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Uruguay (Latin American Studies)

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Feb 8th, 2018
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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Uruguayans living in the country and abroad have written most of the books listed here. Thus, most of these works are written in Spanish. Current Uruguayan historiography concentrates in three periods: (i) Independence with a focus on José Artigas and the regional anti-colonial fight that involved the former Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, (ii) the early-twentieth-century “Batllista” movement that shaped modern Uruguay with its radical reforms, and (iii) the crisis (1960s) and dictatorship (1973–1985) with an emphasis of the post-1985 legacies. The history of Uruguay before 1904 may be divided into three broad subperiods: the colonial era (1580–1810), revolution and independence (1810–1860), and modernization (1860–1904). Note that this chronology does not correspond strictly to how Uruguayan historians divide pre-1904 Uruguayan history. The post-1904 periodization presented here matches more accurately the perspectives of Uruguayan scholarship. The division in 1904 marks the end of the 19th-century civil wars and the beginning of modern Uruguay under the political, economic, social, and cultural reforms encouraged by the presidencies of José Batlle y Ordóñez. The 1904 landmark is also a useful but approximate transition to chart the usage of terms referring to the people of this country: Orientales and Uruguayans. The term Banda Oriental, or Eastern Bank, referred to the territory east of the Uruguay River, currently Uruguay. The predominant term for people born in the territory of modern-day Uruguay was Orientales, given that this land was called Banda Oriental, Provincia Oriental, and, after independence, Estado Oriental del Uruguay and its current name República Oriental del Uruguay. The descendants of the Spaniards, the criollos of Montevideo and its countryside called themselves Orientales in the late colonial period and during the 19th century. The Constitutional Assembly named the new state as Estado Oriental del Uruguay in May 1829 drawing on the prevalent term Oriental. Usage in the early 20th century, when massive European immigration changed the demographics of Uruguay, increasingly made the terms “Uruguay” and “Uruguayan” prevalent, but without eliminating the expression Orientales that still is employed by Uruguayans.
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  5. Colonial Period (1580–1810): Traditional Studies
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  7. The study of colonial Uruguay is deeply intertwined with the history of the larger Río de la Plata region stretching from Paraguay to Buenos Aires. While permanent European settlements in the territory of what is today Uruguay were established late in comparison with the rest of Latin America, the 1580 foundation of Buenos Aires on the southern shore of the Río de la Plata (River Plate) marks the beginning of permanent European colonization for the region including the northern shore of the River Plate. Short-lived European settlements in the littoral of the Uruguay River were built by the Spanish expedition commanded by the Venetian explorer Sebastian Cabot, known in Spanish as Gaboto, in the 1520s, close to what would become the area where the Franciscan Order attempted to found missions among the Charrúa and Chaná indigenous groups in the 1620s (near today’s Soriano, Uruguay). During most of the 17th century, Uruguay was known as Banda Norte because it was the northern bank of the Río de la Plata as well as Banda Oriental, as previously seen. This land was a place of passage, intermittent European occupation, scenario of Spanish-Amerindian interactions, and a place of military and administrative jurisdiction for the Spanish colonists in Buenos Aires. The first permanent European settlement on the northern shore of the River Plate was Colonia del Sacramento, founded by the Portuguese across the river from Buenos Aires in 1680. The Spanish of Buenos Aires established Montevideo in 1726 to stop Portuguese encroachment in the bay of Montevideo, the best harbor for ocean-going vessels in the region. In the colonial era, the territory of what is today Uruguay was under overlapping and sometimes competing jurisdictions of Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and the Guarani Missions ran by the Jesuit Order. The Portuguese had jurisdiction over Colonia almost continuously between 1680 and 1777. Most studies on colonial Uruguay focuses on the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (1776–1810), when the population of Montevideo grew exponentially due to the combined effects of Spanish immigration and Atlantic commerce (Bentancur 1999), regional migrants from Paraguay and the central and northern provinces of what is today Argentina, and the trade of enslaved Africans. Most of the traditional works on colonial Uruguay focus on Montevideo’s population (Apolant 1975) and its commerce as well as on the socio-economic history of the countryside to find the roots of the revolution against the colonial regime (Pivel Devoto 1952; Sala, et al. 1968).
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  9. Apolant, Juan A. Génesis de la familia uruguaya: Los habitantes de Montevideo en sus primeros 40 años. Filiaciones. Ascendencias. Entronques. Descendencias. 4 vols. Montevideo, Uruguay: Vinaak, 1975.
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  11. Classic work of a genealogist, it contains most available data from parish records as well as from other sources for the first forty years of Spanish Montevideo (1726–1766). Not for beginners, this is an essential companion of research for the colonial Banda Oriental to examine family links, individual vignettes, demographic analysis, and so on.
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  13. Bentancur, Arturo. El Puerto Colonial de Montevideo. 2 vols. Montevideo, Uruguay: FHCE, 1999.
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  15. Multivolume study on the merchant community of Montevideo: Vol. 1, Guerras y apertura comercial: tres lustros de crecimiento económico (1791–1806), 1997; Vol. 2. Los años de crisis (1807–1814). It argues against the topic of the “fight of ports” between Buenos Aires and Montevideo as precursor of Uruguayan independence. Instead, Montevideo grew as a port servicing Buenos Aires from the fall of Colonia del Sacramento in 1777 up to 1807. The second volume analyzes the disintegration of this merchant community as war and revolution engulfed the Banda Oriental.
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  17. Pivel Devoto, Juan E. Raíces coloniales de la Revolución Oriental de 1811. Montevideo, Uruguay: Monteverde, 1952.
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  19. Foundational book on how the political, economic, and social history of the countryside shaped the rise of José Artigas during the revolution. Pivel argues that the late colonization of the Banda Oriental was advanced by the cattle-ranching economy that attracted the Spanish and the Portuguese, which in turn led to a complex process of recognition of private land ownership—a central issue later during the times of Artigas.
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  21. Reyes Abadie, Washington, Oscar Bruschera, and Tabaré Melogno. La Banda Oriental: Pradera, frontera, puerto. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1965.
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  23. Foundational interpretation of Uruguayan colonial history as the result of the intersection of fertile grasslands (pradera) providing the environment for the gaucho cattle-ranching economy, the borderlands (frontera) shaping the conflicts between the Portuguese and Spanish empires as well as the legal and illegal trade across borders, and the port (puerto) stressing the geopolitical significance of Montevideo for the Spanish South Atlantic.
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  25. Sala, Lucía, Nelson de la Torre, and Julio Rodríguez. Estructura económico-social de la colonia. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones Pueblos Unidos, 1968.
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  27. Influential work on the economics and society of colonial Banda Oriental from a Marxist interpretation. See additional works produced by this team, particularly on José Artigas and by Lucía Sala on the 1820s, which provides a comprehensive and scholarly interpretation of capital, labor forces, modes of productions, social classes, including slaves, through the lens of historical materialism.
