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The Lombards in Italy (Medieval Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Lombards (sometimes Longobards or Langobards) first appear as a named group in the 1st century CE. By the 5th century they were located in Pannonia, south of the Danube, where they came into contact with the Gepids and the Byzantines. In 568 the Lombards, along with numerous other named groups, entered or invaded Italy perhaps as invited mercenaries. Over the course of the next century they established a kingdom with its capital at Pavia and settled large parts of northern and central Italy. The Lombards should be regarded more as a sociopolitical entity rather than as an ethnic group. Though never an homogenous group, the Lombards developed laws, customs, and historical memories that forged a Lombard identity by the end of the 7th century. The Lombard kingdom reached the height of its power under King Liutprand. The causes of the rapid collapse of the Lombard kingdom and its capture by the Franks led by Charlemagne (773–774) are still much debated. Lombards remained in power in Benevento and other areas of southern Italy through the early 11th century. Much of the scholarship on the Lombards, especially the archaeological work, is in Italian. The best access to this is through the International Medieval Bibliography and WorldCat.
  4.  
  5. Primary Sources
  6.  
  7. The primary sources for the history of the Lombards in Italy are not abundant. The most important (indeed almost the only) narrative source is the history of Paul the Deacon (Paul the Deacon 1974). The laws issued by various Lombard kings are also important (see Drew 1973 cited under Lombard Laws).
  8.  
  9. Paul the Deacon (c. 720–799)
  10.  
  11. The most important source of the history of the Lombards is the Historia Langobardorum written in the late 8th century by Paul the Deacon, then a monk at Monte Cassino. The only translation into English by William Dudley Foulke was published originally in 1907; the reprint (Paul the Deacon 1974) has an introduction by Edward Peters. Paul’s history ends with the death of King Liutprand in 744. Whether this was intentional or the history was not completed is a matter of dispute. Paul’s other relevant work is his history of the bishops of Metz (Paul the Deacon 2013), written when he was a resident scholar at the court of Charlemagne. A number of secondary sources comment on Paul the Deacon’s works. Goffart 2005 is the most extended discussion in English. Bullough 1986, McKitterick 1999, and Pohl 2010 place Paul in the context of late-8th-century intellectual developments in Carolingian France and Italy. Goffart 1986 contextualizes Paul’s history of the bishops of Metz. Two Italian conference proceedings, Chiesa 2000 and Centro italiano di studi sull’alto Medioevo 2001 have discussions by leading scholars that situate Paul in the context of his native Friuli and Italian cultural developments.
  12.  
  13. Bullough, Donald. “Ethnic History and the Carolingians: An Alternative Reading of Paul the Deacon’s Historia Langobardorum.” In The Inheritance of Historiography. Edited by Christopher Holdsworth and T. P. Wiseman, 85–105. Exeter: Unversity of Exeter Press, 1986.
  14.  
  15. DOI: 10.5949/liverpool/9780859892728.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  16.  
  17. Bullough discusses Paul’s work in the context of Carolingian historiography.
  18.  
  19. Find this resource:
  20.  
  21. Chiesa, Paolo, ed. Paolo Diacono: uno scrittore fra tradizione longobarda e rinovamento carolingia. Udine, Italy: Forum, 2000.
  22.  
  23. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  24.  
  25. Conference papers focusing on Pauls’s intellectual achievement in the context of Lombard and Carolingian Italy.
  26.  
  27. Find this resource:
  28.  
  29. Goffart, Walter. “Paul the Deacon’s Gesta Episcoporum Mettensionum and the Early Design of Charlemagne’s Succession.” Traditio 42 (1986): 59–93.
  30.  
  31. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  32.  
  33. Discusses Paul’s work written for Charlemagne on the history of the bishops who were the putative ancestors of the Carolingian dynasty.
  34.  
  35. Find this resource:
  36.  
  37. Goffart, Walter. The Narrators of Barbarian History (A.D. 550–800). 2d ed. South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005.
  38.  
  39. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  40.  
  41. The best discussion in English on all the historical works of Paul, including the History of the Lombards. Goffart discusses Paul’s chronology, the date and purpose of the history, and whether it was a finished work. According to Goffart, it is not a completed work.
  42.  
  43. Find this resource:
  44.  
  45. McKitterick, Rosamund. “Paul the Deacon and the Franks.” Early Medieval Europe 8 (1999): 319–339.
  46.  
  47. DOI: 10.1111/1468-0254.00051Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  48.  
  49. Posits that Paul wrote in order to please the Franks ruled by Charlemagne, at whose court he had been briefly present.
  50.  
  51. Find this resource:
  52.  
  53. Paul the Deacon. History of the Lombards. Translated by William Dudley Foulke. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1974.
  54.  
  55. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  56.  
  57. The brief text known as the Origo gentis langobardorum (Rome: Herder, 1998) is translated in an appendix.
  58.  
  59. Find this resource:
  60.  
  61. Paul the Deacon. Liber de episcopis Mettensibus. Edited and translated by Damien Kemp. Dallas Medieval Texts and Translations, 19. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2013.
  62.  
  63. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  64.  
  65. Provides an edition and an English translation of Paul’s history of the bishops of Metz.
  66.  
  67. Find this resource:
  68.  
  69. Pohl, Walter. “Paul the Deacon: Between sacci and marusuppia.” In Ego Trouble: Authors and their Identities in the Early Middle Ages. Edited by Richard Corradini, 111–123. Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters, 15. Vienna: Verlag, 2010.
  70.  
  71. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  72.  
  73. Argues that Paul was a complex personality aware of his multiple identities and that his histories displayed demonstrated the variety of contemporary discourses of identity.
  74.  
  75. Find this resource:
  76.  
  77. Centro italiano di studi sull’alto Medioevo. Paolo Diacono el il Friuli altomedievale (secc. Vi-X). Atti del XIV Congresso internazionale di Studi sull’alto Medioevo, 1999. Spoleto, Italy: Centro Italiano di Studi sull’alto Medioevo, 2001.
  78.  
  79. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  80.  
  81. Conference papers focusing on Paul in the context of his native Friulli.
  82.  
  83. Find this resource:
  84.  
  85. Other Narrative Sources
  86.  
  87. Other narrative sources that provide a useful information on the history of Lombards include Davis 1989, which gives the Roman/Papal perspective; Davis 1992, which provides a view from Ravenna; and Wallace-Hadrill 1960, written from the perspective of the Franks.
  88.  
  89. Agnellus of Ravenna. The Book of the Pontiffs of the Church of Ravenna. Translated by Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2004.
  90.  
  91. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  92.  
  93. Agnellus of Ravenna wrote a history of the bishops of Ravenna c. 830 that contains a number of references to the Lombards. Deliyannis provides a translation with an introduction and notes to the text.
  94.  
  95. Find this resource:
  96.  
