful in showing how, as a martyr, Hus became the most important unifying and radicalizing symbol for Czech dissenters. Also helpful is his presentation of how the Hussites tried (and failed) to export their rebellion against Rome to other parts of Europe.
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  125. Heymann, Frederick G. John Žižka and the Hussite Revolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1955.
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  127. This is one of the few, and the most comprehensive, studies of Žižka in English, and it has an excellent bibliography of older Hussite material. Žižka is one of the great military geniuses of European history, and Heymann discusses his innovative strategies, tactics, and weaponry. Particularly helpful is his discussion of Žižka’s complicated relationship with other Hussites and his decision to persecute the Free Spirits and Adamites, whom he considered dangerously radical.
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  129. Kaminsky, Howard. A History of the Hussite Revolution. Los Angeles and Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1967.
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  131. This remains the classic study of the early period of the Hussite revolution in English. Kaminsky investigates virtually all of the original source material and challenges the Marxist interpretation of the revolution that was dominant in Czech scholarship in the 1960s.
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  133. Kejř, Jiří. The Hussite Revolution. Prague: Orbis, 1988.
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  135. This brief overview of the history of the revolution discusses military and political aspects of the revolt. Particularly helpful are the images provided.
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  137. Klassen, John M. Warring Maidens, Captive Wives, and Hussite Queens: Women and Men at War and Peace in Fifteenth Century Bohemia. New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1999.
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  139. Klassen broke new ground in this examination of the prominent role played by women in the Czech Reformation, including women who participated in the early battles against the emperor. Klassen’s account is nuanced and shows that even a figure as powerful as Queen Sophia faced imprisonment for her support of Hus’s reforms.
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  141. Šmahel, František. Husitiká revoluce. 4 vols. Prague: Historický ústav, 1993.
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  143. The most comprehensive investigation of the entire Hussite revolution. It was published in German translation (Hussitische Revolution) in 2002.
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  145. Sociology of the Czech Reformation
  146.  
  147. The Czech Reformation was the first successful national rebellion of the early modern period, and there has been some very interesting research on the social origins of the reformation. Kalivoda 1961 provides one of the best arguments for interpreting the Czech Reformation as a class struggle against feudalism. Heymann 1954 and Heymann 1962 draw attention to the role that Czech towns, with their tradition of self-government, played in the reformation and rebellion. Šmahel 1996 examines the social background of the activists in the rebellion, noting the role that the intelligentsia played. Klassen 1990 examines the role of social unrest among the disadvantaged in Bohemia, who were struggling for survival in the early 15th century. The poor and marginalized were a major component of the early Taborite movement, but as Klassen 1978 demonstrates, the Czech Reformation relied on the support of powerful landowner who used religion as a way to reduce the authority of the monarch. David 2011 argues that the Czech Reformation succeeded because the commoners embraced Utraquism in large numbers. It is possible that Utraquism was much more a religion of the people than Lutheranism was in Germany or Anglicanism in England.
  148.  
  149. David, Zdeněk V. “Utraquism as a Commoners’ Church.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 8 (2011): 162–191.
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  151. David argues Utraquism, rather than Roman Catholicism, represented the popular religion in Bohemia because the Bohemian Church placed fewer burdens on the people, and priests were more focused on care of the people in their parishes. The Unity of the Brethren was too rigorous and judgmental for most people.
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  153. Heymann, Frederick G. “The Role of the Towns in the Bohemia of the Later Middle Ages.” Cahiers D’Histoire Mondiale 2 (1954): 721–750.
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  155. Although Prague and Tabor rightly receive most of the attention from scholars examining the Hussite Revolution, Heymann discusses the critical roles that other towns played in Czech culture and development of Hussitism.
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  157. Heymann, Frederick G. “City Rebellions in 15th Century Bohemia and their Ideological and Sociological Background.” Slavonic and East European Review 40 (1962): 324–340.
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  159. Using the tools of social history, Heymann examines the social forces that led to rebellion in Czech cities, most notably the New Town section of Prague.
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  161. Kalivoda, Robert. Husitská ideologies. Prague: Československá akademie věd, 1961.
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  163. A primarily Marxist interpretation of the Hussite revolution as a revolt against feudalism.
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  165. Klassen, John. The Nobility and the Hussite Revolution. New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1978.
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  167. Klassen examines the prominent role that the nobility played in the Hussite revolution, challenging the Marxist interpretation of the rebellion.
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  169. Klassen, John M. “The Disadvantaged and the Hussite Revolution.” International Review of Social History 35 (1990): 249–272.
  170. DOI: 10.1017/S0020859000009895Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  171. Using the tools of social history, Klassen examines the assumption that the Hussite revolt was the result of economic and political distress. While the disadvantaged played a crucial role in the revolution, it succeeded because of the leadership of the intellectual elites at the university and the political elites among the Czech landholders.
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  173. Šmahel, František. “The Social Background of the Hussite Movement.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 1 (1996): 17–22.
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  175. Šmahel is one of the leading experts on the Hussite period, and in this article he discusses the way different social classes responded to the reform movement.
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  177. Crusade against Hussites
  178.  
  179. The papacy and the Holy Roman Empire considered the Hussites heretics for allowing the laity to drink from the chalice and for challenging the legitimacy of the Council of Constance, which had condemned Jan Hus. Recounted in Hoensch 1996, after the death of his brother King Vaclav, in 1419, Emperor Sigismund tried to assume the throne of Bohemia only to find the nation in rebellion against him. Pope Martin V, who had been elevated by the Council of Constance agreed to call a series of crusades against the Hussite heretics. It was hoped that the Hussites could be exterminated, as the Cathars in Languedoc had been in the 13th century. Even Joan of Arc supported the crusade against the Bohemian heretics. Fudge 2002 publishes many of the most illuminating documents related to the campaign against the Hussites, while Heymann 1975 provides an overview of the crusades. Stöller 1929 focuses on the role of Austria in the effort to suppress religious dissent in Czech lands. Housley 2002 looks at the entire period of religious warfare in Europe, beginning with the Hussite revolt. The Hussite armies, led first by Žižka and later by the Taborite priest Procop Holý, were undefeated for more than a decade. Griffith 2005, a documentary film called Blind Courage, portrays Žižka as a Czech patriot defending the nation from foreign invaders. Verney 2009 provides a very engaging portrayal of Žižka and his battles. Holmes 1973 describes how, eventually, Cardinal Beaufort sought to use persuasion and diplomacy to bring Czech lands back into the Catholic Church. This effort culminated in the Council of Basel.
  180.  
  181. Fudge, Thomas A. The Crusade against Heretics in Bohemia, 1418–1437. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. 2002.
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  183. Fudge has provided English translations of over 200 documents related to the Hussite wars, including eye-witness accounts of many of the military engagements.
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  185. Griffith, Jerry, dir. Blind Courage: The Unique Genius of Jan Źiźka, 1999. DVD. Worcester, PA: Gateway Films, 2005.
