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Augustus (Classics)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Augustus, famous as Rome’s first emperor, came to power in the aftermath of his defeat of Antony and Cleopatra. The benefit of hindsight allows us to view him as the founder of a new political system at Rome, known as the Principate. This neat summary obscures the fact that the period of Augustus’s rule was one of experimentation and innovation, exploring what the place of Augustus and his family should be within the structures of Roman society. The period is distinctive both for its innovative approach toward visual and material culture, notably art and architecture, coins, and inscriptions, and for claims to be restoring traditional Roman virtues, particularly in the sphere of religion. It also produced the Golden Age of Latin poetry, represented especially by Virgil, Propertius, Horace, and Ovid. Their works give insights into the moral and emotional compass of their world, engaging with public life and politics, but not in the form of propaganda. The whole of Roman society was restructured during this period. The introduction of an imperial court, with domus Augusta (“Augustan household,” i.e., the emperor and his relations) and familia Caesaris (slaves and freedmen associated with the emperor and his family) at its center, produced new structures of administration and government, while existing bodies, notably the senate and equestrian order, were overhauled and their roles redefined. New laws on marriage, adultery, and the manumission of slaves were introduced to maintain the quality of the Roman citizen body. Financial reforms included the introduction of new coinage, setting up a new state mint at Lugdunum, and the establishment of a military treasury in Rome. Colonies were founded in many parts of the empire, and cities in both Italy and the provinces experienced a striking phase of monumental development, while the appearance of the city of Rome itself was radically modified, with particular emphasis on honoring the gods and providing amenities for the plebs. These benefits arose from the long period of peace ushered in by Augustus ending decades of civil wars, but the outbreak of peace did not exclude on-going military campaigns beyond Italy. Augustus claimed at the end of his life that he had conquered the whole known world. Membership in the Roman army became a profession, bound to Augustus, who increasingly monopolized traditional military honors. By the time Augustus died in 14 CE, society at Rome, in Italy, and in the provinces had been radically transformed.
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  4. General Overviews
  5. There are many biographical introductions to Augustus, of which the most up-to-date in English are Eck 2007 (translated from German), Levick 2010, and Galinsky 2012. Wallace-Hadrill 1993 provides a short thematic introduction to the society of Augustan Rome. The most influential overview of Augustus’s rise to power remains Syme 1939 (see Collections of Papers for responses to this work). Bowman, et al. 1996 offers a detailed introduction to the period, starting with a political narrative, with four chapters covering the period from the triumvirate to the death of Augustus; six chapters follow on “The Government and Administration of the Empire”; fourteen chapters are organized geographically, province by province; and it ends with seven chapters on “Roman Society and Culture under the Julio-Claudians.” The format of the series feels a little outdated given that images are not integrated within it (not even in the chapter on “Roman Art”), making it difficult for students to appreciate the role of visual images and archaeological material in the history of the Augustan era, but otherwise the clarity of analysis of political developments makes this essential reading. Non-biographical approaches offer alternative ways of interpreting the fundamental changes in Roman society that occurred under Augustus. Galinsky 1996 examines the transformation of Roman society during the Augustan era by exploring how art, architecture, epigraphy, coins, and literature illuminate Augustan ideals and values. Nicolet 1991 (translated from French) assesses the extent of geographical knowledge and demonstrates how this influenced the administration of empire and perceptions of the extent of Roman power.
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  7. Bowman, Alan K., Edward Champlin, and Andrew Lintott, eds. 1996. The Cambridge ancient history. Vol. X, The Augustan empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  11. Important chapters include “The Triumviral Period” (Pelling) (see Political Developments: Civil Wars and Triumvirate); “The Expansion of the Empire under Augustus” (Gruen) (see Military: Ideology of Imperial Power); “The Imperial Court” (Wallace-Hadrill); “The Imperial Finances” (Rathbone); “The Army and the Navy” (Keppie); “Egypt” (Bowman); “Rome and Its Development under Augustus and His Successors” (Purcell); “The Place of Religion: Rome in the Early Empire” (Price); “Social Status and Social Legislation” (Treggiari) (see Augustan Social Legislation). Includes family trees, chronological table, extensive bibliographies.
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  16. Eck, Werner. 2007. The age of Augustus. 2d ed. Translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider and Robert Daniel. Oxford: Blackwell.
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  20. This book is an updated edition of the author’s 1998 Augustus und seine Zeit (Munich: Beck), with additional material, including a translation of the Res Gestae by Sarolta A. Takács. Includes timeline, some maps, and illustrations. A concise narrative history that combines a biographical approach with thematic chapters.
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  25. Galinsky, Karl. 1996. Augustan Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  28.  
  29. Combines political, social, religious, visual, and literary sources to explore the importance of the concept of auctoritas in shaping the role of Augustus in society via innovation and experimentation. Moves away from an emphasis on Augustus himself to trace how Augustan values were promoted by a variety of different individuals and groups.
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  34. Galinsky, Karl. 2012. Augustus: Introduction to the life of an emperor. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  36. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139045575Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
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  38. Distinctive combination of a clear narrative and concise discussion of interpretative problems. Individual sources presented within their own boxes to demonstrate what underlies the analysis, allowing students to develop their own toolkit of analytical approaches. Includes maps and illustrations, a genealogical chart, timeline, note on ancient sources, further reading.
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  43. Levick, Barbara. 2010. Augustus: Image and substance. Harlow, UK: Longman.
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  47. Argues that Augustus single-mindedly aimed at permanent sole supremacy right from the start of his career, exploring the ways in which he pursued this. Includes discussion of opposition to Augustus and a historiographical survey of ancient and modern attitudes to Augustus. Includes chronology, family tree, glossary, maps, and illustrations.
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  52. Nicolet, Claude. 1991. Space, geography, and politics in the early Roman empire. Translated by Hélène Leclerc. Jerome Lectures, 19. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
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  55.  