  97. Davis, Raymond, trans. The Book of the Pontiffs. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1989.
  98.  
  99. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  100.  
  101. Provides an excellent translation of the pre-8th-century lives of the popes. The Liber Pontificalis consists of short biographies of the popes, many of which contain references that often put the Lombards in a negative light.
  102.  
  103. Find this resource:
  104.  
  105. Davis, Raymond, trans. The Lives of the Eighth Century Popes: The Ancient Biographies of Nine Popes from AD 715 to AD 817. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1992.
  106.  
  107. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  108.  
  109. Provides an excellent translation with notes on the lives of the 8th- and early-9th-century popes.
  110.  
  111. Find this resource:
  112.  
  113. Wallace-Hadrill, J. M., trans. The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar. London: Nelson, 1960.
  114.  
  115. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  116.  
  117. Fredegar’s Chronicle includes useful material on the Lombards from the Frankish perspective.
  118.  
  119. Find this resource:
  120.  
  121. Lombard Laws
  122.  
  123. The Lombard king Rothari (r. 636–652) issued a law code in 643 known as Rothar’s Edict. Subsequent Lombard kings—Grimwald (r. 662–671), Liutprand (r. 712–744), Rathchis (r. 744–749; 756–757), and Aistulf (r. 749–756)—issued substantial additions and revisions to the Edict. The latin text with a translation into Italian is in Azzara and Gaspari 1992; Drew 1973 provides an English translation. The laws provide important evidence for the workings of Lombard society. Unlike some other so-called barbarian law codes there is good evidence that the Lombard laws were actually applied in court cases in the 8th century.
  124.  
  125. Azzara, Claudio, and Stefano Gaspari Le leggi dei Longobardi: Storia, memoria e diritto di un popolo germanico. Milan: Editrice La Storia, 1992.
  126.  
  127. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  128.  
  129. Contains the Latin text with a facing Italian translation as well as an extensive commentary.
  130.  
  131. Find this resource:
  132.  
  133. Drew, Katherine Fischer, trans. The Lombard Laws. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1973.
  134.  
  135. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  136.  
  137. A good English translation of the Lombard Laws by a well-known scholar of the barbarian/Germanic lawcodes.
  138.  
  139. Find this resource:
  140.  
  141. Lombard Charters
  142.  
  143. Many Lombard charters from the 7th and 8th centuries have survived, but most of these have not been translated into English. These documents include property transactions: donations, sales, exchanges, and leases, as well as some records of legal cases. The most important editons of Lombard charters are Schiaperelli 1929–1933, Brühl 1973, and Zielinski 1986. Charters have been used in a number studies of Lombard society as well as in regional studies. Zielinski 2002 and Everett 2000 discuss the production of these legal documents. Costambeys 2013 discusses the significance of charters as legal documents and for the light they shed on social history.
  144.  
  145. Brühl, Carlrichard, ed. Codice diplomatico longobardo. Rome: Istituto storico italiano per il medio eveo, 1973.
  146.  
  147. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  148.  
  149. Provides an edition of Lombard royal charters.
  150.  
  151. Find this resource:
  152.  
  153. Costambeys, Mario. “The Laity, the Clergy, the Scribes and their Archives: The Documentary Record of Eighth and Ninth-Century Italy.” In Documentary Culture and the Laity in the Early Middle Ages. Edited by Warren C. Brown, 231–258. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
  154.  
  155. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  156.  
  157. Discusses how legal documents were used, especially in settling legal disputes, by both clergy and laymen.
  158.  
  159. Find this resource:
  160.  
  161. Everett, Nicholas. “Scribes and Charters in Lombard Italy.” Studi Medievali 41 (2000): 39–83.
  162.  
  163. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  164.  
  165. Everett provides an extensive discussion of the scribal culture of 8th-century Italy and the creation of legal documents.
  166.  
  167. Find this resource:
  168.  
  169. Schiaparelli, Luigi, ed. Codice diplomatico longbardo. Rome: Istituto storico italiano per il medio eveo, 1929–1933.
  170.  
  171. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  172.  
  173. The standard edition of Lombard charters.
  174.  
  175. Find this resource:
  176.  
  177. Zielinski, Herbert, ed. Codice diplomatico longobardo, 5. Le chartae dei ducati di Spoleto e di Benevento. Rome: Istituto storico italiano per il medio eveo, 1986.
  178.  
  179. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  180.  
  181. A fine edition of the pre-774 charters from Spoleto and Benevento.
  182.  
  183. Find this resource:
  184.  
  185. Zielinski, Herbert. “The Transmission of Lombard Documents (to 774).” In Charters, Cartularies, and Archives: The Preservation and Transmission of Documents in the Medieval West. Edited by Adam J. Kosto and Anders Winroth, 33–42. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediæval Studies, 2002.
  186.  
  187. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  188.  
  189. Zelinski, who edited some of the early Lombard charters, discusses how they were created, used, and preserved.
  190.  
  191. Find this resource:
  192.  
  193. Archaeology
  194.  
  195. Archaeological discoveries have provided a great deal of information about and new insights into the Lombard period, especially society and the economy. Many of the works cited in this article are based on archaeological work, particularly Christie 2006 (cited under General Histories), Broglio 2000 (cited under Social and Economic Issues), Gelichi 2007 (cited under Social and Economic Issues), Francovich 2008 (cited under Regional Studies), and Francovich and Hodges 2003 (cited under Social and Economic Issues). Gelichi 2009 focuses on the archaeology of the urban and rural economy in northern Italy. Current archaeological research can be found in the journal Archeologia medievale.
  196.  
  197. Gelichi, Sauro. “Alla fine di una transizione? L’Italia settentrionale nel primo Alto Medioevo tra città, villaggi e economie.” Territorio, Sociedad y Poder 2 (2009): 143–158.
  198.  
  199. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  200.  
  201. Gelichi discusses how archaeological evidence has reshaped our picture of the northern Italian economy and society in the Lombard period, especially that of the northern urban centers and early development of trade networks and commercial emporia along the Po River.
  202.  
  203. Find this resource:
  204.  
  205. General Histories
  206.  
  207. The most complete narrative of the history of the Lombards in Italy is still to be found in Hodgkin 1880–1899 despite some outdated interpretations. Chris Wickham is the leading scholar of early medieval Italy, and Wickham 1989 is the best short account in English of the Lombard period and beyond. Christie 1995 and Christie 2006 are strong on the archaeology of the Lombards and early medieval Italy in general. The articles Moorhead 2005 in the New Cambridge Medieval History I and Delogu 1995, Brown 1995, and Noble 1995 in the New Cambridge History II provide up-to-date summaries of scholarly consensus as well as extensive bibliographies. The essays in La Rocca 2002 provide a more general picture of various aspects of early medieval Italy. The essays by leading scholars in Ausenda, et al. 2009, Pohl and Erhart 2005, and Gasparri and Cammarosano 1990 provide detailed analyses of most aspects of Lombard political, socioeconomic, and cultural developments. Delogu 1980 is an excellent summary in Italian of Lombard history.