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  187. Źiźka was not only a military genius, he fought his last battles completely blind. This documentary is one of the few films about one of the most intriguing figures of the history of religious war.
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  189. Heymann, Frederick G. “The Crusades against the Hussites.” In A History of the Crusades. Vol. III. Edited by Harry W. Hazard, 27–41. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1975.
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  191. Though brief, Heymann’s account of the crusades launched against the Hussites is enlightening, especially when read in the context of late medieval crusades against heretics generally.
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  193. Hoensch, J. K. Kaiser Sigismund. Herrscher an der Schwelle zur Neuzeit. Munich: Beck, 1996.
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  195. This is one of the few detailed biographies of Emperor Sigismund, whose career was in many ways determined by the Hussite revolution.
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  197. Holmes, G. A. “Cardinal Beaufort and the Crusade against the Hussites.” English Historical Review 88 (1973): 721–750.
  198. DOI: 10.1093/ehr/LXXXVIII.CCCXLIX.721Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. The English cardinal Henry Beaufort was appointed as papal nuncio to Bohemia, Germany, and Hungary in 1427, and Holmes examines how he tried to use persuasion rather than force to bring the Hussites back into the Catholic fold.
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  201. Housley, Norman. Religious Warfare in Europe 1400–1556. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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  203. Housley rightly begins his history of the religious wars of the early modern period with the Hussite wars of the 15th century, in which religious violence was connected to incipient nationalism.
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  205. Stöller, Ferdinand. “Österreich im Kriege gegen die Hussiten (1420–1436).” Jahrbuch für Landeskunde von Niederösterreich 22 (1929): 1–87.
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  207. Examination of the role that Austria played in the campaigns against the Hussites, which laid the groundwork for the eventual incorporation of Bohemia and Moravia into the Habsburg Empire.
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  209. Verney, Victor. Warrior of God, Jan Zizka and the Hussite Revolution. London: Frontline, 2009.
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  211. A former journalist, Verney has provided a well-researched and interesting history of Žižka that includes discussion of his innovative military methods, such as the war wagon.
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  213. Taborites and Other Radical Hussites
  214.  
  215. There were several types of religious and political radicals during the Czech Reformation, many of whom embraced an apocalyptic mentality that endorsed the use of violence against all who opposed their program of reform. Kaminsky 1957 demonstrates that chiliasm (a belief in a literal thousand-year reign of Christ on earth) inspired the Prague insurrection of 1419 and the formation of the Taborite and Orebite Brotherhoods. Cohn 1970 includes the Taborites in his study of various violent medieval sects but relies heavily on sources written by unsympathetic outsiders who viewed the Taborites as dangerous fanatics. Klassen 1990 (cited under Sociology of the Czech Reformation) examines the role of the poor and disadvantaged in the Czech Reformation, especially in the most radical wings of the movement. Fudge 1998 is one of the best discussions in English of the communal economy of the Taborites, which ultimately proved unsustainable. Kaminsky 1964 is one of the most thorough presentations of the development of the religious ideas and practices of the Taborites. Within a few years, the Taborites went from a radical and unstable millenarian sect to a well-organized church, under a bishop and with its own doctrine and ritual. Kaminsky 1962 argues that the heresy of the Free Spirit, which originated among the Beghards in medieval France, played a significant role in the Czech Reformation, especially among Taborites. A turning point in the revolution was when the priests of Tabor turned to Žižka to suppress the Free Spirits through violence. It is possible that the word “Pickart,” often used to describe those who denied the physical presence of Christ in the mass, was a corruption of the term Beghard. Lášek 1998 looks at the radical commune of Horeb, which played a crucial role in the Hussite victories of the 1420s and 14030s. Dieter 1987 focuses attention on the way the Taborites interpreted Scripture and how this differed from the Protestant reformers. Heymann 1959 looks at one of the most important sources on life in the city of Tabor, an eyewitness account written by the future Pope Pius II. Despite his opposition to the “heretics” in Tabor, Pius Aeneas provided a very detailed and insightful portrait of life in a unique medieval city, where women discussed scripture and priests managed the common funds for the community.
  216.  
  217. Cohn, Norman. The Pursuit of the Millennium, rev. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970.
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  219. Cohn places the Taborites in the larger context of medieval millenary sects that hoped God would intervene violently to overturn the current social order. His account focuses on the most extreme aspects of Taborite violence and fanaticism, and he fails to acknowledge that the Taborites developed a remarkably stable church and social order that in many ways anticipated the later Calvinist movement in Switzerland.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Dieter, Hans Jörg. “Das Verständnis von Schrift in der Confessio Taboritarium.” Communio Viatorum 30 (1987): 157–171.
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  223. The Taborites produced the first confession of faith that made the Bible the rule for true Christian doctrine and practice. As such, Dieter argues, they may be considered the first Protestants, but they did not advocate that the church should rely on pscripture alone. Like most other Hussites, the Taborites also relied on the teachings of the Church Fathers in interpreting scriptures.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Fudge, Thomas. “Neither Mine nor Thine: Communist Experiments in Hussite Bohemia.” Canadian Journal of History 33 (1998): 25–48.
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  227. One of the most interesting and important features of the Czech Reformation was the attempt to create Christian communes that anticipated the reign of Christ on earth. Fudge examines the development of these experiments and the reasons they failed.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Heymann, Frederick G. “Pius Aeneas among the Taborites.” Church History 28 (1959): 281–309.
  230. DOI: 10.2307/3162159Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. Aeneas Silvius Bartholomeus was a leading papal diplomatic before he was elected as pope in 1458. In 1452, he visited Bohemia and reached an agreement with George Podebrady, who had been elected king. During that time he visited the city of Tabor, which had just capitulated to the king and was being brought under submission to the Bohemian Church. His eyewitness account remains an invaluable source of information on life in Tabor.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Kaminsky, Howard. “Chiliasm and the Hussite Revolution.” Church History 26 (1957): 43–71.
  234. DOI: 10.2307/3161801Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Kaminsky highlights the role that ideas played in the Hussite rebellion against both the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire. Radical Hussites were emboldened in their opposition because they believed that Christ’s millennial reign would begin once the forces of the antichrist were defeated.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Kaminsky, Howard. “The Free Spirit in the Hussite Revolution.” In Millennial Dreams in Action. Edited by Sylvia L. Thrupp, 166–186. The Hague: Mouton, 1962.
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  239. Kaminsky did more than any historian to uncover the history of the Free Spirit movement in the Czech Reformation.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Kaminsky, Howard. “The Religion of Hussite Tabor.” In The Czechoslovak Contribution to World Culture. Edited by Miloslav Rechcigl Jr., 210–223. The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1964.
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  243. Kaminsky challenges the assumption that the Taborites were either fanatics or merely disaffected revolutionaries. He examines their theology and religious practices, which mark a significant step toward Protestantism.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Lášek, Jan B. “Priest Ambrož and East-Bohemian Utraquism: Hradec and Oreb.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 3 (1998): 105–118.