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  29. Colonial Period (1580–1810): New Outlooks
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  31. From the decade of the 1990s, new views about different actors of colonial society emerged (Behares and Cures 1997). While there is a relatively large scholarship on indigenous and Afro-descendant populations, new works proliferated on the interactions of indigenous populations with the Spanish and the Portuguese (Bracco 2004, Erbig 2015), the slave trade and black social identities (Borucki 2015), and several sectors of the population ranging from bureaucrats to prisoners (Luque Azcona 2007). In addition, traditional themes received a new examination, such as religiosity, family, and death (Bentancur 2011; Bentancor, et al. 2008); the connections with the Portuguese Atlantic (Prado 2015); and the economic history of the countryside (Moraes 2008).
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  33. Behares, Luis E., and Oribe Cures, eds. Sociedad y Cultura en el Montevideo Colonial. Montevideo, Uruguay: UDELAR-FHCE IMM, 1997.
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  35. Interdisciplinary collective volume on the social and cultural history of 18th-century Montevideo. Contributions range from history and literature to linguistics and education. Good starting point for analyzing Spanish immigration before independence, colonial theater and literature, the history of family and gender, and the interactions between Amerindian society and Spanish colonization.
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  37. Bentancor, Andrea, Arturo Bentancur, and Wilson Gonzalez. Muerte y Religiosidad en el Montevideo colonial. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2008.
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  39. Detailed study of the religious and social practices involving death and dying, including funerals, processions, taking care of the body, cemeteries, and chantries, among several aspects. The authors address how class, gender, and race intersected attitudes toward death.
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  41. Bentancur, Arturo. La familia en el Río de la Plata a fines del período hispánico: Historias de la sociedad montevideana. Montevideo, Uruguay: Planeta, 2011.
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  43. Comprehensive analysis on how conceptions and social practices related to family shaped colonial society. This book comprises material life, historical demography, matrimonial practices and Catholic sacraments, adultery, legitimacy and illegitimacy, parental control, family relationships, and honor, among many other subjects.
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  45. Borucki, Alex. From Shipmates to Soldiers: Emerging Black Identities in the Río de la Plata. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2015.
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  47. Monograph on how free blacks and slaves in Buenos Aires and Montevideo shaped collective black identities from African origins, shared endurance in the slave trade, and overlapping arenas of social experience in black associations ranging from black brotherhoods to colonial militias. The book covers 1760 to 1860 and thus includes historical developments related to the era of independence and civil wars.
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  49. Bracco, Diego. Charrúas, guenoas y guaraníes: Interacción y destrucción: indígenas en el Río de la Plata. Montevideo, Uruguay: Linardi y Risso, 2004.
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  51. While this book examines the interactions of Amerindians with Spanish and Portuguese colonists in the larger Río de la Plata region, it focuses on what became Uruguay from the earliest Spanish expeditions to the end of the colonial regime. This work analyzes the agency of Charrúa, Guenoa, and other indigenous groups in the borderlands of empires.
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  53. Erbig, Jeffrey. “Imperial Lines, Indigenous Lands: Transforming Territorialities of the Río de la Plata, 1680–1805.” PhD Thesis, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 2015.
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  55. Innovative work that incorporate spatial analysis to the reconstruction of the histories of various indigenous groups of this region. It focuses on how the process of delimiting the borders of the Spanish and Portuguese jurisdictions was shaped by indigenous groups such as the Charrúas and Minuanes.
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  57. Luque Azcona, Emilio. Ciudad y Poder: La construcción material y simbólica del Montevideo colonial (1723–1810). Seville, Spain: Universidad de Sevilla, 2007.
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  59. A social history of the construction of the military defenses of colonial Montevideo, this monograph focuses on urban history and architecture. This work includes the stories of colonial bureaucrats, engineers, free workers (both craftsmen and non-specialized laborers), prisoners, and the indigenous populations.
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  61. Moraes, María I. La pradera perdida: Historia y economía del agro uruguayo: Una visión de largo plazo (1760–1970). Montevideo, Uruguay: Linardi y Risso, 2008.
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  63. Longe-durée monograph on agrarian history. Moraes shows how the historiography of the countryside articulates larger interpretations of Uruguayan history. The book focuses on the northern half of the country rather than the better studied southern half. This work links with the history of southern Brazil and the Argentine provinces closer to Uruguay.
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  65. Prado, Fabrício. Edge of Empire: Atlantic Networks and Revolution in Bourbon Río de la Plata. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015.
  66. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520285156.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  67. Monograph on how a large portion of the Portuguese merchants of Colonia del Sacramento moved to Montevideo after the fall of Colonia in 1777, which led to the continuance and intensification of Luso-Spanish networks in Montevideo in the years leading to independence. Apart from transimperial history, this work focuses on how social ties, particularly merchant networks, shaped collective identities.
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  69. Revolution and Independence (1810–1860): Traditional Studies
  70.  
  71. Uruguayan independence was the outcome of complex interactions and conflicts between royalist and pro-independence forces within the Banda Oriental and deeply connected and shaped by developments involving Buenos Aires, the larger United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Brazil, and, later, Great Britain. When the May Revolution began in Buenos Aires in 1810, most elites of Montevideo remained royalist alongside the Spanish Navy stationed in this port. A criollo of the Banda Oriental who belonged to traditional families and served in the Spanish army, José Artigas became the local leader loyal to revolutionary Buenos Aires who fought against the Spanish royalists of Montevideo from 1811 on. He gathered support from diverse social groups such as landowners, the rural poor, and Amerindians. After the final defeat of the royalists of Montevideo in 1814, and the occupation of this city by the revolutionary forces of Buenos Aires, war broke out between the centralist rule of Buenos Aires and the federalist forces led by Artigas. By March 1815, the entire Banda Oriental was under the command of Artigas, who became head of an unstable alliance with the provinces of Entre Ríos, Corrientes, Santa Fe, Córdoba and Misiones called La Liga de los Pueblos Libres (The League of the Free Peoples). But as the Artigas government became more established, it alienated the cattle-ranching sectors and the merchant elite in Montevideo, who increasingly saw Artigas and his movement as a danger to their social standing, and more broadly, social order. In 1811, to complicate this situation, Portuguese troops from Brazil invaded the Banda Oriental to support the Spanish royalists but then moved back. A second Portuguese offensive took place in 1816, but this time Artigas relied solely on the forces of the Banda Oriental to repel this invasion. The government of Buenos Aires had triggered this attack by promising neutrality to the Portuguese, as Artigas was the main opponent to centralist Buenos Aires within the provinces of the Río de la Plata. The alliance created by Artigas with other provinces disintegrated. While the Portuguese entered Montevideo in 1817, they continued fighting Artigas in the countryside until 1820. During the Luso-Brazilian occupation, the Banda Oriental became the Provincia Cisplatina, from 1817 to 1828. While small-scale fights continued, open war against the Brazilian rule broke out from 1825 to 1828 this time with the rebels receiving decisive support from Buenos Aires. The Estado Oriental del Uruguay emerged from the British peace negotiations between Brazil and Argentina in 1828, but still the date of Uruguayan independence is a matter of debate: 1825 (Declaration of Independence and Union with the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata), 1828 (Preliminary Convention of Peace mediated by Britain), and 1830 (first presidency and constitution). The very existence of Uruguay as independent state was at stake during the Guerra Grande (1839–1851), a civil war entangled with conflagrations in Argentina, in which Britain, France, and Brazil intervened. The 1830s also saw the emergence of the traditional (still existing) political parties in Uruguay: the Colorados (Reds) and Blancos (Whites). The Triple Alliance War against Paraguay (1864–1870) was part of this period of local, regional, and international conflicts. Classic works focus on the intellectual history of Artigas (Petit Muñoz 1956) and the socio-economic background of his movement (Barrán and Nahum 1964; Sala, et al. 1969), the elites of Montevideo (Rama 1976, Real de Azúa 1966), the birth of the traditional political parties (Pivel Devoto 1994), and, more recently, the larger cultural milieu (Barrán 1989–1992).