  208.  
  209. Ausenda, Giorgio, Paolo Delogu, and Chris Wickham, eds. The Langobards before the Frankish Conquest: An Ethnographic Perspective. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2009.
  210.  
  211. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  212.  
  213. These fine essays by the leading English, German, and Italian scholars provide the best accounts of scholarly research on the Lombards or Langobards. There are particularly formative essays by Marios Costambeys, “Kinship, Gender and Property in Lombard Italy”; Chris Wickham, “Social Structures of Lombard Italy”; and Paolo Delogu, “Kingship and the Shaping of the Lombard Body Politic.” The volume contains an extensive and useful bibliography.
  214.  
  215. Find this resource:
  216.  
  217. Christie, Neil. The Lombards: The Ancient Longobards. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.
  218.  
  219. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  220.  
  221. Christie provides the English reader with a general account of the Lombards that is strong on archaeology, particularly on the Lombards before they entered Italy. However, it is not so strong on the Lombard kingdom, political and social structures, and religion.
  222.  
  223. Find this resource:
  224.  
  225. Christie, Neil. From Constantine to Charlemagne: An Archaeology of Italy, AD 300–800. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
  226.  
  227. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  228.  
  229. Here Christie provides an extensive summary of recent archaeological discoveries in early medieval Italy, including urban, rural, and ecclesiastical sites. Contains good maps, many illustrations, and a full bibliography.
  230.  
  231. Find this resource:
  232.  
  233. Delogu, Paolo. “Il regno longobardo.” In Longobardi e Bizantini. By Paolo Delogu, 3–216. Storia d’Italia, 1. Turin, Italy: UTET, 1980.
  234.  
  235. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  236.  
  237. This is still the best general survey in Italian.
  238.  
  239. Find this resource:
  240.  
  241. Gasparri, Stafano, and Paolo Cammarosano. Langobardia. Udine, Italy: Casamassima, 1990.
  242.  
  243. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  244.  
  245. Collected essays by leading Italian and German scholars with many fine color plates.
  246.  
  247. Find this resource:
  248.  
  249. Hodgkin, Thomas. Italy and Her Invaders. 8 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1880–1899.
  250.  
  251. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  252.  
  253. Hodgkin’s narrative may be old fashioned and his interpretations no longer completely viable, but he knew all the primary sources and tells an interesting story.
  254.  
  255. Find this resource:
  256.  
  257. LaRocca, Cristina, ed. Italy in the Early Middle Ages, 476–1000. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  258.  
  259. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  260.  
  261. Essays by leading international scholars on topics such as public power, the aristocracy, ecclesiastical institutions, the rural economy and settlements, and urban development. Most of the essays discuss the Lombards.
  262.  
  263. Find this resource:
  264.  
  265. Pohl, Walter, and Peter Erhart, eds. Die Langobarden: Herrschaft und Identität. Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters, 9. Vienna: Verlag, 2005.
  266.  
  267. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  268.  
  269. Contains many scholarly articles in German and English. See, especially, Nick Everett, “How Territorial was Lombard Law?” pp. 345–360; Ross Balzaretti, “Masculine Authority and State Identity in Liutprandic Italy,” pp. 361–382; and the concluding remarks of Paolo Delogu, “The Lombards: Power and Identity,” pp. 549–553. This volume also had a comprehensive bibliography.
  270.  
  271. Find this resource:
  272.  
  273. Moorhead, John. “Ostrogothic Italy and the Lombard Invasions,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History I: ca. 500-ca. 700. Edited by Paul Fouracre, 561–586. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  274.  
  275. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521362917Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  276.  
  277. Surveys early Lombard history.
  278.  
  279. Find this resource:
  280.  
  281. Delogu, Paolo. “Lombard and Carolingian Italy,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History. II: ca. 700-ca. 900. Edited by Rosamund McKitterick, 290–319. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  282.  
  283. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521362924Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  284.  
  285. Analyses Lombard and Carolingian Italy.
  286.  
  287. Find this resource:
  288.  
  289. Brown, Thomas S. “Byzantine Italy, ca. 680–ca. 876,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History. II: ca. 700-ca. 900. Edited by Rosamund McKitterick, 320–348. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  290.  
  291. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521362924Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  292.  
  293. Surveys the history of Byzantine Italy, especially Ravenna, and its interactions with the Lombards and early Carolingians.
  294.  
  295. Find this resource:
  296.  
  297. Noble, Thomas T. X. “The Papacy in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History. II: ca. 700-ca. 900. Edited by Rosamund McKitterick, 563–586. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  298.  
  299. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521362924Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  300.  
  301. Surveys the history of the papacy during the Lombard and Carolingian period.
  302.  
  303. Find this resource:
  304.  
  305. Wickham, Chris. Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society, 400–1000. London: Macmillan, 1989.
  306.  
  307. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  308.  
  309. Wickham’s short but dense book is still the best account of the kingdom of Italy and the society of early medieval Italy. It includes a brief chapter on the south where the Lombard dukes (and later princes) of Benevento remained in power long after the fall of the kingdom to Charlemagne in 774.
  310.  
  311. Find this resource:
  312.  
  313. Exhibition Catalogues
  314.  
  315. Exhibiton catalogues often provide scholarly discussion but also illustrations of manuscripts and physical objects. Two exhibitons, Bertelli and Broglio 2000 and Broglio and Chavarría Arnau 2007, represent a renewed interest in the study of the Lombard period in Italy.
  316.  
  317. Bertelli, Carlo, and Gian Pietro Broglio, eds. Il Futuro di Longobardi: l’Italia e la Costruzione dell’Europa di Carlo Magno. Milan: Skira, 2000.
  318.  
  319. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  320.  
  321. From an exhibition in Brescia, the catalogue has many color plates of manuscripts, sculpture, and jewelry.
  322.  
  323. Find this resource:
  324.  
  325. Broglio, Gian Piero, and Alexandra Chavarría Arnau, eds. I Longobardi dalla caduta dell’Impero all’alba dell’Italia. Milan: Silvana, 2007.
  326.  
  327. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328.  
  329. From an exhibition in Turin and Novalesa, the catalogue features many essays as well as numerous color plates of art, artifacts, and manuscripts that are helpful even to non-Italian readers.
  330.  
  331. Find this resource:
  332.  
  333. Specialized Studies: Political and Military Institutions
  334.  