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  247. An examination of the leader of radical Hussite commune of Horeb in East Bohemia, which was closely allied with Tabor.
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  249. The Bohemian (Utraquist) Church
  250.  
  251. With the defeat of Emperor Sigismund in 1420, the masters of the University of Prague were free to implement reform of the national church of Bohemia. The new Bohemian Church is often called the Utraquist Church from the Latin phrase sub utraque specie; however that was not the official name of the church. Older sources often call the Utraquists Calixtines, from the Latin word for chalice. In addition to the practice of communion in both kinds, the Utraquists reduced the required church tithes, secularized many church properties, and greatly conscribed the power of church courts and the inquisition. It should be noted that the Utraquists viewed themselves as Catholics, whereas the papacy considered them schismatics and heretics. There is strong evidence that the majority of the people in Bohemia and Moravia were Utraquists until the Thirty Years War devastated the country. David 1993 identifies the Bohemian Church as the true via media between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. David 2003 convincingly argues that the majority of Utraquists resisted Lutheranism and continued to look for a reconciliation with Rome that would protect the essential features of the Bohemia Church. His argument that Utraquism was a form of Catholic liberalism seems anachronistic. Cook 1973 demonstrates that Wyclif’s writing were foundational for the establishment of the Bohemian Church, even though the Utraquists rejected his views on the Eucharist. Heymann 1959 and Šimek 1938 discuss the career of Jan Rokycana, who preached at the Týn Church in the Old Town of Prague in the mid-15th century. Rokycana implemented the Hussite reforms and assisted George Podebrady in repressing the Taborites and other radical groups. However, he failed to gain formal recognition from the papacy of his election as archbishop. Eberhard 1981 looks at the development of confessionalism in Bohemia, especially in relation to the ruling nobility. Fudge 1996 examines the development of the Utraquist consistory in Prague after the election of Jan Rokycana, with particular attention to how the consistory tried to implement the reform of church practice and the moral order of the kingdom.
  252.  
  253. Cook, William R. “John Wyclif and Hussite Theology 1415–1436.” Church History 42 (1973): 335–349.
  254. DOI: 10.2307/3164390Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. A great deal of attention has been given to the role of Wyclif in the development of Jan Hus’s theology, but Cook argues that Wyclif’s writings continued to shape the development of the Bohemian Church after the death of Hus.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. David, Zdeněk V. “Bohemian Utraquism in the Sixteenth Century: The Distinction and Tribulation of a Religious ‘Via Media’.” Communio Viatorum 35 (1993): 195–231.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. By and large, Czech historians and Protestant historians in general have been critical of the Utraquists for trying to retain Catholic doctrine and ritual while reforming the church from its worst forms of abuse and corruption. David argues that the Utraquists represented the true via media between Protestantism and ultramontane Catholicism.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. David, Zdeněk V. Finding the Middle Way: The Utraquists’ Liberal Challenge to Rome and Luther. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2003.
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  263. This is the most thoroughly researched and sympathetic presentation of Utraquism ever written and is an essential resource for any serious study of the Czech Reformation. David argues that the Bohemian Church developed a unique form of liberal Catholicism during the confessional age of the Reformation.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Eberhard, Winifried. Konfessionsbildung und Stände in Böhmen 1478–1530. Munich: Veröffentlichungen des Collegium Carolinum 38, 1981.
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  267. Detailed examination of the process of confessionalization in relationship to the social estates in Bohemia prior to the writing of the Augsburg Confession.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Fudge, Thomas A. “Reform and the Lower Consistory in Prague, 1437–1497.” In The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. Vol. 2. Edited by Zdeněk V. David and David R. Holeton, 67–96. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 1996.
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  271. Fudge examines the complicated process by which George Podebrady and Jan Rokycana organized the Utraquists in Bohemia as a new national church under its own consistory after the defeat of the Taborites.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Heymann, Frederick G. “John Rokycana: Church Reformer between Hus and Luther.” Church History 28 (1959): 240–280.
  274. DOI: 10.2307/3162158Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. In this article, Heymann summarizes the long career of Rokycana and his relationship to Podebrady. Heymann shows that Rokycana was very faithful to the theology of Hus but prepared the way for the more radical Unity of the Brethren, founded by his nephew.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Šimek, František. M. Jana Rokycany. Prague: Czech Academy, 1938.
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  279. Detailed study of the theology and preaching of Rokycana, the leading Czech theologian after the death of Hus, who was elected archbishop of the Bohemian Church in 1448 but was never consecrated.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Efforts to Legitimate the Bohemian Church
  282.  
  283. Unlike the Taborites and other radical Hussite sects, the Utraquists repeatedly sought recognition from Rome that would protect the key features of the Hussite reform. The Bohemians (Utraquists and Taborites) were invited to the Council of Basel in the early 1430s to present their “Four Articles of Prague” as a program for church reform. The Four Articles called for communion in both kinds, freedom to preach the gospel, secularization of some church properties, and eradication of immorality especially in the church. Christianson 1985 examines the roots of the Four Articles in the theology of Wyclif. Jacob 1949 and Cook 1978 examine the documents of the council and discuss the negotiations between the Utraquists and Catholics that led to the signing of the Compacta, whereby the Catholic Church agreed to tolerate the lay chalice in Bohemia. The Compacta made it possible for an Utraquist nobleman, George of Podebrady, to be accepted as the legitimate king of Bohemia in 1458, making him the first non-Catholic ruler in Latin Christendom. Odložilîk 1965 and Heymann 1965 examine the career of the “heretic king,” who was also the last Czech to serve as monarch of Bohemia and Moravia. Both accounts highlight George’s attempt to legitimate the Bohemian Church alongside the Catholic Church in his realm. Zeman 1973 identifies the Peace of Kutna Hora decree of 1485, which allowed individual subjects to choose whether to worship as Catholics or Utraquists, as the first example of religious toleration in Europe. Except for sporadic efforts to eliminate the Unity of the Brethren, the consistory of the Bohemian Church rarely pursued allegations of heresy. Bohemia and Moravia were notable for religious pluralism (Catholic, Utraquist, Brethren, Lutheran, Reformed, and Anabaptist) until the Thirty Years War.
  284.  
  285. Christianson, Gerald. “Wyclif’s Ghost: The Politics of Reunion at the Council of Basel.” Annuarium Historiae Conciliorum 17 (1985): 193–208.
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  287. Despite the fact that his writing had been condemned as heretical and his corpse consigned to the flames, Wyclif continued to impact the Church as late as the 1430s, when Hussites used his arguments in the Four Articles of Prague.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Cook, William R. “Negotiations between the Hussites, the Holy Roman Empire and the Roman Church, 1427–36.” East Central Europe 5 (1978): 90–104.