  56. Originally published in 1988 as L’inventaire du monde: Géographie et politique aux origines de l’empire romain (Paris: Fayard). Explores Roman geographical knowledge and the links between geography and politics—how the empire was described, understood, and ruled. Important analysis of Agrippa’s map; Res Gestae; techniques for controlling space; division of Rome and Italy into regions.
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  60.  
  61. Syme, Ronald. 1939. The Roman revolution. Oxford: Clarendon.
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  64.  
  65. Interprets the rise to power of Augustus as part of the wider transformation of the Roman ruling class, notably the rise of Italian and provincial elites. Offers a negative representation, influenced by contemporary political developments in the 1930s, of Augustus as despot. Most accessible in a 2002 re-issue by Oxford University Press.
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  70. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1993. Augustan Rome. London: Bristol.
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  73.  
  74. This short book adopts a different approach to introducing the age of Augustus, focusing on the impact of political change on society and culture in the city of Rome, as evidenced through art, architecture, and poetry.
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  79. Reference Works
  80. One of the major features of the period is discussed in the section Transformation of the City of Rome. Steinby 1993–1999 offers detailed analysis of the history and excavation of individual monuments, while Claridge 2010 is more accessible to students and is suitable for use as a vade mecum around the city. Haselberger, et al 2008 uses digital technology to visualize and map Augustan Rome and contains detailed analysis of the data upon which the mapping has been based, with discussion of scholarly controversies.
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  82. Claridge, Amanda. 2010. Rome: An Oxford archaeological guide. 2d ed. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  85.  
  86. Succinctly written, with plenty of diagrams, maps, and reconstructions, it gives a good sense of how to interpret the visible remains of Augustan Rome. Suitable for use on a visit to Rome or off-site alike.
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  90.  
  91. Haselberger, Lothar, David Gilman Romano, and Elisha Ann Dumser, eds. 2008 (repr. with corrections). Mapping Augustan Rome. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series no. 50.
  92.  
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  94.  
  95. Includes two maps of Augustan Rome: (1) on scale of 1:6000 of Rome in 14 CE, with color-coding for different land usage (e.g., gardens, water, built-up, streets, walls, tombs); (2) on scale of 1:3000 of the city’s central area. Alphabetical catalogue of entries complements the maps, presenting debates and bibliographies.
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  99.  
  100. Steinby, E. M., ed. 1993–1999. Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae. 6 vols. Rome: Quasar.
  101.  
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  103.  
  104. The most detailed and authoritative source of information on Rome’s monuments, in six volumes, with entries in alphabetical order (Vol. 1, A–C; Vol. 2 D–G; Vol. 3 H–O; Vol. 4 P–S; Vol. 5 T–Z; Vol. 6 Addenda). Articles in English, Italian, French, or German, with bibliographies for each entry.
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  109. Textbooks and Sourcebooks
  110. Edmondson 2009 is an essential tool for students. It assembles some of the most important scholarship on the age of Augustus originally published between 1958 and 2003, and it contains extensive introductory discussion to set the selected papers in scholarly context. The papers cover political history; Augustan reforms of institutions and society; visual culture and literature; the provinces. The book is divided up into the following themes: “The Novus Status: from Iii Vir Rei Publicae Constituendae to Princeps”; “Res Publica Restituta”; “Images of Power and the Power of Images”; “The Impact of Augustus in the Roman Provinces.” Students will gain a clear picture from the papers republished in this volume of the key debates and approaches to the age of Augustus. Alongside this should be read the collection of papers in Galinsky 2005, which offers an alternative to a biographical approach via the themes “Political History”; “Intellectual and Social Developments”; “The Emperor’s Impact”; “Art and the City”; “Augustan Literature”; and “Epilogue as Prologue” (on King Herod of Judaea). A variety of sourcebooks have different emphases and approaches: Cooley 2013 presents inscriptions, papyri, and coins alongside literary and legal texts, and includes images of coins. All sources in Cooley 2013 are presented in translation only (all translated afresh by a team of scholars), with introductory material and explanatory notes. Inscriptions in this volume are often translated from more up-to-date epigraphic editions than in other sourcebooks. Lott 2012 offers linguistic as well as historical commentary on the two Pisan decrees for Gaius and Lucius Caesars (see Pisan Decrees) and is designed to act as an introduction to Latin epigraphy. Sherk 1984 and Sherk 1988 include Augustan material within a broader historical context, alongside other texts; Sherk 1984 deals with the relationship between Rome and the Greek East, and Sherk 1988 puts Augustus alongside later emperors. These volumes have technical notes and little introductory comment. Lewis and Reinhold 1990 includes a chapter on Augustan politics, while Chisholm and Ferguson 1981 offers a much more extensive selection of source material in translation and is particularly useful for the triumviral period.
  111.  
  112. Chisholm, Kitty, and John Ferguson. 1981. Rome: The Augustan age: A sourcebook. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  113.  
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  115.  
  116. Originally a course book for an Open University course “Rome: The Augustan Age,” this offers a rich variety of source material in translation, sometimes reproducing existing translations. Extends beyond the Augustan era. Includes some plates. Out of print.
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  120.  
  121. Cooley, Melvin G. L., ed. 2013. The age of Augustus. London: LACTOR 17.
  122.  
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  124.  
  125. Translations and comment by a team of scholars on literary texts, coins, inscriptions, and legal sources. Major sources are presented individually (Res Gestae; consul list; fasti; Livy; Velleius Paterculus; Tacitus), followed by thematic chapters on “Augustan Poetry”; “Triumvirate to Principate”; “Imperial Family”; “Rome and Italy”; “Religion”; “Administration of Empire”; “War and Expansion”; “Conspiracies, Scandals, Free Speech”; “Maecenas and the Arts”; “Social Legislation”; “Augustan Society.”
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  129.  
  130. Edmondson, Jonathan, ed. 2009. Augustus. Edinburgh Readings of the Ancient World. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press.
  131.  
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  133.  
  134. Reprints influential articles covering a wide range of themes. Notably, includes articles by Ferrary, Eck, Scheid, and Trillmich in English translation. Substantial introductory material sets each paper into its historiographical context. Offers Glossary; Guide to Further Reading; Chronology of Ancient Events, and Modern Publications; appendix lists consulships, imperatorial salutations, and tribunician powers of Augustus.