  335. A number of articles provide close analysis of various aspects of Lombard political and military events. Christie 1991 and Borri 2011 discuss the entry of the Lombards into Italy and the first Lombard king Alboin. Gaspari 2000, Harrison 1993, Harrison 1998, and Pohl 2000 are particularly useful discussions of Lombard political developments, especially concerning the monarchy, towns, and emergence of Lombard identity. Pohl 1997 and Pohl 2001 discuss Lombard relations with peoples and polities beyond the frontiers of Italy.
  336.  
  337. Borri, Francesco. “Murder by Death: Alboin’s Life, End(s), and Means.” Millenium: Jahrbuch zu Kultur und Geschichte des ersten Jahrtausends n. Chr. 8 (2011): 223–270.
  338.  
  339. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  340.  
  341. Analyzes the myth of Alboin, murdered by his wife Rosamond, as told mainly by Paul the Deacon.
  342.  
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345. Christie, Neil. “Invasion or Invitation? The Longobard Occupation of Northern Italy, AD 568–569.” Romanobarbarica 11 (1991): 79–108.
  346.  
  347. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  348.  
  349. A good discussion of the issue: did the Lombards (as other “barbarian” groups) enter the Roman Empire as invited mercenaries?
  350.  
  351. Find this resource:
  352.  
  353. Gaspari, Stefano. “Kingship Rituals in Lombard Italy.” In Rituals of Power: from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages. Edited by Frans Theuws and Janet L. Nelson, 95–114. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
  354.  
  355. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  356.  
  357. Discusses Lombard coronation rituals with a a special emphasis on the lance as the principal symbol of Lombard kingship.
  358.  
  359. Find this resource:
  360.  
  361. Harrison, Dick. The Early State and the Towns: Forms of Integration in Lombard Italy, AD 568–774. Lund, Sweden: Lund University Press, 1993.
  362.  
  363. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  364.  
  365. Harrison provides an interesting study of Lombard political development, emphasizing the centralizing and decentering factors in the Lombard kingdom and the role of the urban centers.
  366.  
  367. Find this resource:
  368.  
  369. Harrison, Dick. “Political Rhetoric and Political Ideology in Lombard Italy.” In Strategies of Distinction: The Construction of Ethnic Communities, 300–800. Edited by Walter Pohl and Helmut Reimitz, 241–254. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1998.
  370.  
  371. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  372.  
  373. A useful discussion of the development of Lombard political consciousness.
  374.  
  375. Find this resource:
  376.  
  377. Pohl, Walter. “The Empire and the Lombards: Treaties and Negotiations in the Sixth Century.” In Kingdoms of the Empire: The Integration of the Barbarians in Late Antiquity. By Walter Pohl, 75, 133. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997.
  378.  
  379. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  380.  
  381. A close analysis of Byzantine relations with the Lombards before and after their occupation of northern Italy.
  382.  
  383. Find this resource:
  384.  
  385. Pohl, Walter. “Memory, Identity and Power in Lombard Italy.” In The Uses of the Past in the Early Middle Ages. Edited by Yitzak Hen and Matthew Innes, 9–28. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  386.  
  387. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511496332Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. Pohl examines the role of historical and legal texts as well as memories in forging a Lombard ethnic identity.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393. Pohl, Walter. “Frontiers in Lombard Italy: The Laws of Ratchis and Aistulf.” In The Transformation of Frontiers: From Late Antiquity to the Carolingians. Edited by Walter Pohl and Helmut Reimitz, 117–142. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  394.  
  395. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  396.  
  397. Emphasizes the ultimately unsuccessful Lombard attempts to control the Alpine passes.
  398.  
  399. Find this resource:
  400.  
  401. Social and Economic Issues
  402.  
  403. Although agriculture remained the most important sector of the economy in early medieval Italy and landholding the most important factor in determining social status, towns (though diminished in size and wealth) never disappeared in Italy. Moreover commerce, both local and long distance, increased especially in the 8th century. Broglio 2000 and Gelichi 2007 discuss the archaeological evidence for towns, while Francovich and Hodges 2003 discuss the transition of late Roman rural settlement and agrarian patterns to the early medieval pattern of villages, often on fortified hilltops. Costambeys 2009 provides a broad analysis of early medieval Italian agriculture and the emergence of peasant villages. Wickham 1998 analyses the Lombard aristocracy that was generally less wealthy than the Frankish aristocracy in the 8th century. Wickham 1986 examines Lombard social structure by looking at legal disputes over land. Rovelli 2009 discusses Lombard and early Carolingian coinage and the development of trading centers. In recent years the history of the environment and the landscape have become important topics. Squatriti 1998 discusses the importance of water in early medieval Italy as well as broader environmental issues. Squatriti 2013 analyzes the transition from late Roman to early medieval Italy in land-use patterns by focusing on woodlands, especially chestnut trees.
  404.  
  405. Broglio, Gian Pietro. “Towns, Forts and the Countryside: Archaeological Models for Northern Italy in the Early Lombard Period (AD 568–650).” In Towns and their Territories Between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Edited by Gian Pietro Broglio, 299–323. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
  406.  
  407. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  408.  
  409. Broglio suggests that the Lombards in the frontier duchies tended to develop towns, whereas in the plains Lombard settlement was more rural.
  410.  
  411. Find this resource:
  412.  
  413. Costambeys, Marios. “Settlement, Taxation and the Condition of the Peasantry in Post-Roman Central Italy.” Journal of Agrarian Change 9.1 (2009): 92–119.
  414.  
  415. DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0366.2009.00197.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  416.  
  417. A good discussion of rural development in central Italy with an emphasis on settlement and the slow disappearance of the Roman taxation system.
  418.  
  419. Find this resource:
  420.  
  421. Francovich, Riccardo, and Richard Hodges. Villa to Village. London: Duckworth, 2003.
  422.  
  423. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  424.  
  425. Provides a broad consideration of the transition of the rural economy from the late ancient through the early medieval period.
  426.  
  427. Find this resource:
  428.  
  429. Gelichi, Sauro. “Flourishing Places in North-Eastern Italy: Towns and Emporia between Late Antiquity and the Carolingian Age.” In Post-Roman Towns, Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzantium: The Heirs of the Roman West. Vol. 1. Edited by Joachim Henning, 77–104. Berlon: De Gruyter, 2007.
  430.  
  431. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  432.  
  433. On the basis of archaeology, this traces the economic development of towns and trading centers in the Veneto.
  434.  
  435. Find this resource:
  436.  
  437. Jarnut, Jörg. “Gens, Rex and Regnum of the Lombards.” In Regna and Gentes: The Relationship between Late Antique and Early Medieval Peoples and Kingdoms in the Transformation of the Roman World. Edited by Hans Werner Goetz, 409–427. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
  438.  
  439. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  440.  
  441. On the importance of royal authority in the creation of a Lombard “people” in the by the mid-7th century.
  442.  
  443. Find this resource:
  444.  
  445. Rovelli, Alessia. “Coins and Trade in Early Medieval Italy.” Early Medieval Europe 17.1 (2009): 45–76.
  446.  