  72.  
  73. Barrán, José P. Historia de la sensibilidad en el Uruguay. 2 vols. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1989–1992.
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  75. Groundbreaking multivolume study that introduces the key concept of disciplinamiento to understand changing attitudes about violence, sexuality, games, and death—a very popular study in Uruguay. While it covers the early 19th-century, it shows that late 19th-century social, economic, and political modernization meant an increasing disciplining of women, children, and lower classes by the new state institutions. Later, personal guilt became the basis of the new liberal 20th-century Uruguay.
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  77. Barrán, José P., Ana Frega, and Mónica Nicoliello. El Cónsul Británico en Montevideo y la independencia del Uruguay. Montevideo, Uruguay: Universidad de la República, 1999.
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  79. British consular sources on the process of independence of Uruguay from Brazil (1825–1830) introduced by Barrán, who shows that the interests of British merchants in the region were better served if Uruguay (or Provincia Cisplatina) was a part of Brazil rather than an independent nation. Key introduction shows the pitfalls of the theory of the “buffer state,” or of Uruguay as mere creation of Britain, to understand Uruguayan independence.
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  81. Barrán, José P., and Benjamín Nahum. Bases económicas de la Revolución Artiguista. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1964.
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  83. Classic work on how the environment, economy, and society of the Río de la Plata and particularly the Banda Oriental led Artigas to become a federalist leader. It focuses on the relationship between Buenos Aires and the provinces, Montevideo, land ownership, and the Spanish master plan known as arreglo de los campos. The latter became central for the revolution as shown by the Artigas’s regulations of land tenure in 1815.
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  85. Petit Muñoz, Eugenio. Artigas y su ideario a través de seis series documentales. Montevideo, Uruguay: UdelaR-FHC, 1956.
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  87. Comprehensive study on the ideological basis of Artigas and his movement. Petit shows how Artigas’s political thought intersected the May Revolution of Buenos Aires as well as tracks influences from Thomas Paine to Jacques Rousseau. Petit focuses on sovereignty, social contract, independence, and confederation, among other concepts, from a perspective of the history of political thought.
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  89. Pivel Devoto, Juan E. Historia de los Partidos Políticos en el Uruguay. Montevideo, Uruguay: Cámara de Representantes, 1994.
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  91. Influential work on the genesis of the traditional political parties (Blanco and Colorado) from their “pre-history” during the revolution to the formation of alliances of caudillos, which coalesced into the Blancos and the Colorados during the 1830s and from there to the end of the century. Pivel lays the foundations of his interpretation of Uruguayan history as based on the record of these two parties.
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  93. Rama, Angel. Los Gauchipolíticos Rioplatenses: Literatura y Sociedad. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Calicanto, 1976.
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  95. Classic study of literary scholar Angel Rama on the intersection of politics and literature from the revolutionary early 19th-century to the mid-century civil wars across the Río de la Plata. It shows the political underpinnings of the gauchesque genre in writers such as Bartolomé Hidalgo and the deep connections between writing, fighting, and governing.
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  97. Real de Azúa, Carlos. El Patriciado Uruguayo. Montevideo, Uruguay: Asir, 1966.
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  99. Foundational study on how the elites of Montevideo, whose income came from both trade and land ownership, survived Artigas (though some elite members joined the revolution), revived during the Luso-Brazilian occupation (Cisplatina) and led the way to the independence of Uruguay by 1830. Real de Azúa provides an interpretation of state formation based on class and elites’ social networks, including regional links to Argentina and Brazil.
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  101. Sala, Lucía, Nelson de la Torre, and Julio Rodríguez. La revolución agraria artiguista. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones Pueblos Unidos, 1969.
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  103. Groundbreaking study on the short-lived but unique rural reform led by Artigas in 1815–1816, which focuses on both on the reforms on paper (Reglamento Provisorio de Fomento de la campaña y seguridad de sus hacendados, 1815), and its application even after the demise of Artigas. It tracks whose lands were confiscated and distributed, who the beneficiaries were, and the long-term impacts of this policy.
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  105. Revolution and Independence (1810–1860): New Outlooks
  106.  
  107. New works on revolution and independence reexamine Artigas and his movement from a regional perspective (Frega 2007) as well as add several assessments from both within and outside Uruguay (Frega and Islas 2001). Also they pay attention to the royalists of Montevideo (Ribeiro 2013) and analyze the problem of independence and the much less studied decade of the 1820s (Frega 2009). This section combines monographs that deal with specific subperiods and agents such as slavery in the mid-19th century (Borucki, et al. 2004) to comprehensive works that survey the entire century from the perspective of secularization (Barrán 1998) and print culture (Acree 2011).
  108.  
  109. Acree, William. Everyday Reading: Print Culture and Collective Identity in the Río de la Plata 1780–1910. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2011.
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  111. This monograph shows how printed culture and practices of everyday reading shaped national identity. It reveals that the educational reforms from the times of José Pedro Varela and Argentine Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, in the later 19th century, were rooted in the print culture from the era of the revolution and the mid-century cattle-ranching culture. The author emphasizes the role of women in shaping nationhood in late 19th century.
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  113. Barrán, José P. La espiritualización de la riqueza. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1998.
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  115. Thorough study on the spiritual use of wealth (through wills) from the colonial era to the 19th century, this book dates the process of secularization back to the early 19th century, when changes in the private religious behavior about the use of wealth occurred. This transformation preceded public discussions about the separation of church and state typical of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
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  117. Borucki, Alex, Karla Chagas, and Natalia Stalla. Esclavitud y trabajo: Un estudio sobre los afrodescendientes en la frontera uruguaya, 1835–1855. Montevideo, Uruguay: Pulmón, 2004.
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  119. Monograph on the abolition of slavery that focuses on the strategies of masters, slaves, and the authorities. It shows the demographics of slavery on the Uruguayan–Brazilian frontier, slave labor on cattle ranches and in agriculture, the continuity of slavery after abolition on Brazilian-owned ranches, as well as other features of rural slavery.
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  121. Frega, Ana. Pueblos y Soberanía en la Revolución Artiguista: La Región de Santo Domingo de Soriano desde fines de la colonia a la ocupación portuguesa. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2007.