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  138.  
  139. Galinsky, Karl, ed. 2005. The Cambridge companion to the age of Augustus. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  140.  
  141. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL0521807964Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  142.  
  143. Sixteen chapters by leading scholars cover the main political, social, religious, and cultural developments of the age, giving equal weight to Rome, Italy, and the provinces. Each chapter includes “Suggestions for further reading.” Includes maps; family tree; comparative timeline of political, financial, and cultural events; a generous sprinkling of illustrations, including color plates.
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  147.  
  148. Lewis, Naphtali, and Meyer Reinhold. 1990. Roman civilization: Selected readings. Vol. I, The Republic and the Augustan Age. 3d ed. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
  149.  
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  151.  
  152. Relatively limited in scope, with chapter 9 on “The Augustan Age”; narrowly focused on politics. Quite lengthy passages, mostly from literary sources, but includes some inscriptions. Coins marginally represented. Brief introductory and commentary notes.
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  156.  
  157. Lott, John Bert. 2012. Death and dynasty in early imperial Rome: Key sources with text, translation, and commentary. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  158.  
  159. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139046565Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  160.  
  161. This textbook helps students understand the Latin language and the historical significance of a sequence of inscriptions dealing with the deaths of members of the imperial family during the Augustan and Tiberian eras. The Augustan material covers decrees issued by the town council at Pisa to honor the deceased Gaius and Lucius Caesars.
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  165.  
  166. Sherk, Robert K. 1984. Rome and the Greek East to the death of Augustus. Translated Documents of Greece and Rome 4. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  167.  
  168. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511552687Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  169.  
  170. Focuses on the relationship between Rome and the Greek East via documentary sources in translation, with brief notes and commentary.
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  174.  
  175. Sherk, Robert K. 1988. The Roman empire: Augustus to Hadrian. Translated Documents of Greece and Rome, Vol. 6. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  176.  
  177. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511552670Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  178.  
  179. Mainly inscriptions and papyri in translation, with brief notes and commentary.
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  184. Collections of Papers
  185. Syme 1939 (cited under General Overviews) has prompted scholars to reflect on the nature of the “Roman revolution” on several occasions, with various colloquia producing important volumes of essays, reappraising the strengths and weaknesses of Syme’s analysis of the rise to power of Augustus. Millar and Segal 1984 includes seven papers that were presented at a colloquium marking Sir Ronald Syme’s 80th birthday; Raaflaub and Toher 1990 presents nineteen papers that marked the 50th anniversary of the publication of Syme’s masterpiece; most recently, Giovannini 2000 commemorated the 60th anniversary. This last volume includes seven weighty chapters by leading scholars (in English, German, and French) exploring themes that were not at the core of Syme 1939 (cited under General Overviews), with more emphasis on visual and material culture in particular. Volume 1 of Millar 2002 contains several influential articles that have shaped Augustan studies since Syme. As a means of explaining the fundamental changes witnessed at Rome, Habinek and Schiesaro 1997 presents a volume of papers that challenge the primacy of political interpretation championed by Syme. It focuses on Augustan literature and art, exploring how the culture of Rome was transformed alongside its political transformation. The papers show that cultural change was not generated by political change, but that the transformation of both politics and culture reflected changes in the structures of authority that took place during this period. The conference proceedings in Winkes 1985 are wide-ranging and interdisciplinary, studying art and architecture, poetry, political ideology, and mythology.
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  187. Giovannini, Adalberto, ed. 2000. La révolution romaine après Ronald Syme: Bilans et perspectives: Sept exposés suivis de discussions, Vandœuvres-Genève, 6–10 septembre 1999. Geneva, Switzerland: Fondation Hardt.
  188.  
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  190.  
  191. Three chapters reassess the importance of the early years for Augustus’s rise to power, with Millar analyzing Octavian’s travels in the Greek East after Actium (see Civil Wars and Triumvirate); Scheid outlines religious initiatives; Speidel explores finances (see Finances). Hölscher and Wallace-Hadrill focus on art and archaeology, Girardet on constitutional problems. Demougin explores the role of plebs and soldiers in the “Roman revolution.”
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  195.  
  196. Habinek, Thomas, and Alessandro Schiesaro, eds. 1997. The Roman Cultural Revolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  197.  
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  199.  
  200. Eleven papers complement Syme 1939 (cited under General Overviews) in focusing on cultural transformation during the Augustan era. They examine the emergence of experts as sources of authority; new interpretations of sexuality; changing contexts of oratory; how the works of individual writers reveal their anxiety about their social status.
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  204.  
  205. Millar, Fergus. 2002. Rome, the Greek world, and the East. Vol. 1, The Roman Republic and the Augustan revolution. Edited by Hannah M. Cotton and Guy M. Rogers. Chapel Hill and London: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
  206.  
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  208.  
  209. Reprints influential studies including “Triumvirate and Principate” (see Civil Wars and Triumvirate); “The Emperor, the Senate, and the Provinces” (see Ruling the Provinces); “State and Subject: the Impact of Monarchy”; “‘Senatorial’ Provinces: An Institutionalized Ghost” (see Ruling the Provinces); “Ovid and the Domus Augusta: Rome Seen from Tomoi” (see the Imperial Family).
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  213.  
  214. Millar, Fergus, and Erich Segal, eds. 1984. Caesar Augustus: Seven aspects. Oxford: Clarendon.
  215.  
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  217.  
  218. Seven papers present insights into Res Gestae (Yavetz); Augustus’s position within the state (Millar); redefinition of the elite classes (Nicolet); self-representation of senators (Eck) (both cited under Roman Upper Class Society); dynastic politics in the Greek East (Bowersock); ancient historians’ accounts of Augustus (Gabba); poets’ responses to Augustus (Griffin).
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  223. Raaflaub, Kurt A., and Mark Toher, eds. 1990. Between republic and empire: Interpretations of Augustus and his principate. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  224.  