  447. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0254.2009.00244.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  448.  
  449. Though mostly about the period after 774, Rovelli’s article offers some acute observations about Lombard coinage in the earlier 8th century.
  450.  
  451. Find this resource:
  452.  
  453. Squatriti, Paolo. Water and Society in Early Medieval Italy, Ad 400–1000. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  454.  
  455. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  456.  
  457. Squatriti looks at the important role of water, including aqueducts and irrigation, in early medieval Italy.
  458.  
  459. Find this resource:
  460.  
  461. Squatriti, Paolo. Landscape and Change in Early Medieval Italy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
  462.  
  463. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139540759Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  464.  
  465. By concentrating on chestnuts and chestnut trees, Squatriti illuminates the environmental history of early medieval Italy.
  466.  
  467. Find this resource:
  468.  
  469. Wickham, Chris. “Land Disputes and their Social Framework in Lombard-Carolingian Italy, 700–900.” In The Settlement of Disputes in Early Medieval Europe. Edited by Wendy Davies and Paul Fouracre, 104–124. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
  470.  
  471. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511562310Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472.  
  473. Wickham discusses Lombard law and its application in actual court cases.
  474.  
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477. Wickham, Chris. “Aristocratic Power in Eighth Century Lombard Italy.” In After Rome’s Fall: Narrators and Sources of Early Medieval History. Essays Presented to Walter Goffart. Edited by Alexander C. Murray, 153–170. Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1998.
  478.  
  479. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  480.  
  481. An important analysis of the role of the landowning aristocracy in Lombard Italy.
  482.  
  483. Find this resource:
  484.  
  485. Women and Gender Issues
  486.  
  487. Women and gender are important topics for the understanding of every historical period. Skinner 2001 provides a good discussion of women and gender issues for Lombard and later medieval Italy. Balzaretti 1998, Balzaretti 2007, and Balzaretti 2012 provide detailed discussions for particular aspects of sexuality and gender issues, especially violence against women, sexuality, and fatherhood. Balzaretti 1998 discusses an early Lombard queen whose influence extended even to Rome.
  488.  
  489. Balzaretti, Ross. “‘These Are Things That Men Do, Not Women’: The Social Regulation of Female Violence in Langobard Italy.” In Violence and Society in the Early Medieval West. Edited by Guy Halsall, 175–192. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1998.
  490.  
  491. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  492.  
  493. A good discussion of the law and the status of women in Lombard Italy.
  494.  
  495. Find this resource:
  496.  
  497. Balzaretti, Ross. “Theodelinda, ‘Most Glorious Queen’: Gender and Power in Lombard Italy.” Medieval History Journal 2.2 (1999): 183–207.
  498.  
  499. DOI: 10.1177/097194589900200201Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  500.  
  501. Balzaretti examines the role of Queen Theodelinda in the contexts of gender and political power in early-7th-century Italy.
  502.  
  503. Find this resource:
  504.  
  505. Balzaretti, Ross. “Sexuality in Late Lombard Italy, c 700–800 AD.” In Medieval Sexuality: A Casebook. Edited by A. Harper and C. Proctor, 7–31. New York: Routledge, 2007.
  506.  
  507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508.  
  509. Discusses sexual roles and practices, especially as evidenced in Lombard law.
  510.  
  511. Find this resource:
  512.  
  513. Balzaretti, Ross. “Fatherhood in Late Lombard Italy.” In Gender and Historiography: Studies in the Earlier Middle Ages in Honour of Pauline Stafford. Edited by Janet L. Nelson, 9–20. London: Institute of Historical Research, 2012.
  514.  
  515. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  516.  
  517. A brief discussion of paternal power in 8th-century Italy.
  518.  
  519. Find this resource:
  520.  
  521. Skinner, Patricia. Women in Medieval Italian Society, 500–1200. Harlow, UK: Longman, 2001.
  522.  
  523. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  524.  
  525. Several chapters on women’s roles in the 7th and 8th centuries as well as in the later period in the Lombard south.
  526.  
  527. Find this resource:
  528.  
  529. Religion and Culture
  530.  
  531. Several issues have dominated the discussion of religion and cultural development in Lombard Italy: the transition from Arian to Catholic Christianity, the survival of written documents and the culture of literacy, and the development of monasticism. Fanning 1981 and Pohl 2000 discuss the transition away from Arianism. Everett 2000a and Everett 2003 discuss literacy and legal culture. Costambeys 2000, Costambeys 2007a, and Costambeys 2007b (both cited under Regional Studies) provide good discussions of early Italian monasticism. Everett 2000b examines the hagiographic traditions of Lombard Italy.
  532.  
  533. Costambeys, Marios. “The Transmission of Tradition: Gregorian Influence and Innovation in Eighth-Century Italian Monasticism.” In The Uses of the Past in the Early Middle Ages. Edited by Yitzak Hen and Matthew Innes, 348–370. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  534.  
  535. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511496332Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  536.  
  537. Costambeys examines the expansion of Italian monasticism in the 8th century against the background of the Benedictine tradition and the increase in lay patronage.
  538.  
  539. Find this resource:
  540.  
  541. De Vingo, P. “Forms of Representation of Power and Aristocratic Funerary Rituals in the Langobard Kingdom in Northern Italy.” Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scietiarum Hungaricae 63 (2012): 117–154.
  542.  
  543. DOI: 10.1556/AArch.63.2012.1.4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  544.  
  545. Demonstrates how the Lombard elite adapted to the Roman and Christian funerary practices.
  546.  
  547. Find this resource:
  548.  
  549. Everett, Nicholas. “Literacy and the Law in Lombard Government.” Early Medieval Europe 9.1 (2000a): 93–127.
  550.  
  551. DOI: 10.1111/1468-0254.00061Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  552.  
  553. Everett argues that the Lombard law codes not only represented royal ideology but were applied in practice.
  554.  
  555. Find this resource:
  556.  
  557. Everett, Nicholas. “The Hagiography of Lombard Italy.” Hagiographica, 7 (2000b): 49–126.
  558.  
  559. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  560.  
  561. This is a major study of the production and dissemination of saints’ lives in Lombard Italy.
  562.  
  563. Find this resource:
  564.  
  565. Everett, Nicholas. Literacy in Lombard Italy, ca. 568–774. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  566.  
  567. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  568.  
  569. A full, scholarly account of the use of written records—laws, charters, inscriptions, literary manuscripts—in early medieval Italy. In many respects Everett provides a good discussion of the broader issues of Lombard settlement, religion, and socioeconomic development.
  570.  
  571. Find this resource:
  572.  
  573. Fanning, Stephen. “Lombard Arianism Reconsidered.” Speculum 56 (1981): 241–258.
  574.  