  290. DOI: 10.1163/187633078X00043Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. By 1427, it was clear that the emperor could not restore Catholicism to Bohemia and Moravia through military means. The Hussites, led by the Taborite army, had defeated every crusade; therefore, the emperor and Pope Martin V sought a diplomatic solution, which culminated in inviting Hussites to the Council of Basel.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Heymann, Frederick G. George of Bohemia: King of Heretics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965.
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  295. Heymann examines the mature period of the Hussite revolution, when the nobility elected an Utraquist to be king of Bohemia. Heymann is particularly helpful in making sense of the rise of Podebrady.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Jacob, E. F. “The Bohemians at the Council of Basel, 1433.” In Prague Essays. Edited by R. W. Seton-Watson, 81–123. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1949.
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  299. This is one of the few comprehensive presentations of the debates over the Czech Reformation at the council, and it includes Rokycana’s defense of Utraquism.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Odložilîk, Otakar. The Hussite King: Bohemia in European Affairs, 1440–1471. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1965.
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  303. This is one of the few substantive studies in English of the Bohemian king, and it provides a detailed picture of the complexities of Bohemian politics in the years following the Council of Basel.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Zeman, Jarold Knox. “The Rise of Religious Liberty in the Czech Reformation.” Central European History 2 (1973): 128–147.
  306. DOI: 10.1017/S0008938900015922Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. After the destructive religious wars of the early 15th century, a form of religious toleration emerged in Bohemia and Moravia that was based on the fact that the majority of the population preferred Utraquism to Catholicism.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Petr Chelčicky and Czech Pacifism
  310.  
  311. One figure stands out as a unique thinker and writer during the Hussite wars of religion. Petr Chelčický is one of the few pacifist authors of the late Middle Ages, and his writings influenced modern pacifists, most notably Leo Tolstoy. Chelčický was also one of the first intellectuals to argue for a complete separation of church and state. Boubín 2005 and Wagner 1983 present what is known about the life of Chelčický and discuss the development of his thought. A layperson in southern Bohemia, he was strongly influenced by Hus and probably had contact with Waldensians. Though he was critical of the Taborites and the Utraquists, he maintained contact with the leaders of both branches of the Hussites. He wrote over fifty works in Czech, including treatises and letters, published in Goll 1878–1882. Molnár 1947 provides an English translation of a portion of his most important work, Net of Faith, in which Chelčicky criticizes the emperor and the pope for tearing apart the church. Chelčicky 1964 presents three of his most important treatises, which discuss his idea that the Law of Christ as presented in the Sermon on the Mount should be the only law for the church. Chelčicky rejected any notion that violence is compatible with Christian love, and he questioned whether Christians could assume any position in government. Iwanczak 1997 examines the implicit anarchism in Chelčicky, but it should be noted that Chelčicky was speaking only of Christian social obligations. Although Chelčicky never founded his own sect, his writings were the inspiration for the founding of the Unity of the Brethren shortly after his death, as presented in Spinka, 1943.
  312.  
  313. Boubín, Jaroslav. Petr Chelčický: Myslitel a Reformátor. Prague: Vyšehrad, 2005.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. This is the most recent biography of Chelčický and is based on the best Czech historical research.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Chelčicky, Peter. “Treatises on Christianity and the Social Order.” Translated and edited Howard Kaminsky. In Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History Vol. 1. Edited by William M. Bowsky, 105–179. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1964.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. English translations of three of Chelčický’s most important social treatises: “On Spiritual Warfare,” “On the Holy Church,” and “On the Triple Division of Society.” These are the most succinct expressions of Chelčický’s rejection of the idea of Christendom and his endorsement of true Christianity as a pacifist movement.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Goll, Jaroslav, Quellen und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Böhmischen Brüder. 2 vols. Prague: Otto, 1878–1882.
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  323. Volume 2 is a detailed study of Chelčický’s writings: “Peter Chelčický und seine Lehre.” Goll helped rescue Chelčický’s writings from obscurity and revealed him to be an innovative and creative late-medieval theorist and social critic.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Iwanczak, W., “Between Pacifism and Anarchy: Peter Chelcicky Teaching about Society: Hussite Views on the Organisation of Christian Society.” Journal of Medieval History 23 (1997): 271–283.
  326. DOI: 10.1016/S0304-4181(97)00008-0Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Insightful discussion of Chelčický’s political and social theories, especially the implications of his Christian antinomianism.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Molnár, Enrico C. S. “A Study of Peter Chelčický’s Life and a Translation from Czech of Part One of His Net Of Faith.” BD thesis: Pacific School of Religion, 1947.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. The most valuable aspect of this thesis is the English translation of the first portion of Chelčický’s most important work. Molnár also provides a helpful bibliography of early scholarship on Chelčický.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Spinka, Matthew. “Peter Chelčický, the Spiritual Father of the Unitas Fratrum.” Church History 12 (1943): 271–291.
  334. DOI: 10.2307/3160037Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Spinka summarizes for Anglophone readers the consensus among Czech historians that the early Unity of the Brethren relied heavily on the theology and social theories of Chelčický.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Vogl, Carl. Peter Cheltschizki: ein Prophet an der Wende der Zeiten. Zurich: Rotapfel-verlag, 1926.
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  339. Though dated, this remains a useful introduction to the life and writings of Chelčický.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Wagner, Murray. Peter Chelčicky: A Radical Separatist in Hussite Bohemia. Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1983.
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  343. This is the only English-language biography of Chelčický, and the author sifts skillfully the confusing historical record on Chelčický. The book suffers somewhat from poor organization, and the author’s own commitment to the Anabaptist tradition sometimes interferes with his analysis of Chelčický as a unique figure in European history.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. History of the Unity of the Brethren
  346.  
  347. Arguably the most significant church to emerge during the Czech Reformation was the Jednota Bratrská or Unity of the Brethren (also known as the Unitas Fratrum). The Unity began in the mid-1450s, when Jan Rokycana gave his nephew Gregory some of the writings of Peter Chelčicky. Gregory and a group of friends were persuaded by Chelčicky that true Christianity must be based on the Law of Christ found in the Sermon on the Mount, and sometime around 1457, they formed a community in an isolated area of George Podebrady’s estate of Lititz. The group attracted many people who had been part of the Taborites, Orebites, Waldensians, Free Spirits, and other radical religious groups of the Czech Reformation. Crews 2008, De Schweinitz 1901, and Říčan 1992 are confessional histories written by scholars associated with the modern Unitas Fratrum, but Říčan and Crews are trustworthy. Müller 1922–1932 remains the single most comprehensive and critical history of the Brethren. Müller was perhaps the first non-Czech to be able to study the Acta Fratrum Unitatis. Štrupl 1968 discusses the life of Bishop Jan Blahoslav, who began the Acta. Holeton 1996 explores the origin of the Brethren as a sectarian movement within Hussitism, while Comenius 1897 presents the Brethren as the first protestant church.
  348.  
  349. Acta Fratrum Unitatis (1450s–1620s). Manuscript. Czech and Latin. Housed in the National Archives of the Czech Republic.