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  123. Groundbreaking work on the local and global dimensions of the movement led by Artigas from the perspective of Santo Domingo Soriano, the first town from where the revolution spread in the Banda Oriental. This work put together the traditional historiography on economics and society with new perspectives on culture, ideology, and identity to explain how and why elites and commoners joined the revolution.
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  125. Frega, Ana, ed. Historia Regional e Independencia del Uruguay: Proceso histórico y revisión crítica de sus relatos. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2009.
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  127. Edited volume centered on the regional underpinnings of Uruguayan independence. It focuses on: (i) the Luso-Brazilian occupation of the Banda Oriental, (ii) the British mediation leading to Uruguayan independence, (iii) the military campaign of Fructuoso Rivera to the eastern missions against Brazil, (iv) the Convention of 1828, and (v) the scholarly writings of the Blanco leader Luis Alberto de Herrera about these same questions.
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  129. Frega, Ana, and Ariadna Islas, eds. Nuevas Miradas en torno al Artiguismo. Montevideo, Uruguay: FHCE-UdelaR, 2001.
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  131. Edited volume on the impact of Artigas and his federal movement in the Río de la Plata. It contains contributions on the history of historiography, the regional impact of Artiguism (also from non-Uruguayan historians), the social and political context of his era, and the representations (literary, historiographical, artistic, and political) of Artigas from the late 19th century to the 1970s.
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  133. Ribeiro, Ana. Los muy fieles: Leales a la corona en el proceso revolucionario rioplatense. Montevideo-Asunción, 1810–1820. Montevideo, Uruguay: Planeta, 2013.
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  135. Monograph on the loyalists to the Spanish Crown in Paraguay and the Banda Oriental in the aftermath of the May Revolution of Buenos Aires. This book connects the well-known royalists of Montevideo with the anti-porteño front of Asunción, as it provides a new explanation from both politics and culture on the networks of royalists during the revolution.
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  137. Modernization (1860–1904): Political and Economic Perspectives
  138.  
  139. The main features of the period known in Uruguay as “modernization,” here limited between 1860 and the last of the civil wars in 1904, was direct military rule (1876–1890), the passage of dependency from Brazilian investments to British capital; an export boom based on wool and refrigerated beef; social and economic reforms in the countryside; the creation of a railroad network; the expansion of utilities in Montevideo; a resurgence of European immigration; and educational reforms that expanded literacy to unprecedented levels. Works on the political-economic core of Uruguayan scholarship focus on the history of the countryside (Barrán and Nahum 1967–1978, Jacob 1969, Millot and Bertino 1996), the Brazilian and British influence (Winn 1997–2010), caudillos (Chasteen 1995), and the birth of the workers’ union movement (Balbis and Zubillaga 1985–1992).
  140.  
  141. Balbis, Jorge, and Carlos Zubillaga. Historia del movimiento sindical uruguayo. 4 vols. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1985–1992.
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  143. Multivolume monograph on the pre-1905 history of unions, connected to the history of European immigration. Along with chronological tables and source materials, it focuses on the newspapers published by unions, the material life of workers as well as popular culture, the ideological debates, and the political marginalization of workers.
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  145. Barrán, José P., and Benjamín Nahum. Historia Rural de Uruguay Moderno. 7 vols. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1967–1978.
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  147. Multivolume work that explains how politics accommodated to economics from the mid-century crisis to the late 19th-century export boom. It focuses on the introduction of sheep and exports of wool; the enclosure of landed estates and the transformations in cattle ranching; conflicts between cattle ranchers and producers of jerk-beef; the impact of railroads; the new rural poverty, the civil wars, and the new prosperity when Uruguay began exporting refrigerated beef.
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  149. Chasteen, John C. Heroes on Horseback: The Life and Times of the Last Gaucho Caudillo. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995.
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  151. Monograph on caudillos and borderlands that centers on the brothers Aparicio and Gumercindo Saravia (Blanco leaders) and the civil wars across the Uruguayan–Brazilian frontier from 1893 to 1904, from the regionalist rebellion in Rio Grande do Sul to the last full-fledged civil war in Uruguay ending in 1904. Wonderfully written, this is an ideal case study on popular identification to understand the rise and fall of caudillos.
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  153. Jacob, Raúl. Consecuencias sociales del alambramiento (1872–1880). Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1969.
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  155. Monograph on how the “pacification” of the countryside, the Rural Code, and centralization of power during militarism created the conditions for the enclosure of rural estates with barbed wire. The enclosures shaped the politics, economy, and society of Uruguay via the lowering of rural wages, the disappearance of the gaucho, and the growth of rural poverty, which would be seen as a central social issue for the early 20th-century politicians.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Millot, Julio, and Magdalena Bertino. Vol. 2, 1860–1910. Historia económica del Uruguay. Montevideo, Uruguay: Fundación de Cultura Universitaria, 1996.
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  159. Multivolume work on the economic history of Uruguay. The three volumes, comprising the colonial period to the crisis of the 1930s, are available at the website of the Instituto de Economía (Universidad de la República). The first volume (Desde los orígenes hasta 1860, 1991) focuses on the era prior to 1860, the second on the modernization, and the third on the Batllismo (La economía del batllismo y de los años veinte, 2005; see Modernization (1860–1904): Culture and Society).
  160. Find this resource:
  161. Winn, Peter. Inglaterra y la Tierra Purpúrea. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1997–2010.
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  163. Multivolume monograph on the relationships between Great Britain and Uruguay. The first volume, A la búsqueda del imperio económico (1806–1880), shows the limited commercial interests of the British merchants and capital toward the Banda Oriental from 1810 to 1850, the period of Brazilian hegemony over Uruguay (1850–1865), and the transition from dependency on Brazilian investments to British capital. The second volume, Boom, quiebra e imperio económico (1880–1903), focuses on British railroads and utilities from the years of economic boom to the Baring Brothers crisis (1890).
  164. Find this resource:
  165. Modernization (1860–1904): Culture and Society
  166.  
  167. Larger historical changes of Uruguayan culture and society during the modernization are addressed by scholarship on Afro-Uruguayan cultural expressions and political mobilization (Andrews 2010), the many facets of the massive European immigration (Oddone 1966, Zubillaga 1993), secularization (Caetano and Geymonat 1997), a variety of perspectives focusing on cultural transformations (Mourat, et al. 1969; Rodríguez Villamil 2006), and education (Islas 2009).
  168.  
  169. Andrews, George Reid. Blackness in the White Nation: A History of Afro-Uruguay. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.
  170. DOI: 10.5149/9780807899601_andrewsSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  171. History of the Afro-Uruguayan population from late 19th century to the present. It focuses on candombe and carnival bands, one the one hand, and on black political mobilization, on the other. It argues that discrimination pervades in modern Uruguay by showing comparative Latin American statistics. In addition, it analyzes changes on the practice and performance of candombe from the late 19th century to the present.
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Caetano, Gerardo, and Roger Geymonat. Catolicismo y privatización de lo religioso. Montevideo, Uruguay: Taurus, 1997.