  575. DOI: 10.2307/2846933Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  576.  
  577. Argues that the religious history of the Lombards is not about Arianism vs. Catholic orthodoxy, but rather about the slow conversion of the pagan Lombards to Christianity.
  578.  
  579. Find this resource:
  580.  
  581. Mitchell, John. “Artistic Patronage and Cultural Strategies in Lombard Italy.” In Towns and Their Territories Between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Edited by Gian Pietro Broglio, 299–323. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
  582.  
  583. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  584.  
  585. Analyzes the artistic and cultural production at the Lombard royal court in Pavia as well as in papal Rome and Ravenna.
  586.  
  587. Find this resource:
  588.  
  589. Pilsworth, Clare. “Sanctity, Crime and Punishment in the ‘Vita Walfredi’.” Hagiographica 7 (2000): 201–268.
  590.  
  591. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  592.  
  593. Walfred, a Lombard, founded the monastery of San Pietro in Palazzuolo in Tuscany in the early 750s and died c. 765. The Vita, written in the early 9th century, emphasizes Walfred’s relationship with his five sons.
  594.  
  595. Find this resource:
  596.  
  597. Pohl, Walter. “Deliberate Ambiguity—the Lombards and Christianity.” In Christianizing Peoples and Converting Individuals. Edited by Guyda Armstrong and Ian Wood, 47–58. Turnhout, Belgium: Boydell, 2000.
  598.  
  599. DOI: 10.1484/M.IMR-EB.6.09070802050003050100080703Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  600.  
  601. Pohl argues that the categories of pagan, Arian, and Catholic were often ambiguous.
  602.  
  603. Find this resource:
  604.  
  605. The Carolingian Conquest of Lombard Italy
  606.  
  607. In 773, at the behest of the pope, Charlemagne led his Frankish armies across the Alps and attacked Pavia. After a long siege Pavia surrendered in the spring of 774, and Charlemagne took on the title of King of the Lombards. In 775–776 he put down a brief revolt by the Duke of Friuli and other Lombards. The Frankish conquest included almost all of northern and central Italy. Neither Charlemagne nor his successors, however, were able to subdue the Duchy of Benevento. Hodgkin 1880–1899 (cited under General Histories) is the classic and most extensive narrative in English on Charlemagne’s conquest of the Lombard kingdom and early Carolingian rule in Italy. Bachrach 2013 provides a thorough and up-to-date analysis of the military aspects of Charlemagne’s campaign in and conquest of Lombard Italy. Hallenbeck 1982, Miller 1969, and Sefton 1979 analyze the often troubled relations between the papacy and the Lombard king in Pavia that led up to Charlemagne’s invasion and conquest. Nelson 1998 discusses the politics of the last Lombard king, Desiderius, and the marriage alliances he forged for his daughters. Ary 1981 discusses the brief and controversial marriage of one of Desiderius’s daughters to Charlemagne. Gasparri 2008 analyzes the reasons why the Lombard kingdom fell and the consequences of this fall. Both Bullough 1962 and West 1999 discuss Charlemagne’s efforts to govern the Lombard kingdom and the limits of his power in Italy. Balzaretti 1996 provides a brief overview of Charlemagne’s conquest of the Lombards and its long-term consequences for Italian history.
  608.  
  609. Ary, Mikel V. “The Politics of the Frankish-Lombard Marriage Alliance.” Archivum Historiae Pontificiae 19 (1981): 7–26.
  610.  
  611. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  612.  
  613. An analysis of the failed marriage between Charlemagne and the (un-named) daughter of the Lombard king Desiderius.
  614.  
  615. Find this resource:
  616.  
  617. Bachrach, Bernard S. Charlemagne’s Early Campaigns (768–777): A Diplomatic and Military Analysis. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2013.
  618.  
  619. DOI: 10.1163/9789004244771Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  620.  
  621. A full and detailed discussion of Charlemagne’s conquest of the Lombard kingdom in 773–774 as well as his second invasion of Italy in 777 to put down a Lombard rebellion in Friuli.
  622.  
  623. Find this resource:
  624.  
  625. Balzaretti, Ross. “Charlemagne in Italy.” History Today 42.2 (1996): 28–34.
  626.  
  627. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  628.  
  629. A brief summary of the impact of Charlemagne’s conquest of northern and central Italy.
  630.  
  631. Find this resource:
  632.  
  633. Bullough, Donald A. “‘Baiuli’ in the Carolingian ‘regnum Langobardorum’ and the Career of Abbot Waldo (813).” English Historical Review 77 (1962): 625–637.
  634.  
  635. DOI: 10.1093/ehr/LXXVII.CCCV.625Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  636.  
  637. Provides an example of how Charlemagne extended his rule into Italy.
  638.  
  639. Find this resource:
  640.  
  641. Gasparri, Stefano. “The Fall of the Lombard Kingdom and Identity after the End of Lombard Rule.” In 774: Ipotesi su una Transizione. Edited by Stefano Gasparri, 41–65. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2008.
  642.  
  643. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  644.  
  645. Gasparri provides an up-to-date analysis of the sources (or the lack thereof) for the Frankish takeover of the Lombard kingdom, and the reasons for Charlemagne’s success. Other articles in this volume are also useful.
  646.  
  647. Find this resource:
  648.  
  649. Hallenbeck, Jan T. Pavia and Rome: The Lombard Monarchy and the Papacy in the Eighth Century. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 72.4. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1982.
  650.  
  651. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  652.  
  653. Provides the background as well as a useful account of Charlemagne’s invasion of Italy and his deposition of the Lombard king Desiderius.
  654.  
  655. Find this resource:
  656.  
  657. Miller, David Harry. “Papal-Lombard Relations During the Pontificate of Pope Paul II: The Attainment of an Equilibrium of Power in Italy, 756–767.” Catholic Historical Review 55.3 (1969): 358–376.
  658.  
  659. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  660.  
  661. Miller discusses a critical period in Lombard relations with the papacy after Pepin and the Franks had intervened to prevent a Lombard takeover of Rome.
  662.  
  663. Find this resource:
  664.  
  665. Nelson, Janet. “Making a Difference in Eighth Century Politics: The Daughters of Desiderius.” In After Rome’s Fall: Narrators and Sources of Early Medieval History: Essays presented the Walter Goffart. Edited by A. Callender Murray, 171–190. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998.
  666.  
  667. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  668.  
  669. Nelson examines the marriages of three of the Lombard king’s daughters to Duke Tassilo of Bavaria, the Lombard duke of Benevento, and (briefly) to Charlemagne.
  670.  
  671. Find this resource:
  672.  
  673. Sefton, David S. “Pope Hadrian I and the Fall of the Kingdom of the Lombards.” Catholic Historical Review 65 (1979): 206–220.
  674.  
  675. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  676.  
  677. Discusses the role of the pope in the events that led to Charlemagne’s capture of Pavia and the Lombard kingdom.
  678.  