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  351. This is the most important collection of original sources on the Unity of the Brethren written by the Brethren themselves. The original manuscripts are stored in the Czech national archives in Prague. A German translation made by Joseph Müller is housed in the archive at Herrnhut. An English translation is available at the Moravian Archives in Bethlehem, PA. Neither translation has been published.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Comenius, John Amos. Ratio Disciplinae: Church Constitution of the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. Translated by B. Seifferth. London: Mallalieu, 1897.
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  355. Though Comenius’s history is not entirely accurate, this remains a very helpful presentation of the ecclesiology and doctrine of the Unity of the Brethren by its most famous bishop. Republished with a new introduction by C. Daniel Crews. Text available online.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Crews, C. Daniel. Faith, Love, Hope: A History of the Unitas Fratrum. Winston-Salem, NC: Moravian Archives, 2008.
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  359. This is a very engaging and interesting confessional history of the Unity of the Brethren by one of the leading scholars of the Moravian Church.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. De Schweinitz, Edmund. The History of the Church Known as the Unitas Fratrum or The Unity of the Brethren, Founded by the Followers of John Hus, the Bohemian Reformer and Martyr. 2d ed. Bethlehem, PA: Moravian Publications Office, 1901.
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  363. Although seriously outdated, this is a colorful history of the Brethren that includes a wealth of stories and legends passed down by members of the church.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Holeton, David. “Church or Sect? The Jednota Bratrská and the Growth of Dissent from Mainline Utraquism.” Communio Viatorum 38 (1996): 5–35.
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  367. Discussion of the origin of the Unity of the Brethren as a sectarian movement and its slow transformation into a protestant church.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Müller, Joseph. Geschichte der böhmischen Brüder. 3 vols. Herrnhut: Verlag der Missionsbuchhandlung, 1922–1931.
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  371. Relying heavily on the Acta Fratrum Unitatis, Müller gives an exhaustive account of the history, doctrine, practices, and controversies of the Unity of the Brethren from its founding to its suppression. Particularly helpful is his discussion of the schism of the 1490s, when Luke of Prague led the Brethren away from their original sectarianism.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Říčan, Rudolf. The History of the Unity of the Brethren: A Protestant Hussite Church in Bohemia and Moravia. Translated by Daniel C. Crews. Bethlehem, PA: Moravian Church in America, 1992.
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  375. This is an English translation of the original Czech history written by Říčan in the 1950s. Říčan was conversant with Czech historiography on the Brethren, but this is primarily a confessional history.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Štrupl, Miloš, “Jan Blahoslav: Father and Charioteer of the Lord’s People in the Unitas Fratrum.” Czechoslovakia Past and Present 2 (1968): 1232–1246.
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  379. One of the few articles in English on the most important 16th century scholar in the Unity of the Brethren.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Social and Political Doctrine of the Brethren
  382.  
  383. Much of the scholarly interest in the Unity of the Brethren has been focused on their distinctive social and political teachings. Brock 1957 remains the best examination in English of the radical social teachings of the original Brethren, because it is thoroughly grounded in the original sources. Fousek 1961 is helpful in discussing the nature of perfectionism for the early Brethren and how this shaped their understanding of economics and politics. For the first forty years the Brethren did not allow nobles to join the church without renouncing their status and authority over their subjects. Members were expected to earn their living through labor and manufacturing rather than through trade or professions. Peschke 1981 emphasizes the role that Taborite theology played in the development of the Unity as a separate church. In the 1490s, the Unity of the Brethren split between the Old Brethren, who wanted to retain the original sectarian rigor of the founders, and the New Brethren, who moderated the rules to allow for more social engagement, including serving on juries. Molnár 1961 and Crews 2005 take more positive views of Luke of Prague’s efforts to moderate the pacifism and separatism of the Brethren than does Brock 1957. De Vooght 1974 discusses Erasmus of Rotterdam’s surprising endorsement of the theology and moral teachings of the Brethren in the early days of the Reformation. Odložilîk 1973 addresses the opposition of the secular and ecclesiastical authorities to the Brethren, which was codified in the Edict of St. James in 1508, and which led ultimately to the destruction of the church.
  384.  
  385. Brock, Peter, The Political and Social Doctrines of the Unity of Czech Brethren in the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries. The Hague: Mouton, 1957.
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  387. Brock’s primary interest was the development of pacifism in Western culture. He demonstrates convincingly that the original Brethren based their social teaching and church discipline on the pacifism of Chelčický, but the strongest part of the book is richly documented analysis of the schism between the Old Brethren and the New Brethren. He blames Luke of Prague for moving the Unity away from its original strict pacifism.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Crews, C. Daniel. “Luke of Prague: Theologian of the Unity.” The Hinge: A Journal of Christian Thought for the Moravian Church 12.3 (2005): 21–54.
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  391. Under the leadership of Luke of Prague, the Unity developed from a medieval sect into a Protestant church with its own confessional statements, liturgy, discipline, hymnals, and schools. Unlike Brock 1957, Crews interprets Luke’s work as progressive in that he allowed the Brethren to participate more actively in society and cooperate with other Protestant churches.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. De Vooght, Paul. “Un episode peu connu de la vie d’Erasme: sa recontre avec les hussites bohemes en 1519–1521.” Irénikon 47 (1974): 27–47.
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  395. When some Czech humanists ridiculed the Unity of the Brethren as unlettered fanatics, Erasmus responded with a surprisingly positive and insightful endorsement of their doctrine and practice, which he compared to that of the early church. However, Erasmus rejected the Brethren’s request to publicly defend their church.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Fousek, Marianka S. “The Perfectionism of the Early Unitas Fratrum.” Church History 30 (1961): 396–413.
  398. DOI: 10.2307/3161217Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Fousek discusses the sectarian rigor of the early Brethren in terms of Christian perfectionism that was rooted in early monastic ideals.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Fousek, Marianka S. “Spiritual Direction and Discipline: A Key to the Flowering and Decay of the 16th Century Unitas Fratrum.” Archive for Reformation History 62 (1971): 207–224.
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  403. Fousek argues that the strict discipline of the Unity of the Brethren was the reason for its success despite decades of often severe persecution. As the Brethren conformed more to the Lutheran and Reformed churches, their discipline waned, and Fousek blames this for the eventual disappearance of the church.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Molnár, Amedeo. “Luc de Prague devant la crise de l’Unité des annees 1490.” Communio Viatorum 4 (1961).
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  407. Luke of Prague was one of the first priests of the Brethren to have had formal theological education, and he was the leader of the New Brethren during the crisis over perfectionism in the 1490s.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Odložilîk, Otakar. “A Church in a Hostile State: The Unity of the Czech Brethren.” Central European History 6 (1973): 111–127.
  410. DOI: 10.1017/S0008938900015910Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. In light of the Brethren’s refusal to swear oaths or participate in the military, it is not surprising that they often suffered persecution from the crown and local officials. The Brethren also refused to reverence the host in communion, which offended Catholics, Utraquists, and Lutherans alike.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Peschke, Erhard. Kirche und Welt in der Theologie der Böhmischen Brüder Vom Mittelalter zur Reformation. Berlin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1981.