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  175. Monograph of secularization from political, social, and cultural perspectives. It examines theories of secularization and comparative cases. The authors focus on the Catholic Church in Uruguay as an institution, the relationships between Church and the Uruguayan state, and the more private practices and devotions—as opposed to public—developed by the Catholics from the late 19th century to the following century.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Islas, Ariadna. La Liga Patriótica de Enseñanza: Una historia sobre ciudadanía, orden social y educación en el Uruguay (1888–1898). Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2009.
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. Monograph on how education and nation building intersected. Islas examines the political nature of the institutions that regulated education and the composition of these institutions by elite men—both entrepreneurs and intellectuals. Islas reveals how these men conceived citizenship and what were the limits they imposed to egalitarianism.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Mourat, Oscar, A. A. Mariani, R. Jacob, et al. Cinco perspectivas históricas sobre el Uruguay moderno. Montevideo, Uruguay: Fundación de Cultura Universitaria, 1969.
  182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. Edited volume on late 19th-century Uruguay. It focuses on European immigration and demographic growth, the development of modern cattle ranching, the social consequences of land enclosures, the architectural and urban development of Montevideo, and private entrepreneurship.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Oddone, Juan A. La formación del Uruguay moderno: La inmigración y el desarrollo económico-social. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Eudeba, 1966.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Monograph on European immigration to Uruguay. This work tracks the first attempts of the Uruguayan government to attract immigrants in the 1830s, as well as the more consolidated and consistent flows of immigration toward the end of the century. It charts conclusions related to the lack of consistent migratory policies, the demographic impact of this process, and the rise of agriculture with this new labor force.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Rodríguez Villamil, Silvia. Escenas de la vida cotidiana: La antesala del siglo XX (1890–1910). Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2006.
  190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. Study of everyday life and cultural history. It focuses on how changes on material life shaped culture. It tracks the local attitudes toward the foreigners in times of increasing European immigration, the formation of “criollo” features in opposition to European lifestyle and fashion, local theater (circo criollo), moral beliefs, religiosity, family and gender, and patron–client relationships.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Zubillaga, Carlos. Hacer la América: Estudios históricos sobre la inmigración española al Uruguay. Montevideo, Uruguay: Fin de Siglo, 1993.
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  195. Monograph on the demographic, cultural, and political impact of the Spanish immigration. It focuses on Uruguayan-Spanish foreign relationships and immigration, the Galician press in Montevideo, and the fights between supporters of the Spanish monarchy against those of the Spanish Republic in 19th-century Montevideo.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Reforms during the Era of Batllismo (1904–1930): Classic Studies
  198.  
  199. Understood as the “golden era” of Uruguayan history, the two presidencies of José Batlle y Ordoñez (1903–1907 and 1911–1915) reshaped modern Uruguay with reforms such as the implementation of divorce, eight-hour work day, social security, defense of national interests from British capital, and the separation of church and state, among other policies. These changes were the result of deep demographic transformations led by the massive (for Uruguay) European immigration, urbanization, and increasing significance of workshops and industries, all of which can be seen from the 1880s on. First interpretations on the “Batllismo” were heavily “great-man” approaches centered on Batlle, such as Lindahl 1971 and Vanger 1980. While perspectives on Batllismo were generally laudatory, the 1960s Uruguayan crisis generated the first critical but largely essayistic perspectives (Real de Azúa 1964). Comprehensive research on this foundational era began in the 1970s, paradoxically during the authoritarian era (Barrán and Nahum 1979–1987, Zubillaga 1982).
  200.  
  201. Barrán, José P., and Benjamín Nahum. Batlle, los estancieros y el Imperio Británico. 8 vols. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1979–1987.
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  203. Most comprehensive history of the era of Batlle, the reaction from the cattle-owning class, and the erosion of British hegemony. It covers the first presidency of Batlle, the birth of Batllismo as a political movement, the social reforms, the reaction from rural elites and British interests, the radicalization of the reforms, and the electoral failure (for Batlle) of the elections of 1916, which marked the end of his policies.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Lindahl, Göran G. Batlle, Fundador de la democracia en el Uruguay. Montevideo, Uruguay: Arca, 1971.
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  207. Foundational work on Batlle and his time, originally written by Swedish historian Göran Lindahl in 1960, in which he attributes the foundation of Uruguayan democracy to Batlle himself. Apart from the massive archival investigation, Lindahl interviewed major political figures, such as the Blanco leader Luis Alberto de Herrera, while conducting research field.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Real de Azúa, Carlos. El impulso y su freno: Tres décadas de Batllismo y las raíces de la crisis uruguaya. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1964.
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  211. Written in the 1960s, this corrosive and stylish critic of the era of Batlle reshaped the way historians and political scientists understood modernization in Uruguay, the Batllista movement as another variant of a “state-party,” and the contemporary crisis of the 1960s.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Vanger, Milton I. The Model Country: José Batlle Y Ordoñez of Uruguay, 1907–1915. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1980.
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  215. US historian Milton Vanger is the only the scholar who had access to the private archive of José Batlle y Ordóñez, which makes his book on Battle unique. This political history focuses on the second presidency of Battle (1911–1915) as a window to understand the emergence of popular politics in the Southern Cone of South America.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Zubillaga, Carlos. El Reto Financiero: Deuda externa y desarrollo en Uruguay (1903–1933). Montevideo, Uruguay: Arca/CLAEH, 1982.
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  219. Innovative work on how the Colorado governments during the time of Batlle engaged in foreign debt. The book examines the possibilities and limits of how to finance social reforms on the basis of foreign debt. It charts the early transition, in terms of finances and debt, from European to US hegemony as well as the challenges that this posed for national sovereignty.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. New Perspectives on Batllismo (1904–1930)
  222.  
  223. New perspectives on Batllismo emerged after the transition back to democracy in Uruguay, the post-1985 period. However, most of the works still focus on politics and economics (Balbis, et al. 1985; Caetano 1992; Caetano 2011; Jacob 1988; Rilla 1992). Others examine on the conservative movement that developed against Batlle (Caetano 1992, Reali 2015). Yet, some new perspectives (e.g., from gender studies) exist (Ehrick 2005, Rodriguez Villamil and Sapriza 1984).
  224.  
  225. Balbis, Jorge, Gerardo Caetano, Ana Frega, et al. El Primer Batllismo: Cinco Enfoques Polémicos. Montevideo, Uruguay: Centro Latinoamericano de Economía Humana, 1985.
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  227. In this collective volume, Carlos Zubillaga posits Batllismo as a populist movement, while Ana Frega, Monica Maronna, and Yvette Trochón examine the agricultural politics from a more conventional reformist perspective. In a similar vein, José Rilla analyzes tax policies and reform, while Jorge Balbis focuses on women workers, and Gerardo Caetano charts the conservative reaction and the emergence of José Gabriel Terra as the leader of the anti-Batllista coalition.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Caetano, Gerardo. La República Conservadora, 1916–1929. Montevideo, Uruguay: Fin de Siglo, 1992.