  679. Find this resource:
  680.  
  681. West, G. V. B. “Charlemagne’s Involvement in Central and Southern Italy: Power and the Limits of Authority.” Early Medieval Europe 8 (1999): 341–367.
  682.  
  683. DOI: 10.1111/1468-0254.00052Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  684.  
  685. Shows that Charlemagne successfully exerted his rule over Spoleto (central Italy) but not over the Lombard Duchy of Benevento in the south; places emphasis on the great monasteries of Farfa, Monte Cassino, and San Vincenzo al Volturno.
  686.  
  687. Find this resource:
  688.  
  689. Regional Studies
  690.  
  691. In the early Middle Ages Italy became a land of distinct regions, each with its own socioeconomic and political structures. Costambeys 2007a and Balzaretti 2013 are good accounts of important regions in the development of Lombard Italy. Costambeys discusses central Italy, especially the Duchy of Spoleto and areas of northern Lazio around the abbey of Farfa while Balzaretti discusses developments in Liguria. Christie 1990 discusses the early interactions between the Lombards and the native Romans in Liguris. Costambeys 2007b discusses legal issues and dispute settlement in central Italy. Wickham 1980 discusses Lombard socioeconomic developments in Tuscany while Francovich 2008 analyzes the growth of hilltop settlements in Tuscany in the Lombard and later periods. Bullough 1966 and Arecchi 2001 discuss the growth of the Lombard capital at Pavia. Majocchi 2010 provides the most recent analysis of Pavia’s development. The early medieval period in the development of Venice, especially recent archaeological revelations, is discussed in Ammerman 2003.
  692.  
  693. Ammerman, Albert J. “Venice before the Grand Canal.” Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 48 (2003): 141–158.
  694.  
  695. DOI: 10.2307/4238806Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  696.  
  697. Discusses recent archaeological work in Venice and shows that Venice grew rapidly after the Lombard conquest of Ravenna in 750–751.
  698.  
  699. Find this resource:
  700.  
  701. Arecchi, Alberto. I Longobardi e Pavia capitale. Pavia, Italy: Liutprand, 2001.
  702.  
  703. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  704.  
  705. A brief account of the Lombard capital city, with a summary in English.
  706.  
  707. Find this resource:
  708.  
  709. Balzaretti, Ross. Dark Age Liguria: Regional Identity and Local Power, ca. 400–1020. London: Bloomsbury, 2013.
  710.  
  711. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  712.  
  713. Discussion of the socioeconomic developments during the Lombard period are spread throughout the monograph.
  714.  
  715. Find this resource:
  716.  
  717. Bullough, Donald A. “Urban Change in Early Medieval Italy: The Example of Pavia.” Papers of the British School at Rome 34 (1966): 82–132.
  718.  
  719. DOI: 10.1017/S0068246200007492Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  720.  
  721. Bullough’s detailed study describes some of the urban and ecclesiastical developments in Pavia during the Lombard era and later.
  722.  
  723. Find this resource:
  724.  
  725. I longobardi dei ducati di Spoleto e Benevento. Atti dei XVI Congresso internazionale di Studi sull’alto Medioevo. 2 vols. Spoleto, Italy: Fondazione Centro Italiano di Studi sull’alto Medioveo, 2003.
  726.  
  727. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  728.  
  729. Contains numerous scholarly articles, mostly in Italian, on Lombard settlement, political development, and monastic establishments in the semi-independent Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento.
  730.  
  731. Find this resource:
  732.  
  733. Christie, Neil. “Byzantine Liguria: An Imperial Province against the Longobards, A.D. 568–643.” Papers of the British School at Rome 58 (1990): 229–271.
  734.  
  735. DOI: 10.1017/S0068246200011661Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  736.  
  737. Makes full use of archaeological data to discuss Ligurian resistance to the Lombards.
  738.  
  739. Find this resource:
  740.  
  741. Costambeys, Marios. Power and Patronage in Early Medieval Italy: Local Society, Italian Politics and the Abbey of Farfa, ca. 700–900. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007a.
  742.  
  743. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511496271Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  744.  
  745. An excellent detailed account, based largely on the documentary evidence, of the relations between the monastery of Farfa and the Dukes of Spoleto, the Lombard kings, and the papacy. Costambeys emphasizes the importance of property rights and local socioeconomic power over constitutional issues.
  746.  
  747. Find this resource:
  748.  
  749. Costambeys, Marios. “Disputes and Courts in Lombard and Carolingian Central Italy.” Early Medieval Europe 17 (2007b): 265–289.
  750.  
  751. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0254.2007.00206.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  752.  
  753. Using the documents from the monastery of Farfa, Costambeys looks at the judicial system in the Duchy of Spoleto and the transition from Lombard to Carolingian rule.
  754.  
  755. Find this resource:
  756.  
  757. Francovich, Riccardo. “The Beginnings of Hilltop Villages in Early Medieval Tuscany.” In The Long Morning of Medieval Europe: New Directions in Early Medieval Studies. Edited by Jennifer R. Davis and Michael McCormick, 55–81. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2008.
  758.  
  759. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  760.  
  761. Francovich uses recent archaeological data to discuss the early development of hilltop settlements in Tuscany.
  762.  
  763. Find this resource:
  764.  
  765. Majocchi, Piero. “Sviluppo e affermazione di una capital altomedievale: Pavia in eta gota e longobarda.” Reti Medievali Rivista 11 (2010): 169–179.
  766.  
  767. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  768.  
  769. An up-to-date assessment using documentary and archaeological evidence of the emergence of Pavia as the capital of the Lombard kingdom.
  770.  
  771. Find this resource:
  772.  
  773. Wickham, Chris. “Economic and Social Institutions in Northern Tuscany in the 8th century.” In Istituzioni ecclesiastiche della Toscana medievale. Edited by M. Ronzani, 7–34. Galatina, Italy: Congedo Editore, 1980.
  774.  
  775. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  776.  
  777. A full discussion of Tuscan economic development and whether there was a monetary economy (or if this is even a relevant consideration).
  778.  
  779. Find this resource:
  780.  
  781. Rome and Ravenna
  782.  
  783. Both Rome and Ravenna remained outside the control of the Lombards. Their relations with the Lombards, however, were important. Bertolini 1972 is a discussion of Lombard-papal relations from a Roman perspective by a leading Italain historian. Llewellyn 1971 discusses the history of the city of Rome during the early medieval period, while Noble 1984 is an account of the development of the papal state, especially strong on constitutional issues. Deliyannis 2010 is a full account of development of Ravenna from its position as the seat of imperial government in the West in the 5th and 6th centuries through the Lombard period and into the 9th century. Trout 2005 discusses papal relations with an early Lombard queen. Schwartz 2013 discusses tha possible influence of the Lombards on the history of Castel Sant’Angelo.