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  226.  
  227. Opening three papers offer critiques of Syme 1939 (cited under General Overviews). Sixteen papers follow on politics, historiography, poetry, art, architecture, and religion, dealing with particular authors and works (Livy, Cassius Dio, Virgil; Horace; Ovid), and individual features of the era (urbanism, emperor-worship, foreign conquest, opposition). Noteworthy is Luce’s article (see Transformation of the City of Rome: Roman Forum and Augustan Forum) on the Forum Augustum.
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  232. Winkes, Rolf, ed. 1985. The age of Augustus: interdisciplinary Conference held at Brown University, April 30–May 2, 1982. Louvain-la-Neuve/Providence RI: Archaeologia Transatlantica 5. Belgium and Providence, RI : Université Catholique de Louvain.
  233.  
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  235.  
  236. Includes Santirocco on Horace’s Odes (see Horace); Gross on monarchical aspects of coinage; Gruen on pax; Hallett on Propertius 4.11 and the Res Gestae; Koeppel on antecedents of historical relief sculpture; Kleiner on private portraiture; Moynihan on the relationship between Agrippa’s map and claims to world conquest; Kellum on sculptural decoration of Temple of Palatine Apollo; Leach on poetical and painted landscapes.
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  240.  
  241. Exhibition Catalogues
  242. The substantial volume Kaiser Augustus und die verlorene Republik, which accompanied a major exhibition in Berlin, was one of the first works to take full account of the importance of visual and material culture, presenting a rich diversity of catalogue entries covering many of the most significant buildings of the city of Rome, with commentaries by leading international scholars.
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  244. Kaiser Augustus und die verlorene Republik: eine Ausstellung im Martin-Gropius-Bau. Berlin, 7 June–14 August. 1988. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern.
  245.  
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  247.  
  248. A substantial volume accompanying exhibition in Berlin. Important presentation of archaeological and architectural evidence from Rome, notably relating to the Forum Augustum, Basilica “Aemilia,” Augustus’s Mausoleum, and Temples of Apollo Sosianus, of Castor and Pollux, and Apollo Palatinus. Also catalogues wall paintings, historical reliefs, portraits, and coins.
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  252.  
  253. Historical Sources
  254. There is no contemporary historical narrative of this period, and we are instead reliant upon the later historians Appian and Cassius Dio. Both historians offer different challenges of interpretation, explored in Gowing 1992. Biographical works by Augustus’s contemporary, Nicolaus of Damascus, and by Suetonius in the 2nd century CE are set into the context of the development of ancient biography by Hägg 2012. Only fragments remain of the memoirs of Augustus, and Toher 2009 critically re-examines their relationship with the Life by Nicolaus. The surviving sections of works by the contemporary writers Livy and Strabo do not directly deal with the history of their own times, but still offer insights into Augustan values and contemporary concerns. Velleius Paterculus is properly thought of as a Tiberian author, but his synopsis of Roman history (Book 2, chapters 58–124) embraces the period from the death of Caesar to that of Augustus, and presents a stark contrast to the cynical account of Tacitus. Woodman 1977 and Woodman 1983 are essential starting-points, while Ramage 1982 offers insights into the nature of Velleius’s presentation of Augustus, and Cowan 2010 includes a series of detailed analyses of Velleius as a historian (all cited under Velleius Paterculus). Tacitus’s Annals begins in 14 CE with the death of Augustus, but the first ten chapters of book 1 of the Annals, together with commentary on these chapters in Goodyear 1972 (cited under Tacitus), are essential reading for understanding the development of the idea of the Principate and for competing retrospects of Augustus’s life and achievements, the subtleties of which are explored in Urban 1979 (also cited under Tacitus). Students wishing to locate online translations of major authors will find the Attalus very useful (see its List of Sources and Translations) but should be aware that online translations are usually derived from out-of-copyright versions.
  255.  
  256. Attalus. List of Sources and Translations.”
  257.  
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  259.  
  260. Alphabetical list of authors and works, linking to online translations. Also a list of authors by date.
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  263.  
  264.  
  265. Gowing, Alain M. 1992. The triumviral narratives of Appian and Cassius Dio. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  266.  
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  268.  
  269. Historiographical study of our two main ancient sources for the triumviral period, focusing on differences in the approach and interpretation adopted by Appian and Dio, eschewing investigation into the nature of their sources. It compares treatments by historians of seven particular individuals and three themes (battles, speeches, proscriptions).
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  273.  
  274. Hägg, Thomas. 2012. The art of biography in antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  275.  
  276. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139061322Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  277.  
  278. Chapter 5.3 analyzes the place of Nicolaus of Damascus within the development of ancient biography, and chapter 5.5 discusses Suetonius.
  279.  
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  281.  
  282.  
  283. Toher, Mark. 2009. Divining a lost text: Augustus’ autobiography and the Βίος Καίσαρος of Nicolaus of Damascus. In The Lost Memoirs of Augustus and the development of Roman autobiography. Edited by Christopher Smith and Anton Powell, 125–144. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.
  284.  
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  286.  
  287. Questions the common assumption that Nicolaus of Damascus’s Life was largely derived directly from Augustus’s Memoirs and argues that it is more useful to read this Life on its own terms rather than trying to dissect it for traces of the Memoirs.
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  291.  
  292. Appian
  293. The 2nd-century Alexandrian historian Appian included an account of the turmoil after Caesar’s assassination and of the triumviral years down to 36 BC in his Civil Wars (books 3–5). Modern editions and commentaries exist in French and Italian, with Book 3 covered in Magnino 1984 and Goukowsky and Torrens 2010, Book 4 in Magnino 1998, and Book 5 in Gabba 1970.
  294.  
  295. Gabba, E. 1970. Appiani bellorum civilium liber quintus. Florence: La Nuova Italia.
  296.  
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  298.  
  299. Edition, commentary, and translation of Book 5, in Italian, which covers Antony and Cleopatra, the Perusine war, and the defeat of Sextus Pompey. Introduction focuses on evaluating Appian’s sources.