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  231. The “Conservative Republic” (1916–1929) saw the first economic and social reforms by Battle halted and the political democracy improved. The book focuses on the struggles and pacts between the cattle-ranch owning class and the movement led by Batlle. It explains how the two so-called traditional parties (Colorados and Blancos) were able to survive into the early 20th century, during the social and economic modernization.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Caetano, Gerardo. La República Batllista. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2011.
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  235. The latest and probably most comprehensive study on politics during this era. Caetano shows how the construction of a political consensus in the ideological field around a “liberal republicanism” blurred the differences between late 19th century corporatist and individualistic views of liberalism. In doing so, this book offers a new way to understand how Batllismo shaped ideas of political citizenship and social integration.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Ehrick, Christine. The Shield of the Weak: Feminism and the State in Uruguay, 1903–1933. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005.
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  239. Monograph on the emergence of the feminist movement in Uruguay during the times of Batlle. The author traces the roots of feminism and Batillismo in late 19th-century Uruguay, the changing politics on women and gender, and the role of women’s political activism.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Jacob, Raúl. Modelo Batllista: Variación sobre un viejo tema? Montevideo, Uruguay: Proyección, 1988.
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  243. Seminal work on the economic history of the times of Batlle. It looks to the Argentinian and Brazilian cases to study, in comparative perspective, the performance of the Uruguayan economy. It shows the ways in which the Uruguayan economy was connected with both Argentina and Brazil from the mid-19th century to the era of Batlle.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Reali, Laura. Herrera, la revolución del orden: Discursos y prácticas políticas (1897–1929). Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2015.
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  247. This work focuses on the most important leader of the Blanco Party during the 20h century, Luis Alberto de Herrera (1873–1959), and the impact of his historical thought and political practices both within Uruguay and abroad. History and historiography were deeply connected in Herrera’s historical and political discourses.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Rilla, José P. La mala cara del Reformismo: impuestos, estado y política en el Uruguay, 1903–1916. Montevideo, Uruguay: Arca, 1992.
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  251. This book examines the tax policies of the Batllismo. It describes how, somewhat timidly, this movement went against the protection of cattle ranch owners and punished consumption to provide funding for the social reforms. Also, this work analyzes the reaction against these policies from both the top and bottom layers of society.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Rodriguez Villamil, Silvia, and Graciela Sapriza. Mujer, estado y politica en el Uruguay del siglo XX. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1984.
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  255. A representative volume that allows for discussion of contributions of GRECMU (women’s history study group) to women’s and gender history in Uruguay.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. From Conservative Reaction to Neo-Batllismo (1930–1958)
  258.  
  259. The year 1930 marked both the beginning of the impact of the 1929 international crisis on Uruguayan economy and the commemorations of the centennial of the first national constitution (Jacob 1981, Oddone 1990). The first Football World Cup, celebrated that year in Montevideo, was among the momentous festivities. The reaction against Batllismo coalesced within the Colorado Party with the emergent leadership of José Gabriel Terra, who first was elected president in 1931 and then, helped by the Herrerista faction of the Blanco Party, became a civilian dictator from 1933 to 1938 (Caetano and Jacob 1989–1991, Jacob 1981, Jacob 1983). After the transition back to democracy (Frega, et al. 1987), a new wave of Batllismo, called “Neo-Batllismo,” came to power between 1946 and 1958, led by Luis Batlle Berres (nephew of José Batlle y Ordóñez). The 1950s saw the crisis of the “Switzerland of America,” as Uruguay was known after its social and the new political reforms: the collegiate arraignment of the executive power (D’Elía 1982). While sustained economic growth characterized the decade after the Second World War, industrialization failed (Bértola 1991), and a new economic and social crisis became the opening of the 1960s (Finch 1980). A workers’ movement consolidated in this era (Lanzaro 1986, Porrini 2005), and workers joined students in demanding a new status for the national university.
  260.  
  261. Bértola, Luis. La industria manufacturera uruguaya, 1913–1961: Un enfoque sectorial de su crecimiento, fluctuaciones y crisis. Montevideo, Uruguay: Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.
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  263. First attempt to understand when and to what degree Uruguay industrialized. It also compares the growth of industry to other sectors from the times of José Batlle y Ordoñez to the end of the neo-Batllista era. This work focuses on technological dependency, the close relationships between agriculture and industry, the links between the Uruguayan international commerce and world economics, the protectionist economic policies, and the labor market.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Caetano, Gerardo, and Raúl Jacob. El nacimiento del Terrismo (1930–1933). 3 vols. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1989–1991.
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  267. Most comprehensive history of the emergence of Terra and the “Terrismo.” The first volume focuses on the impact of the crisis of 1929 and the elections of 1930, when Terra was elected President. The second volume examines the years leading to the cup of 1933, and the last volume analyzes the coup itself.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. D’Elía, Germán. El Uruguay Neo-Batllista, 1946–1958. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1982.
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  271. Foundational work on the times of Luis Batlle, the leader of the neo-Batllista movement. The book focuses on the reorganization of Uruguayan economy after the crisis of 1929, the mid-century model of substitution of imports and industrialization, the neo-Batllista ideology, the electoral politics, and the economic and political crisis that led for first time in the 20th century to a government of the Blanco Party in 1958.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Finch, Henry. Historia económica del Uruguay contemporáneo. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1980.
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  275. Economic history of Uruguay that examines the role of the state in both modernization and dependency. It sheds light on modernization, the mid-20th-century crisis, and the years leading to the 1970s dictatorship. It analyzes agro-exports, industrialization, foreign commerce, public services and utilities, taxes, and general trends on population and society.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Frega, Ana, Mónica Maronna, and Ivette Trochon. Baldomir y la restauración democrática, 1938–1946. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1987.
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  279. Overview of the government of Alfredo Baldomir (1938–1943), who shepherded the transition from the civil dictator Terra (anti-Batllista) to reestablish democracy. The book examines the legacy of Terrismo, the international context (Second World War), the socio-economic characteristics of this transitional period, the civil coup of 1942 (the golpe bueno or “good coup”), which led to the fully integration of all the Uruguayan political specter into electoral politics in the elections of 1942.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Jacob, Raúl. Uruguay, 1929–1938: Depresión ganadera y desarrollo fabril. Montevideo, Uruguay: Fundación de Cultura Universitaria, 1981.
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  283. Major work on the consequences of the effects of the crisis of 1929 in Uruguay. It examines the internal market (internal migration, unemployment, social legislation), the economic policy of the Terrismo (1933–1938), the policies of energy (oil crisis, electric power), the cattle-ranching economy as well as the meatpacking plants, the industry, and the banks.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Jacob, Raúl. El Uruguay de Terra, 1931–1938: Una crónica del terrismo. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1983.
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  287. This book focuses on the politics leading to the coup by Gabriel Terra in 1933, first by examining the years 1931 to 1933. Then, Jacob analyzes the actions of the pro and anti-“Terrista” factions, as well as the general policies of the regime of Terra on economics, social reform, foreign policy, and education.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Lanzaro, Jorge L. Sindicatos y sistema político: Relaciones corporativas en el Uruguay, 1940–1985. Montevideo, Uruguay: Fundación de Cultura Universitaria, 1986.