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  415. This is a succinct presentation of the Brethren’s social teachings and how they evolved over the course of the Protestant Reformation.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Theology and Ecclesiology of the Brethren
  418.  
  419. Even though the Brethren were suspicious of academic theology, especially scholasticism, Atwood 2008 argues that they developed a rich and subtle theological tradition that focused on orthopraxy rather than orthodoxy. Lochman 1979 argues that the Czech Reformation, which is called the First Reformation, was the beginning of the Protestant Reformation because of the centrality of the Word of God in the movement. The Brethren’s biblical hermeneutic gave priority to the New Testament, especially the teachings of Jesus, but they based their ecclesiology on the example of the early church found in the New Testament and the writings of the Church Fathers. Štrupl 1964 argues that the fact that the Brethren were willing to write so many confessions of faith means that they had a different understanding of confessional statements than other Protestants who viewed confessions as prescriptive rather than descriptive. Atwood 2006 tries to explain the seeming paradox between the willingness of the Brethren to cooperate with other Protestant churches and their separatism by linking both to their pacifist orientation. Wernisch 2005 examines the apologetical writing of one of the most important of the Brethren’s bishops, which provides insight into the Brethren’s self-consciousness during the Reformation. Fousek 1965 examines one of the first Protestant manuals for the training of priests and shows that that Brethren’s understanding of salvation shifted away from a strict “works righteousness” toward a more Protestant stance in the time of Luke of Prague. Müller 1982 and Atwood 2007 examine the catechisms of the Brethren as an expression of their theology. One of the most controversial claims of the Brethren was that their priests and bishops were legitimate successors of the apostles, even though the Brethren had rejected the apostolic succession of the Roman Catholic Church. Müller 1899 examined the origin of the Brethren’s episcopacy and the church’s understanding of the orders of ministry.
  420.  
  421. Atwood, Craig D. “Separatism, Ecumenism, and Pacifism: The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren in the Confessional Age.” In Confessionalism and Pietism: Religious Reform in Early Modern Europe. Edited by Fred van Lieburg, 71–90. Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 2006.
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  423. In many regions of Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, rulers used religious confessions as a way to create social cohesion. That process also solidified divisions between churches. Atwood argues that the Unity of Brethren went against this trend by insisting on maintaining a separate existence while entering into ecumenical agreements with other churches.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Atwood, Craig D. “Catechism of the Bohemian Brethren, Translated and Edited from the 1523 Version.” Journal of Moravian History 2 (2007): 91–118.
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  427. This is a translation of the edition of the Brethren’s catechism first published by Martin Luther in 1523, and it demonstrates how much of the theology of the original Brethren was preserved by Luke of Prague.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Atwood, Craig D. Theology of the Czech Brethren from Hus to Comenius. University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 2008.
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  431. This is the only comprehensive study of the development of the theology of the Brethren in English. Unfortunately, the author does not read Czech; therefore his work relies heavily on secondary sources and translations.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Fousek, Marianka S. “The Second-Generation Soteriology of the Unitas Fratrum: A Study in Luke’s Directives to Priests, 1527.” Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte 76 (1965): 41–63.
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  435. Luke of Prague wrote the first manual for the education of Protestant clergy, and Fousek examines it to determine how the Brethren understood salvation in the days of Luke.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Lochman, Jan Milíč. Living Roots of the Reformation. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1979.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. This is a brief but engaging book on the so-called First Reformation, which focused on practical living rather than doctrinal precision.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Müller, Joseph. Das Bischoftum der Brüder Unität. Herrnhut, 1899.
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  443. The Unity of the Brethren was one of the very few Protestant churches to have bishops, priests, and deacons. Müller discusses in detail the origin of the Brethren’s episcopacy and shows that the later assertion that the Waldensians had conferred apostolic succession is unfounded. More important is his analysis of the Brethren’s understanding that bishops are also under the authority of the church and can be removed from office.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Müller, Joseph. Die Deutschen Katechismen der böhmischen Brüder, Kritische Textausgabe mit kirchen- und dogmengeschichtlichen Untersuchungen und einer Abhandlung über das Schulwesen der böhmischen Brüder. Reproduced in N. L. von Zinzendorf Materialien und Dokumente. Edited by Erich Beyreuther, Gerhard Meyer, and Amedeo Molnár, Vol. 1. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1982.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. An exhaustive study of the catechetical tradition of the Unity of the Brethren and the influence of the Brethren’s catechisms on early Protestantism.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Štrupl, Miloš. “Confessional Theology of the Unitas Fratrum.” Church History 33 (1964): 279–293.
  450. DOI: 10.2307/3162640Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Štrupl analyzes the surprisingly diverse confessions of faith produced by the Unity of the Brethren. He argues that most of the confessions were written as apologetics and therefore emphasize particular themes to the exclusion of others. He also shows that over time the Brethren adapted their confessions to reflect the theology of the Protestant reformers.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Wernisch, Martin. “A Sixteenth-Century Monument of Brethren Theology.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. 5.2 (2005): 371–378.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. The only English-language study of Mathew Červenka’s work, Obecné a hlavní artykuli učení křesťanského v Jednotě Bratrské (Common and Principal Articles of the Christian Teaching in the Unity of Brethren).
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Art and Iconoclasm in the Czech Reformation
  458.  
  459. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the role that images played in the Czech Reformation, including the use of images in propaganda. Kubíkova 2000 and Šmahel 2002 discuss how symbols like the heretic’s cap and goose, originally used to ridicule Hus and his followers, were inverted and adopted by Hussites as identifying markers. Bartlová 2009 shows that the Czech Reformation anticipated some of the famous Protestant debates over the proper use of images in worship. What is an icon to some is an idol to others. Bartlová 2005 illustrates how the Utraquists encouraged the use of art in church, following the late Gothic style. Všetečkova 2002 and Bílková 2005 disagree on whether Utraquist depictions of the last supper reflect their theology or simply repeat medieval patterns, with Všetečkova arguing for the former. Všetečkova 2005 discusses Hussite motifs in the decorations of a prominent Czech family.
  460.  
  461. Bartlová, Milena. “Conflict, Tolerance, Representation, and Competition: A Confessional Profile of Bohemian Late Gothic Art.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 5.2 (2005): 255–266.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. A discussion of the extent to which Czech religious art in the 15th century reflected both religious pluralism and theological conflict.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Bartlová, Milena. “Understanding Hussite Iconoclasm.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 7 (2009): 115–126.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. The Taborites were one of the first Western religious groups to engage in large-scale destruction of religious images and statues on the grounds that they were idolatrous, but this has received relatively little attention by historians outside of the Czech Republic.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Bílková, Milena. “Depiction of the Last Supper under Utraquism.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 5.2 (2005): 285–304.