  300.  
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  303.  
  304. Goukowsky, Paul, and Philippe Torrens, eds. 2010. Appien: Histoire romaine. Tome X, livre XV: Guerres civiles, livre III. Collection des universités de France. Série grecque, 474. Paris: Belles lettres.
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  307.  
  308. Budé edition and commentary, in French, on Book 3, which narrates the aftermath of the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44–43 BC. Includes a substantial introduction, revised Greek text with critical apparatus and facing translation in French, and a detailed historical commentary.
  309.  
  310. Find this resource:
  311.  
  312.  
  313. Magnino, Domenico, ed. 1984. Appiani bellorum civilium liber tertius. Publicazioni della Facoltà di lettere e filosofia dell’Università di Pavia 32. Florence: La Nuova Italia Editrice.
  314.  
  315. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  316.  
  317. Edition and commentary in Italian, on Book 3, which narrates the aftermath of the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44–43 BCE. Includes introduction; Greek text and separate Italian translation; commentary.
  318.  
  319. Find this resource:
  320.  
  321.  
  322. Magnino, Domenico, ed. 1998. Appiani bellorum civilium liber quartus. Biblioteca di Athenaeum 37. Como, Italy: Edizioni New.
  323.  
  324. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  325.  
  326. Edition and commentary in Italian, on Book 4, which deals with the triumvirate, proscriptions, and battles at Philippi. Greek text with facing Italian translation. Includes introduction and detailed commentary.
  327.  
  328. Find this resource:
  329.  
  330.  
  331. Dio Cassius
  332. Books 45–56 of the 3rd-century senatorial historian Cassius Dio covered the period from 44 BCE, continuing through the age of Augustus down to the emperor’s death in 14 CE, for which see the commentaries in Reinhold 1988, Rich 1990, and Swan 2004. Millar 1964 offers overviews of the historiographical methods and 3rd-century concerns of Cassius Dio as do Reinhold and Swan 1990, more briefly. Rich 1989 traces Dio’s attitude to Augustus.
  333.  
  334. Millar, Fergus. 1964. A study of Cassius Dio. Oxford: Clarendon.
  335.  
  336. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  337.  
  338. Detailed historiographical study of the Roman history as a whole, showing how Dio responded to his contemporary Severan world and how he fused Greek and Roman historical traditions in his work. Available as a Sandpiper reprint, 1999.
  339.  
  340. Find this resource:
  341.  
  342.  
  343. Reinhold, Meyer. 1988. From Republic to Principate: An historical commentary on Cassius Dio’s Roman history, books 49–52 (36–29 BC). American Philological Association Monograph Series no. 34. Atlanta: Scholar’s.
  344.  
  345. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  346.  
  347. Detailed commentary only on the books covering the period from 36–29 BCE. Includes introduction to Dio’s life and works and to these books specifically; five maps; seventeen appendixes on particular issues (such as the official end of the triumvirate; Actian era and games; Augustus’s tribunician power and praenomen imperator).
  348.  
  349. Find this resource:
  350.  
  351.  
  352. Reinhold, M. and P. M. Swan. 1990. Cassius Dio’s assessment of Augustus. In Between republic and empire: interpretations of Augustus and his principate. Edited by Raaflaub, Kurt A. and Toher, Mark, 155–173. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  353.  
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355.  
  356. Analyzes how, for Cassius Dio, Augustus was regarded as the founding figure of a monarchical constitution at Rome and a positive role model for later emperors. Examines the Severan context of his writing.
  357.  
  358. Find this resource:
  359.  
  360.  
  361. Rich, J. W. 1989. Dio on Augustus. In History as text. The writing of ancient history. Edited by Averil Cameron, 86–110. London: Duckworth.
  362.  
  363. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  364.  
  365. A concise historiographical assessment of Dio Cassius, illustrating his senatorial outlook and methods, and arguing that he should be viewed as more than a mere compiler of narrative history. Takes as a case study Dio’s treatment of Augustus, whom he regards as an ideal ruler who established monarchy at Rome.
  366.  
  367. Find this resource:
  368.  
  369.  
  370. Rich, J. W. 1990. Cassius Dio. The Augustan settlement (Roman History 53–55.9). Warminster, UK: Aris and Phillips.
  371.  
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373.  
  374. An edition of the Greek text with apparatus criticus, with facing translation in English; introduction; commentary; nine maps. These books cover the period from 28 BCE to 5 BCE.
  375.  
  376. Find this resource:
  377.  
  378.  
  379. Swan, Peter Michael. 2004. The Augustan succession. An historical commentary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History: Books 55–56 (9 B.C.–A.D. 14). American Philological Association, American Classical Studies. Vol. 47. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  380.  
  381. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  382.  
  383. Detailed commentary only on the books covering the period from 9 BCE to 14 CE; six maps. Fifteen appendixes on points of detail (such as Tiber floods; distributions of largesse; famines; marriage laws; war in Dalmatia; Varus disaster), and a fairly comprehensive introduction to Dio as an historian.
  384.  
  385. Find this resource:
  386.  
  387.  
  388. Augustus’s Memoirs
  389. Extant fragments of Augustus’s Memoirs are collated in Smith and Powell 2009.
  390.  
  391. Smith, Christopher, and Anton Powell, eds. 2009. The lost memoirs of Augustus and the development of Roman autobiography. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.
  392.  
  393. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  394.  
  395. Chapter 1 provides text and translation of the surviving testimonia and fragments of Augustus’s memoirs, and is followed by nine thematic chapters on different aspects of the writing of autobiography at Rome, with plentiful discussion of parallels between Sulla and Augustus.
  396.  
  397. Find this resource:
  398.  
  399.  
  400. Nicolaus of Damascus
  401. The substantial fragments of Nicolaus of Damascus’s encomiastic Life of Augustus are available in a convenient parallel text and translation by Bellemore 1984.
  402.  
  403. Bellemore, Jane. 1984. Nicolaus of Damascus: Life of Augustus. Bristol, UK: Bristol Classical.
  404.  