  784.  
  785. Bertolini, Ottorino. Roma e i Longobardi. Rome: Istituto di Studi Romani Editore, 1972.
  786.  
  787. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  788.  
  789. In this and other studies Bertolini provides a full account of the relations between Rome and the papacy and the Lombard kings in Pavia.
  790.  
  791. Find this resource:
  792.  
  793. Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  794.  
  795. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  796.  
  797. A splendid account of the late Roman and then Byzantine city. Discusses Ravenna’s relations with Rome and the papacy as well as with the 8th-century Lombard kings.
  798.  
  799. Find this resource:
  800.  
  801. Llewellyn, Peter. Rome in the Dark Ages. London: Faber and Faber, 1971.
  802.  
  803. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  804.  
  805. A good account of early medieval Rome with chapters on the Lombards and the Franks.
  806.  
  807. Find this resource:
  808.  
  809. Noble, Thomas F. X. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State (680–825). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984.
  810.  
  811. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  812.  
  813. Noble takes a largely ideological-constitutional approach to the relations between the Lombards and the papacy and the emergence of the so-called Papal State.
  814.  
  815. Find this resource:
  816.  
  817. Schwartz, Louis. “Gargano Comes to Rome: Castel Sant’Angelo’s Historical Origins.” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 64.3 (2013): 453–475.
  818.  
  819. DOI: 10.1017/S0022046912001704Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  820.  
  821. Shwartz argues that the transformation of Hadrian’s tomb into Castel Sant’Angelo dedicated to St. Michael reflects Lombard influence.
  822.  
  823. Find this resource:
  824.  
  825. Trout, Dennis. “Theodelinda’s Rome: Ampullae, Pittacia, and the Image of the City.” Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 50 (2005): 131–150.
  826.  
  827. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  828.  
  829. Trout uses the four glass vials with martyrs’ oil supposedly sent by Pope Gregory to Queen Theodelinda to discuss early medieval Rome as a city of saints and martyrs.
  830.  
  831. Find this resource:
  832.  
  833. The Lombards in the South
  834.  
  835. Lombards continued to hold power in the south of Italy after the Carolingian conquest of the Lombard kingdom in 774. Erchempert 1999 is almost the sole narrative source for the Lombards in the south. Ferry 1995 translates the text and provides a useful commentary. Berto 2012 discusses Erchempert’s views of the Lombard leaders in the south. The best secondary account in English of the Lombards in the south, especially in Benevento, is Kreutz 1991. Di Muro 2008 is a good account in Italian of socioeconomic developments in the Lombard south while the essays in Roma 2010 highlight the settlement of the Lombards in Benevento and other parts of south Italy.
  836.  
  837. Berto, Luigi Andrea. “Erchempert, a Reluctant Fustigator of his People: History and Ethnic Pride in Southern Italy at the End of the Ninth Century.” Mediterranean Studies 20.2 (2012): 147–175.
  838.  
  839. DOI: 10.5325/mediterraneanstu.20.2.0147Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  840.  
  841. Analyzes Erchempert’s harsh criticism of the Lombard rulers of the south and also highlights his Lombard pride.
  842.  
  843. Find this resource:
  844.  
  845. Di Muro, Alessandro. Mezzogiorno longobardo: insediamenti, economia e istitutioni tra Salerno e il Sele (secc. VII-XI). Bari, Italy: M. Adda, 2008.
  846.  
  847. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  848.  
  849. A full, scholarly account of the settlement and economic development of the Lombards in the region of Salerno.
  850.  
  851. Find this resource:
  852.  
  853. Erchempert. Storia dei Longobardi Beneventani. Edited by Raffaele Matarazzo. Naples, Italy: Arte Tipografica, 1999.
  854.  
  855. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  856.  
  857. Contains the Latin text with an Italian translation of Erchempert’s Historia Longobardorum Benevetanorum. This the primary narrative source for the Lombards in the Italian south. Writing in the late 9th century, Erchempert, a monk at Monte Cassino, implies that he is continuing Paul the Deacon’s Historia Langobardorum, but in fact he begins with the fall of the Lombard Kingdom in 774.
  858.  
  859. Find this resource:
  860.  
  861. Ferry, Joan Rowe. “Erchempert’s ‘History of the Lombards of Benevento’: A Translation and Study of its Place in the Chronicle Tradition.” PhD diss., Rice University, 1995.
  862.  
  863. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  864.  
  865. Contains an English translation of Erchempert and an extensive commentary.
  866.  
  867. Find this resource:
  868.  
  869. Kreutz, Barbara M. Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991.
  870.  
  871. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  872.  
  873. A solid account of the complex world of the Lombards in south, and their interactions with Byzantine and Muslim forces.
  874.  
  875. Find this resource:
  876.  
  877. Roma, Giuseppe. I Longobardi del Sud. Rome: Giogio Bretschneider, 2010.
  878.  
  879. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  880.  
  881. Scholarly essays in Italian on the settlement of the Lombards in the southern half of Italy. Strong on the archeology of the Lombards.
  882.  
  883. Find this resource:
  884.  
  885. Legends
  886.  
  887. According to legend, the Lombard Queen Theodelinda made a crown fabricated partly out of one of the nails from Jesus’s crucifixion. She presented this “Iron Crown” to the cathedral church in Monza where it was preserved. Scientific analysis in 1993, however, showed that the crown is 99 percent silver. The crown was supposedly used in some thirty-four coronations between the 9th and 17th centuries, although the first credible record of such is the coronation on Henry VII in 1312. Napoleon crowned himself as King of Italy with the Iron Crown in 1805 in Milan. The fullest account of all aspects of the “Iron Crown” is in Bruccellati 1995–1999. Several essays in Pohl and Mehofer 2010 discuss the Lombard context of the legend.
  888.  
  889. Bruccellati, Graziella, ed. The Iron Crown and Imperial Europe. 2 vols. Milan: Editroriale Giorgio Mondadori, 1995–1999.
  890.  
  891. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  892.  
  893. Splendidly illustrated volumes with numerous essays by leading scholars providing a full account of all the legends of the “Iron Crown.”
  894.  
  895. Find this resource:
  896.  
  897. Pohl, Walter, and Matthias Mehofer, eds. Archaeology of Identity: Archäologie der Identität. Forshungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters 17. Vienna: Verlag, 2010.
  898.  
  899. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  900.  
  901. The chapters by Piero Majocchi, “The Treasure of Theodelinda: Ideological Claims and Political Contingencies in the Construction of a Myth,” pp. 245–267 and Cristina La Rocca and Stefano Gasparri, “Forging an Early Medieval Royal Couple: Agilulf, Theodelinda and the “Lombard Treasure” (1888–1932), pp. 269–287 explore different aspects of the myth of the Lombard “Iron Crown.”
  902.  
  903. Find this resource:
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