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  471. Bílková made the surprising discovery that Utraquist depictions of the Last Supper are nearly identical to those used by Catholics, despite the fact that the chalice was the most important symbol of Hussitism.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Kubíkova, Milena. “The Heretic’s Cap of Hus.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 4 (2000): 143–150.
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  475. Interesting study of how the “heretic’s cap” placed on the head of Hus became a symbol of sainthood for the Utraquists.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Šmahel, František. “The War of Symbols: The Goose and the Chalice Against the Cross.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 4 (2002): 151–160.
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  479. Šmahel investigates the military banners used by Hussites and Catholics in the early 15th century and determines that, in addition to the symbol of the chalice, various Hussite companies adopted the goose (hus in Czech) to represent the martyr Jan Hus. These symbols distinguished them from the crusaders who had crosses emblazoned on their shields and banners.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Všetečkova, Zuzana. “The Man of Sorrows and Christ Blessing the Chalice: The Pre-Reformation and the Utraquist Viewpoints.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 4 (2002): 193–213.
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  483. An examination of illuminated manuscripts and other art depicting Christ blessing the chalice as an expression of Utraquism.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Všetečkova, Zuzana. “The Utraquist Decorations of the Mráz House in Litoměřice.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 5.2 (2005): 413–432.
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  487. The Mráz family were prominent Utraquists, and the architecture of their mansion reflected the chalice. Inside the house were decorative tiles on Hussite themes, such as depictions of Žižka.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Music and Liturgy In The Czech Reformation
  490.  
  491. Music played a critical role in the Czech Reformation, beginning with the practice of congregational singing in Bethlehem Chapel during the time of Hus. Jireček 1878 is one of the first serious studies of Czech hymnody. Music was another way of popularizing piety and encouraging activism among the laity. Much of the worship in the Bohemian Church was based on medieval models, but as shown in Holeton 1996 and Holeton 1998, the Utraquist adapted Catholic liturgy to reflect their own sacramental theology. Velek 2006 focuses on the adoration of St. Wenceslaus during the Czech Reformation. The Brethren experimented boldly with adaptations of folk music for worship and for teaching their doctrine. Williams 1962 points out that they published the first Protestant hymnals in the early 16th century while Sovik 2007 and Settari 1992 show how they wrote some of the most influential treatises on music in the Czech language. Macek 1997 places the music of the Czech Reformation in the context of Czech music generally.
  492.  
  493. Holeton, David. “The Evolution of Utraquist Eucharistic Liturgy: A Textual Study.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 2 (1996): 97–126.
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  495. Holeton argues that beginning with Jakoubek of Stříbro, the Utraquists developed a distinctive liturgical tradition that incorporated elements from medieval Catholic and Orthodox liturgy but had its own theological integrity.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Holeton, David. “‘All Manner of Wonder Under the Sun’: A Curious Development in the Evolution of Utraquist Eucharistic Liturgy.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 3 (1998): 161–172.
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  499. Holeton is the leading expert on Utraquist liturgy and worship, especially the practice of communing infants.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Jireček, Josef. Hymnologia Bohemica: Dějiny církevního básnictví českého až do 18. Století. Prague: Nákladem Kr. České společnosti nauk, 1878.
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  503. Pioneering study of the history of Czech hymnody that gives special attention to the hymns of the Czech Reformation.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Macek, Petr, ed. Slovník české hudební kultury. Prague: Academy of Sciences, 1997.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. This dictionary covers the whole history of Czech music and includes entries on the period of the Czech Reformation.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Settari, Olga. “Protestant Music Tradition in Moravia: The Hymnographic Activities of Jan Blahoslav and Jan Amos Comenius.” Paedagogica Historica 28.2 (1992): 297–307.
  510. DOI: 10.1080/0030923920280209Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Good introduction to the musical heritage of the Unity of the Brethren in Bohemia.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Sovik, Thomas. “Music Theorists of the Bohemian Reformation: Jan Blahoslav and Jan Josquin.” Kosmas 6 (2007): 105–145.
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  515. Blahoslav and Josquin were two of the most important composers and musical theorists of the Czech Reformation.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Velek, Viktor. “Saint Wenceslaus in the Musical Context of the Bohemian Reformation.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 7 (2006): 192–199.
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  519. Velek uses the veneration of the patron of saint of Bohemia as a way to explore the role of music in Utraquist worship.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Williams, Henry L. “The Development of the Moravian Hymnal.” Transactions of the Moravian Historical Society 18 (1962): 239–266.
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  523. Includes a list of the hymnals published by the Unity of the Brethren.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Relationship of the Czech Reformation to the Protestant Reformation
  526.  
  527. The Czech Reformation began more than a century before the German and Swiss Reformations, and the Czechs developed unique forms of European Christianity. Pelikan 1983 interprets the entire epoch of 1300–1700 as an age of reform and discusses the relationship of the Czech Reformation to the Protestant Reformation. Both the Brethren and the Utraquists established relationships with Luther in the early 1520s and hoped that the Hussite reformation could be spread to other regions of Europe with the help of Luther. Several Brethren studied theology at Wittenberg and discussed the doctrine and practice of the Unity with Luther and Melanchthon. As presented in Pelikan 1947, Luther agreed to publish their catechism and confession of faith with his endorsement, but it was clear from the beginning that the Brethren objected to Luther’s idea that justification is through faith alone. Odložilîk 1940 contrasts the careers of two of the bishops of the Unity of the Brethren, one of whom (Jan Augusta) embraced Lutheranism and the other (Jan Blahoslav) who rejected it. Eberhard 1992 and Kavka 1994 examine the spread of the Protestant Reformation into Czech lands, but both studies minimize the role of the Czech Reformation in forming Czech Protestantism. Molnár 1973 discusses the famous Confessio Bohemica as one of the first ecumenical confessions of faith, but David 1999 rejects the claim that the Utraquists had actually united with the Protestants in 1575. Zeman 1969 examines the development of Anabaptism in Moravia, where the Hutterites developed their remarkable communal economic system.
  528.  
  529. David, Zdeněk V. “Utraquists, Lutherans, and the Bohemian Confession of 1575.” Church History 68 (1999): 294–336.
  530. DOI: 10.2307/3170859Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. David challenges the assumption that the Utraquists united with the Lutherans through the Bohemian Confession or that there were “neo-Utraquists” who were essential Czech Lutherans.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Eberhard, Winfried. “Bohemia, Moravia and Austria.” In The Early Reformation in Europe. Edited by Andrew Pettegree, 23–48. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  534. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511622250Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Eberhard provides a clear picture of the spread of Protestantism in Czech lands after 1517, but his approach minimizes the Czech Reformation itself as a pre-Reformation.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Kavka, František. “Bohemia.” In The Reformation in National Context. Edited by Robert Scribner, Roy Porter, and Mikuláš Teich, 131–154. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  538. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511599569Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. “Reformation” in this case refers to the Protestant, especially Lutheran Reformation, and how it impacted Bohemia.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Molnár, Amedeo. “The Czech Confession of 1575.” Communio Viatorum 16 (1973): 241–247.