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  291. This work examines the relationships between the strong workers’ movement and the political system from the neo-Batllista era to the 1980s. It analyzes negotiations related to social security, salaries, centralization of unions, the repression during the dictatorship, and the restoration of the workers’ movement after the 1980s rebirth of democracy.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Oddone, Juan A. Uruguay entre la depresión y la guerra, 1929–1945. Montevideo, Uruguay: Fundación de Cultura Universitaria, 1990.
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  295. This book analyzes the political and economic changes from the great depression of 1929 to the Second World War in Uruguay. It tracks how the changing regional geopolitics impacted on Uruguay, as the United States supplanted Great Britain as the main hegemonic power in the River Plate.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Porrini, Rodolfo. La nueva clase trabajadora uruguaya (1940–1950). Montevideo, Uruguay: Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, 2005.
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  299. This work examines the emergence of a new working class in 1940s Uruguay, which was connected with the industrial development and the expansion of the welfare state. It offers great analysis of the major strike of 1943, led by the workers of meatpacking plants. This book focuses on the unionization of the labor force, the new and coordinated strikes, and the birth of a certain sense of worker’s power.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. The 1960s Crisis (1958–1973)
  302.  
  303. For first time in ninety-three years, the Blanco Party won the national elections in 1958, due to an alliance with the outsider “ruralist” leader Benito Nardone (Jacob 1981). A severe economic and political crisis led the way to increasing authoritarian measures from the government, particularly during Jorge Pacheco’s presidency (1967–1972), which is understood as the prologue of the military dictatorship (Alonso and Demasi 1986, Melgar and Cancela 1985). Most of the works of this section examine the erosion of democracy during these years and, in tandem, the crisis of both economics and politics (Caetano, et al. 1985; Rama 1987).
  304.  
  305. Alonso, Eloy R., and Carlos Demasi. Uruguay, 1958–1968: Crisis y estancamiento. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1986.
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  307. Foundational work on the economic and political crisis that engulfed Uruguay after the neo-Batllista era. The book examines the political system and the workers’ movement (unions), the economic and monetary policies (International Monetary Fund), the agro-exports (land ownership), and the industrial sector (deindustrialization).
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Caetano, Gerardo, Carlos Zubillaga, Pablo Mieres, and José Pedro Rilla. De la tradición a la crisis: Pasado y presente de nuestro sistema de partidos. Montevideo, Uruguay: Centro Latinoamericano de Economía Humana, 1985.
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  311. Comprehensive analysis of the Uruguayan political system from mid-20th century to the rebirth of democracy (1985), published just as Uruguay became a democratic country again. Caetano, alongside José Rilla, Carlos Zubillaga, and Pablo Mieres, offers an interdisciplinary view, across social sciences and humanities, of the changes and continuities of the Uruguayan political system.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Jacob, Raúl. Benito Nardone: El ruralismo hacia el poder (1945–1958). Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1981.
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  315. First comprehensive study about Benito Nardone and the Ruralist Movement (first Liga Federal and then Movimiento Ruralista), which allied the Blanco Party to win the 1958 elections. Nardone, who had effectively used the radio to spread his political message, was the closest to a populist leader (a la Latin American populism) in 1950s Uruguay.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Melgar, Alicia, and Walter Cancela. El Desarrollo frustrado: 30 Años de economía uruguaya, 1955–1985. Montevideo, Uruguay: Centro Latinoamericano de Economía Humana, 1985.
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  319. Economic history of the years leading to the dictatorship and the economy during the dictatorship (1973–1985). It focuses on the liberalization of the economy during the first government of the Blanco Party (1959–1962) through the monetary reform. Then, it examines the repetition of liberal economic policies that, again and again, led to increasing economic and social crisis of deindustrialization, unemployment, and increasing costs of living.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Rama, Germán. La democracia en Uruguay: Una perspectiva de interpretación. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Grupo Editor Latinoamericano, 1987.
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  323. Foundational analysis on the model encouraged by the Batllismo and the 1960s crisis. Rama coined the term “sociedad hiperintegrada” to understand the standing of democracy in Uruguay prior to the dictatorship. He also reflects on the post-dictatorship period.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Rilla, José. Usos de la Historia en la política de partidos de Uruguay (1942–1972). Montevideo, Uruguay: Sudamericana, 2008.
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  327. Monograph on the political use of history, as the author examines how the political parties employed historical memory, history writing, and affective affiliations from the era of neo-Batllismo to the crisis leading to the dictatorship.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Zubillaga, Carlos. Historia e Historiadores en el Uruguay del Siglo XX. Montevideo, Uruguay: Librería de la FHCE, 2002.
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  331. Most comprehensive work on the history of historiography in Uruguay during the 20th century. While it covers the entire century, the most important parts concern the political use of history and the workings of the history profession in the 1950s and 1960s. Broadly, it connects diverse Argentine and Uruguayan scholars, publications, and institutions with the Uruguayan politics of different periods.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. The Rise of Authoritarian Governments and Social Protests (1958–1973)
  334.  
  335. The 1960s saw the emergence of a strong students’ movement alongside a new youth culture (Markarian 2016) and an active presence of the public university (París 2010). New armed rightwing (Broquetas 2014) and leftist groups emerged (Marchesi 2013, Panizza 1990, Rey Tristán 2006). In this period, US intelligence services intensified its infiltration in the police and armed forces (Aldrighi 2007, Broquetas 2014).
  336.  
  337. Aldrighi, Clara. La intervención de Estados Unidos en Uruguay (1965–1973): El caso Mitrione. Montevideo, Uruguay: Trilce, 2007.
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  339. Exhaustive work on the kidnapping and execution of the FBI’s officer Dan Mitrione by the Tupamaro guerrilla in 1970. The book employs this case study as a window to examine the US meddling in Uruguayan politics as well as other countries in the Southern Cone.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Broquetas, Magdalena. La trama autoritaria: Derechas y violencia en Uruguay (1958–1966). Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2014.
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  343. Groundbreaking work on the rise of extreme rightwing movements in Uruguay, as well as its connections with a broad specter of conservative political, social, and cultural organizations. Great context of the Cold War examines the connections between Uruguayan right-wing leaders and their counterparts in the United States and Europe, as well as the actions of the US embassy in Uruguay.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Marchesi, Aldo. “Geographies of Armed Protest: Transnational Cold War, Latin Americanism, and the New Left in the Southern Cone (1964–1976).” PhD Thesis, New York University, 2013.
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  347. Original transnational (though Uruguayan-based) examination of the efforts to develop a regional network of “New Left” organizations and armed groups across Uruguay (Tupamaros), Argentina (ERP), Chile (MIR), and Bolivia (ELN) during the years of exile and increasing authoritarian regimes.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Markarian, Vania. Uruguay 1968: Student Activism from Global Counterculture to Molotov Cocktails. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2016.