  405. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  406.  
  407. Edition and English translation, with historical commentary.
  408.  
  409. Find this resource:
  410.  
  411.  
  412. Suetonius’s Biography of Augustus
  413. Suetonius’ Life of Augustus is one of the most detailed Lives among his imperial biographies; editions and commentaries are available in English by Carter 1982 and French by Louis 2010. Wallace-Hadrill 1983 provides an overview of Suetonius’s life and works.
  414.  
  415. Carter, John M. 1982. Divus Augustus, Suetonius. Bristol, UK: Bristol Classical.
  416.  
  417. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  418.  
  419. Latin text, edited with introduction and commentary, focusing on historical explanation.
  420.  
  421. Find this resource:
  422.  
  423.  
  424. Louis, Nathalie. 2010. Commentaire historique et traduction du Divus Augustus de Suétone. Collection Latomus. Vol. 324. Brussels: Éditions Latomus.
  425.  
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427.  
  428. Wide-ranging introduction considers in depth the imperial Lives overall and the portrait of Augustus specifically. A detailed commentary with a running translation by section, in French, is followed by further extensive discussion of Suetonius’s portrayal of Augustus, his powers and profile as a divus.
  429.  
  430. Find this resource:
  431.  
  432.  
  433. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1983. Suetonius: The scholar and his Caesars. London: Duckworth.
  434.  
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436.  
  437. Examines Suetonius’s career and his imperial biographies, set against the author’s 2nd-century CE context, and explores Suetonius’s historical value. Available as a Bristol Classical Press paperback reprint 2004.
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441.  
  442. Livy
  443. The Augustan books of Livy’s history, which originally extended down to 9 BCE, do not survive, but his earlier books provide insights into Livy’s contemporary world, as explored in Miles 1995 and Chaplin 2000. Syme 1959 and Badian 1993 discuss Livy’s attitude toward Augustus. Dessau 1906 traces the contemporary significance of the case of the controversial claim to dedicate military spoils (spolia opima) by Licinius Crassus in 29 BCE. Livy’s account (4.20.5–11) of the spolia opima gained by A. Cornelius Cossus includes a digression that indirectly reflects upon Crassus’ claim, which is thought to have been rejected by Augustus on a technicality. Scholars are divided on the question of Livy’s treatment of this episode, as can be seen by comparing Syme 1959, Rich 1996, Flower 2000, and Sailor 2006.
  444.  
  445. Badian, Ernst. 1993. Livy and Augustus. In Livius: Aspekte seines Werkes. Edited by Wolfgang Schuller, 9–38. Konstanz, Germany: Universitätsverlag Konstanz.
  446.  
  447. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  448.  
  449. Challenges Syme 1959, arguing that Livy maintained a balanced attitude to Augustus that was neither uncritical nor outright hostile.
  450.  
  451. Find this resource:
  452.  
  453.  
  454. Chaplin, Jane D. 2000. Livy’s exemplary history. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  455.  
  456. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  457.  
  458. Considers how the centrality of exemplarity (exempla) to Livy’s history reflects the value given to historical precedent in Augustan Rome, notably in the statues displayed in the Augustan Forum (see also Roman Forum and Augustan Forum). Explores how earlier deeds and practices in Rome could be invoked for the benefit of a contemporary Augustan audience.
  459.  
  460. Find this resource:
  461.  
  462.  
  463. Dessau, Hermann. 1906. Livius und Augustus. Hermes 41.1: 142–151.
  464.  
  465. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466.  
  467. Persuasive argument that Livy’s account of the spolia opima reflected contemporary political concerns around the claims of Licinius Crassus in 29 BCE.
  468.  
  469. Find this resource:
  470.  
  471.  
  472. Flower, H. 2000. The tradition of the Spolia Opima: M. Claudius Marcellus and Augustus. Classical Antiquity 19.1: 34–64.
  473.  
  474. DOI: 10.2307/25011111Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475.  
  476. Sets Livy’s account of the spolia opima into a wider analysis of how the tradition of dedicating the spolia opima may have been invented by Claudius Marcellus, and why Augustus then chose to adopt and foster the tradition.
  477.  
  478. Find this resource:
  479.  
  480.  
  481. Miles, Gary B. 1995. Livy: Reconstructing early Rome. Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell Univ. Press.
  482.  
  483. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  484.  
  485. Explores how, in his histories, Livy engaged with ideologies of his own age, notably the impetus toward a sense of renewal under Augustus, and the representation of Augustus as Rome’s re-founder. Focuses on episodes in Book 1, the spolia opima debate in Book 4, and Camillus in Book 5.
  486.  
  487. Find this resource:
  488.  
  489.  
  490. Rich, J. W. 1996. Augustus and the spolia opima. Chiron 26:85–127.
  491.  
  492. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  493.  
  494. Challenges the consensus since Dessau 1906, arguing that Crassus himself probably chose not to put forward a claim to the spolia. Reviews scholarship on the matter from 17th century onwards. Prompts a critical reassessment of the episode’s impact upon the “settlement of 27 BCE” and Livy’s account.
  495.  
  496. Find this resource:
  497.  
  498.  
  499. Sailor, Dylan. 2006. Dirty linen, fabrication, and the authorities of Livy and Augustus. Transactions of the American Philological Association 136:329–388.
  500.  
  501. DOI: 10.1353/apa.2006.0016Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  502.  
  503. Argues that the way in which Livy’s digression on the spolia opima deals with Augustus’s testimony about the linen corselet distances the author and his readers from taking it at face value. Offers a subtle reading of Livy’s handling of Augustus that contrasts particularly with the views of Syme 1959.
  504.  
  505. Find this resource:
  506.  
  507.  
  508. Syme, R. 1959. Livy and Augustus. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 64:27–87.
  509.  
  510. DOI: 10.2307/310937Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511.  
  512. Assesses the structure, content, and dates of composition for the many books by Livy. Offers a negative assessment of Livy’s historical qualities, arguing that he was an uncritical supporter of Augustus, and showed poor historical acumen. Reprinted in Syme’s Roman Papers, Vol. 1 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1979), pp. 400–454.