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  543. One of the most important events in the history of Christian ecumenism was the signing of the Confessio Bohemica in 1575 as a joint confession of faith representing Utraquists, Lutherans, and Brethren. This was intended to serve as a basis for the eventual union of Czech Protestants. Molnár argues that the confession was primarily the product of the Lutherans and was not binding on the other churches.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Odložilîk, Otakar. “Two Reformation Leaders of the Unitas Fratrum.” Church History 9 (1940): 253–263.
  546. DOI: 10.2307/3160435Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. The two most important bishops of the Brethren during the Protestant Reformation were Jan Augusta, who was very pro-Luther, and Jan Blahoslav, who urged the Brethren to maintain their own distinctive doctrine and traditions. Augusta’s aggressive attempts to unite the Brethren and Lutherans contributed to the persecution of the church following the Schmalkaldic War in 1547, which resulted in his own arrest, imprisonment, and torture.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Pelikan, Jaroslav. “Luther and the Confessio Bohemica of 1535.” PhD diss. University of Chicago, 1947.
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  551. This was the first English translation of the Confession of the Bohemian Brethren, which was published in Latin in 1535, with the endorsement of Martin Luther. Pelikan also discusses Luther’s ambiguous relationship to the Czech Reformation. The confession itself was republished by Pelikan in Creeds and Confessions of Christendom (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003).
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. Vol. 4, Reformation of Church and Dogma (1300–1700). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983.
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  555. This is one of the few surveys of the history of Christian thought that takes the Czech Reformation seriously as an intellectual movement in its own right rather than simply as a prelude to Luther.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Zeman, Jarold Knox. The Anabaptists and the Czech Brethren in Moravia 1526–1628. The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1969.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Despite its age, this remains the premier study in English of the Anabaptists (especially the Hutterites) in Moravia and their relationship to the Unity of the Brethren. Zeman argues that the remnants of the Old Brethren joined with the Anabaptists. In contrast, the presence of the Anabaptists encouraged the Unity of the Brethren to move closer to the Lutheran and Reformed churches.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Habsburg Empire and the End of the Czech Reformation
  562.  
  563. In 1526, the Bohemian crown passed to the Habsburg dynasty with the election of Ferdinand I after the the Turks defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohacs. Despite their opposition to Protestantism in the Holy Roman Empire, the Habsburg monarchs of the 16th century were generally tolerant of the Bohemian Church and enjoyed the dispensation to drink from the chalice. According to Hlaváček 2011 the unique position of the Czechs in the Holy Roman Empire made them the topic of much conversation and concern among European rulers and political theorists. In 1575, Czech Protestants presented a united front to Emperor Maximillian II in the hopes of securing even greater religious freedom, especially for Lutheran nobles. This conflicted with the greater Habsburg policy of absolutism, as described in Birely 1994. Bartos, 1959 records how, when Emperor Rudolph II tried to revoke Protestant privileges in the early 17th century, nobles like Budovec protested and eventually succeeded in forcing the emperor to sign a Letter of Majesty in 1609 that legalized the Unity of the Brethren. Evans 1973 examines the career of the mercurial Rudolph, who was eventually forced by his family to abdicate the throne. Czech Protestants resisted the efforts of his successor Ferdinand II to promote Catholicism as the state religion. In 1618, two of the imperial ambassadors were hurled out of the window of Prague Castle. After the famous defenestration, the Bohemian nobility elected Frederick V of the Palatinate as king, instead of Ferdinand. In 1620, the imperial army overwhelmed the ill-prepared Czech army at the Battle of White Mountain, and Ferdinand seized property of the rebellious nobles. He also issued a new constitution that reduced the power of the nobility, as written in Hassenpflug-Elzholz 1982. The Habsburg victory at White Mountain looms large in Czech historical conscientiousness, and as Evans 1971 discusses, it had a major impact on Czech culture. Thousands of Czech Protestants, including scholars like John Amos Comenius went into exile, and Czech Protestant literature was suppressed. Gindely 1894 viewed the period of the Counter-Reformation as a tragedy for the Czech people, but more recent scholarly works, most notably Louthan 2009 take a more positive view of the creation of a new Czech Catholic culture.
  564.  
  565. Bartoš, František M. “Wenceslas Budovec’s Defense of the Brethren and of Freedom of Conscience in 1604.” Translated by Howard Kaminsky. Church History 28 (1959): 229–239.
  566. DOI: 10.2307/3162157Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Wenceslas Budovec was one of the most powerful Bohemian noblemen in the Unity of the Brethren and the leading voice for religious toleration in the kingdom. Bartoš discusses Budovec’s opposition to the Habsburg policy of suppressing religious dissent, which led ultimately to the Letter of Majesty of 1609.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Birely, Robert. “Confessional Absolutism in the Habsburg Lands in the Seventeenth Century.” In State and Society in Early Modern Austria. Edited by C. Ingrao, 36–53. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1994.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Examination of the Habsburg policy of forced religious conformity as an element of absolutism and how this was implemented in Bohemia and Moravia after White Mountain.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Evans, Robert J. W. “The Significance of the White Mountain for the Culture of the Czech Lands.” Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 44 (1971): 34–54.
  574. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.1971.tb00390.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Examines the impact that the Habsburg victory and subsequent suppression of Czech Protestantism had on the development of Czech culture and literature.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Evans, Robert J. W. Rudolph II and His World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Evans’s work remains the most thoroughly researched studies of Rudolph II, one of the most interesting and controversial rulers of Bohemia. In 1609, Rudolph was forced to sign the Letter of Majesty that granted an unprecedented level of religious toleration in the kingdom. Soon after, his family forced him to abdicate the throne.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Gindely, Anton. Geschichte der Gegenreformation in Böhmen. Edited by Theodor von Tupetz. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1894.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Detailed study of the recatholization of Bohemia from a Czech nationalist perspective.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Hassenpflug-Elzholz, Eila. Böhmen und die böhmischen Stände in der Zeit des beginnenden Zentralismus. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1982.
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  587. Includes an examination of Ferdinand II’s Renewed Constitution that redistributed political power and lands to Catholic nobles loyal to the crown and that abolished the elective monarchy in Bohemia.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Hlaváček, Petr. “Reflection on the Religious and Political Roles of the Czechs in Europe in the Early Modern Age.” Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice 8 (2011): 334–341.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. The Czechs were the subject of much discussion throughout Europe in the 16th century because of their anomalous position within the Holy Roman Empire.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Louthan, Howard. Converting Bohemia: Force and Persuasion in the Catholic Reformation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  595. Masterful study of the process by which Catholicism became the dominant religion in Bohemia after the Habsburgs reestablished control of the country in the 1620s. Louthan argues that the nobility and clergy used art, liturgy, drama, literature, and education to convince people to reject the Hussite tradition and return to Tridentine Catholic practice and belief.
  596. Find this resource:
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