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  351. Key work on the youth culture (student mobilization, students’ union, protest, arts, music, and clothing), which examines the cultural formations shaping the “New Left” in 1960s Uruguay. It illuminates how new cultural movements shaped the politics of the time, and vice versa. As well, it connects with other cultural formations in Argentina and Chile.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Panizza, Francisco. Uruguay, Batllismo Y después: Pacheco, militares y tupamaros en la crisis del Uruguay Batllista. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1990.
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  355. Foundational work, from a political science perspective, on the success of early to mid-20th-century Uruguayan democracy, and the 1960s institutional crisis that led to the dictatorship (1973–1985). It offers key analysis of the government of Jorge Pacheco, and the emergence of a political discourse “toward rupture” with liberal democracy coming from both the Tupamaro guerilla and the Uruguayan military.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. París, Blanca. La Universidad de la República desde la crisis a la intervención, 1958–1973. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones Universitarias, 2010.
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  359. Posthumously published work of Blanca Paris, teacher of generations of historians in Uruguay, on the history of the University of the Republic, the main intellectual engine of the country, from mid-century to the 1970s dictatorship. It shows the larger connections of this institution with social activism and protests.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Rey Tristán, Eduardo. A la vuelta de la esquina: La izquierda revolucionaria uruguaya, 1955–1973. Montevideo, Uruguay: Editorial Fin de Siglo, 2006.
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  363. Monograph on the revolutionary groups of the Uruguayan left. Beyond narrow studies on the Tupamaro guerrilla, this book covers the Federación Anarquista del Uruguay, Resistencia Obrero Estudiantil, Movimiento 26 de Marzo, Movimiento Revolucionario Oriental, OPR 33, and others. Good coverage on the student movement, unions, and the many (and sometimes minuscule) newspapers.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Military Dictatorship and the Transition to Democracy (1973–2000)
  366.  
  367. While elected constitutional president for the Colorado Party in 1971, José María Bordaberry later disbanded congress in 1973 and instituted a civic-military regime that turned, in 1976, to a full command of the country by the armed forces. This section ranges from a concise history of the dictatorship written right after the transition back to democracy (Caetano and Rilla 1987), to comprehensive accounts written after the first twenty years of post-dictatorship (Demasi, et al. 2009). Some authors focus on the cultural history of the regime (Cosse and Markarian 1996; Marchesi 2001), while others examine the economics (Notaro 1984) and the transition to democracy (González 1984). Transnational networks of the Uruguayan exile formed during the dictatorship and shaped leftist organizations during and after the repression (Markarian 2005). Other publications analyze the lasting effects of the dictatorship in the political discourse and configurations of hegemony (Rico 2005) and its legacy in the crisis on the prison system (Bardazano, et al. 2015).
  368.  
  369. Bardazano, Gianella, Anibal Corti, Nicolas Duffau, et al. Discutir la cárcel, pensar la sociedad: Contra el sentido comun punitivo. Montevideo, Uruguay: Trilce-CSIC, 2015.
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  371. Collective volume on the jail system and imprisonment. As insecurity (generated by crimes) and incarceration are central topics of the public discourse in today’s Uruguay, the first chapters focus on how this issue was treated in the late 19th and early 20th century. The substance of this book examines the crisis of incarceration after 1985, as a legacy of the dictatorship and a failure of democracy.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Caetano, Gerardo, and José P. Rilla. Breve Historia de la dictadura, 1973–1985. Montevideo, Uruguay: Centro Latinoamericano de Economía Humana, 1987.
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  375. First and brief history of the Uruguayan dictatorship, written right after the transition back to democracy. It offers the now common periodization of the regime as “Authoritarian Order” (1973–1976) in which Bordaberry was still in power, the “Foundational Dictatorship” (1976–1980), when the military tried to establish a new order to continue ad eternum, and the “Transitional Dictatorship” (1980–1985), the very delayed process to return to a full-civilian control of Uruguay.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Cosse, Isabela, and Vania Markarian. 1975: Año de la Orientalidad: Identidad, memoria e historia en una dictadura. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones Trilce, 1996.
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  379. Innovative study on dictatorship and historical memory. The authors focus on the year 1975, when the Uruguayan dictatorship celebrated the “Año de la Orientalidad,” as a window into the official politics of history and commemoration. This was a turning point of the regime, as it tried to establish a new political and cultural legitimacy different from the democratic foundations of modern Uruguay.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Demasi, Carlos, Aldo Marchesi, Vania Markarian, Alvaro, Rico, and Jaime Yaffé. La dictadura cívico militar: Uruguay, 1973–1985. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2009.
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  383. Collective work on the Uruguayan dictatorship. Carlos Demasi examines the politics on the dictatorship. Jaime Yaffé analyzes the economics of the regime. Vania Markarian examines from the perspective of human rights the international relationships of the dictatorship. Aldo Marchesi provides a new perspective on the cultural politics of the regime by looking at education and media during the years 1975–1980.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. González, Luis E. Uruguay, una apertura inesperada. Montevideo, Uruguay: Centro de Informaciones y Estudios del Uruguay, 1984.
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  387. From a political science perspective, this book analyzes the referendum of 1980, when the Uruguayan dictatorship asked for electoral approval for its continuance and lost. This landmark opened the transition to democracy, which came only in 1985.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Marchesi, Aldo. El Uruguay inventado: La política audiovisual de la dictadura, reflexiones sobre su imaginario. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones Trilce, 2001.
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  391. The book analyzes the newsreels from “Uruguay Hoy” cinematic broadcast produced by the Uruguayan dictatorship from 1979 to 1984. This shows cultural aspects of the regime, such as representations of sports, traditional celebrations (folklore), public works, tourism, and a new and obedient youth. This work shows how the dictatorship envisioned a “New Uruguay” through media policies, when the military tried to sell the image of a “New Uruguay.”
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Markarian, Vania. Left in Transformation: Uruguayan Exiles and the Latin American Human Rights Networks, 1967–1984. New York: Routledge, 2005.
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  395. This book explores how the experience in exile reshaped the Uruguayan left. Markarian points that the current interest in human rights from various leftist groups came as a result of the experience of exile and transnational networks during the 1970s. In turn, this network shaped the politics of the Uruguayan transition to democracy (1981–1984).
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Notaro, Jorge. La política económica en el Uruguay, 1968–1984. Montevideo, Uruguay: CIEDUR, 1984.
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  399. Foundational work of economic history, as it engages in political and social analysis (the social history of prices, inflation, underdevelopment, governmental manipulation of currency exchange). It connects monetary policy and economics, with the political and social crisis leading to the Uruguayan dictatorship and continuing during the years of the revival of democracy. It tracks different waves of political “interventionism” on economics (with a view on the social effects).
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Rico, Alvaro. Cómo nos domina la clase gobernante: Orden político y obediencia social en la democracia posdictadura de Uruguay (1985–2005). Montevideo, Uruguay: Trilce, 2005.
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  403. Interdisciplinary work on how the dominant classes in Uruguay reshaped hegemony from the dictatorship through the revival of democracy from 1985 to 2005. It focuses on how collective pleas and social mobilization, typical of the predictatorship period, were supplanted by a liberal consensus based on market economy, elitist democracy, security, and impunity of the crimes committed during the dictatorship.
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