  513.  
  514. Find this resource:
  515.  
  516.  
  517. Strabo
  518. The Histories of Strabo have not survived, but his Geography illuminates important aspects of Augustan politics and society, discussed by Dueck 2000.
  519.  
  520. Dueck, Daniela. 2000. Strabo of Amaseia. A Greek man of letters in Augustan Rome. London and New York: Routledge.
  521.  
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523.  
  524. Outlines Strabo’s social, cultural, intellectual, and historiographical context. Strabo’s responses to the city of Rome and to the Roman Empire under Augustus are discussed in Chapters 3 (“Strabo and the world of Augustan Rome”) and 4 (“Geography, politics, and empire”).
  525.  
  526. Find this resource:
  527.  
  528.  
  529. Velleius Paterculus
  530. This work, completed in around 30 CE, has a panegyrical flavor, as a result of its favorable attitude toward Tiberius. It encompasses a history of Rome under Augustus. Detailed commentaries on the text may be found in Woodman 1977 and Woodman 1983, while Ramage 1982 gives an example of how to interpret one specific passage, relevant to Velleius’ representation of Augustus. The edited volume Cowan 2010 is a good place to start for finding out new historiographical approaches to Velleius.
  531.  
  532. Cowan, E., ed. 2010. Velleius Paterculus: Making history. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.
  533.  
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535.  
  536. An important series of papers reassessing historiographical approaches to Velleius and his contribution to our understanding of Roman history.
  537.  
  538. Find this resource:
  539.  
  540.  
  541. Ramage, E. S. 1982. Velleius Paterculus 2.126.2–3 and the panegyric tradition. Classical Antiquity 1.2: 266–271.
  542.  
  543. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  544.  
  545. Argues that the mild criticism of Augustus to be found in this passage of Velleius should be interpreted in the context of panegyrical techniques, by which Tiberius’s achievements are contrasted favorably with those of his predecessor, rather than as any deep sense of dissatisfaction with Augustus.
  546.  
  547. Find this resource:
  548.  
  549.  
  550. Woodman, A. J. 1977. Velleius Paterculus. The Tiberian narrative (2.94–131). Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries 19. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  551.  
  552. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  553.  
  554. Introduction to this commentary tackles the thorny problem of how to interpret the panegyrical character of Velleius’ writing. Includes text recounting the period from 23 BCE to 14 CE.
  555.  
  556. Find this resource:
  557.  
  558.  
  559. Woodman, A. J. 1983. Velleius Paterculus. The Caesarian and Augustan narrative (2.41–93). Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries 25. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  560.  
  561. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  562.  
  563. Detailed commentary on the text that includes the period from the aftermath of Caesar’s assassination.
  564.  
  565. Find this resource:
  566.  
  567.  
  568. Tacitus
  569. The opening ten chapters of Annals Book 1, on which see the commentary of Goodyear 1972, offer a critical assessment of Augustus’s rule at Rome, couched in the form of retrospective judgments by (unnamed) contemporaries, and parodying the language of the Res Gestae (see Epigraphic Evidence: Res Gestae Divi Augusti), as analyzed in Urban 1979.
  570.  
  571. Goodyear, F. R. D. 1972. The annals of Tacitus. Vol. 1, (Annals 1.1–54). Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries 15. Cambridge, UK: Cambrdge Univ. Press.
  572.  
  573. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  574.  
  575. Detailed commentary on the first two-thirds of Annals Book 1.
  576.  
  577. Find this resource:
  578.  
  579.  
  580. Urban, R. 1979. Tacitus und die Res gestae divi Augusti. Die Auseinandersetzung des Historikers mit der offiziellen Darstellung. Gymnasium 86:59–74.
  581.  
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583.  
  584. Shows how Tacitus subverts the language of the Res Gestae in the opening chapters of the Annals that offer retrospective overviews of Augustus’s leadership.
  585.  
  586. Find this resource:
  587.  
  588.  
  589. Poetry and Politics
  590. The age of Augustus produced the Golden Age of Latin poetry, represented especially by Propertius, Virgil, Horace, and Ovid. The patronage of Maecenas, Augustus, and other leading figures was an important factor in this flourishing, but the question of the influence wielded by patrons over poetical output is a complex one, as explored in White 1993. Virgil and Horace enjoyed prosperity as a result of their friendships but did not thereby lose their poetical integrity. West and Woodman 1984 presents methodological approaches, and Powell 1992 contains an influential paper arguing that interpreting poetry as pro-Augustan or anti-Augustan is pointless. Miller 2009 offers a case study of responses to the god Apollo in Augustan poetry, while Farrell and Nelis 2013 discusses representations of the Republic.
  591.  
  592. Farrell, Joseph, and Damien P. Nelis, eds. 2013. Augustan poetry and the Roman Republic. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  593.  
  594. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199587223.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595.  
  596. A collection of seventeen papers that discuss the representation of Rome’s past, specifically of the Roman Republic, in the major poets of the Augustan era.
  597.  
  598. Find this resource:
  599.  
  600.  
  601. Miller, John F. 2009. Apollo, Augustus, and the poets. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  602.  
  603. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  604.  
  605. Monograph exploring Apollo in Augustan poetry, analyzing his new prominence at the time, which reflected his key place in Augustus’s personal history at Actium, on the Palatine, and in the Centennial Games. Illustrates how poets could both mirror and contest political meanings of an Augustan Apollo.
  606.  
  607. Find this resource:
  608.  
  609.  
  610. Powell, Anton, ed. 1992. Roman poetry and propaganda in the age of Augustus. London: Bristol Classical.
  611.  
  612. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  613.  
  614. Includes influential paper by Kennedy, “Augustan and Anti-Augustan” arguing against the tendency to judge poetry as pro-Augustan or anti-Augustan, on the grounds that readers always play an active role in interpreting texts and that authors cannot control how their works are read. Critique by Davis 2006 (see Ovid) chapter 2 “Conflicting evaluations of Augustus.”
  615.  
  616. Find this resource:
  617.  
  618.  
  619. West, David, and Tony Woodman, eds. 1984. Poetry and politics in the age of Augustus. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  620.  
  621. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  622.  
  623. Subtle readings of major poets, illustrating that they responded to contemporary political ideals. Papers consider Horace’s responses to triumviral turmoil; the political dimension of his Sermones 1; the moral context of Odes 3.1; the prominence of Cybele in the Aeneid (see also Palatine); Propertius 4.6 on Actium; problems of interpreting the tone of Ovid’s Fasti.
  624.  
  625. Find this resource:
  626.  
  627.  
  628. White, Peter. 1993. Promised verse. Poets in the society of Augustan Rome. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard Univ. Press.
  629.  
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631.  
  632. Essential reading. Explores the impact of patronage on Augustan poetry, questioning whether patronage is a useful term to describe the relationships between poets and upper-class friends. Challenges the idea that Augustus intervened in poetry for political purposes. Includes data on poets’ social status and the identities of individuals named in their poetry.
  633.  
  634. Find this resource:
  635.  
  636.  
  637. Propertius
  638. Propertius’s elegies reflect contemporary uncertainties, and Griffin 1977 and Stahl 1985 illustrate how they dealt with the problem of reconciling private interests with the interests of the state. Welch 2005 discusses his fourth book of etiological poems on the city of Rome, how they engage with the Augustan transformation of Rome (see also Transformation of the City of Rome).
  639.  
  640. Griffin, Jasper. 1977. Propertius and Antony. Journal of Roman Studies 67:17–26.
  641.  
  642. DOI: 10.2307/299915Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643.  
  644. Explores how Propertius’s self-representation as a reckless and obsessed lover echoes the image of Antony, and how literature and real life intersect. Reprinted in Latin Poets and Roman Life (London: Duckworth).
  645.  
  646. Find this resource:
  647.  
  648.  
  649. Stahl, Hans Peter. 1985. Propertius: “Love” and “war”: Individual and state under Augustus. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press.
  650.  
  651. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  652.  
  653. Examines Propertius as a non-conformist in terms of his independent voice and personal identity as expressed through his elegies. Explores his distinctive political attitudes that resulted from his personal background, and argues that in the end, Propertius’s discomfort with the Augustan regime ended in silence.
  654.  
  655. Find this resource:
  656.  
  657.  
  658. Welch, Tara S. 2005. The elegiac cityscape. Propertius and the meaning of Roman Monuments. Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press.
  659.  
  660. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  661.  
  662. Focuses on Book 4 of Propertius’s Elegies, where Propertius explores subjective and contested readings can be made of particular topographical features in the city of Rome, which arguably challenge Augustus’s own intentions for the capital.
  663.  
  664. Find this resource:
  665.  
  666.  
  667. Virgil
  668. An overwhelming quantity of scholarship discusses how Virgil’s Aeneid contains much positive comment on contemporary society, yet also offers subtle criticism. “Pessimistic” interpretations of the Aeneid take their lead from Parry 1963 and are developed in Lyne 1987. Readers should tap into recent Virgilian scholarship by consulting Hardie 1999.
  669.  
  670. Hardie, Philip, ed. 1999. Virgil, critical assessments. London: Routledge.
  671.  
  672. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  673.  
  674. Extensive four-volume collection of papers on Virgil’s Eclogues, Georgics, and Aeneid.
  675.  
  676. Find this resource:
  677.  
  678.  
  679. Lyne, R. O. A. M. 1987. Further voices in Vergil’s Aeneid. Oxford: Clarendon.
  680.  
  681. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  682.  
  683. Builds on Parry 1963, exploring how the epic voice of the poem is modified by further voices.
  684.  
  685. Find this resource:
  686.  
  687.  
  688. Parry, Adam. 1963. The two voices of Virgil’s Aeneid. Arion 2:66–80.
  689.  
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691.  
  692. Influential article that explores tensions between Virgil’s vision of a glorious future for Rome and his acknowledgement of its cost in terms of human suffering. Initiated “pessimistic” readings of the Aeneid. Reprinted in Steele Commager, 1966. Virgil: A collection of critical essays (Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall) and in Philip Hardie, 1999. Virgil, critical assessments (see above).
  693.  
  694. Find this resource:
  695.  
  696.  
  697. Horace
  698. West 2002 and Thomas 2011 offer commentaries suitable for advanced students on Horace’s Odes Book 3 and Book 4 with the Carmen Saeculare. A contrast is often drawn between Horace’s allusiveness in odes produced under the patronage of Maecenas and the more openly encomiastic Book 4. Lyne 1995 questions this consensus as part of a detailed discussion of Horace’s handling of political affairs and public figures, capturing a sense of the difficulties faced by Horace in negotiating his place in society.
  699.  
  700. Lyne, R. O. A. M. 1995. Horace. Behind the public poetry. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale Univ. Press.
  701.  
  702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703.  
  704. A wide-ranging study of Horace’s engagement with public affairs via his poetry as represented by the Odes, Epistles, and Satires. Important contribution that through close textual readings demonstrates how even in Book Four of his Odes, Horace can be seen to be “sapping” the political status quo.
  705.  
  706. Find this resource:
  707.  
  708.  
  709. Thomas, Richard F. 2011. Horace odes book IV and Carmen Saeculare. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  710.  
  711. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  712.  
  713. Assembles texts about the celebration of the Centennial Games (see also Religion). Three appendixes give information on the celebration of the games, including part of the inscribed dossier and the Greek text of the Sibylline oracle, from Phlegon of Tralles. Maintains that Odes IV must be seen in the light of the Carmen saeculare.
  714.  
  715. Find this resource:
  716.  
  717.  
  718. West, David. 2002. Horace Odes III. Dulce Periculum. Text, translation and commentary. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  719.  
  720. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  721.  
  722. Students will find this accessible and thoughtful. Contains a brief introduction to key aspects of Horace’s life and style and a metrical introduction. Each ode presented with facing Latin text and English translation, engaging commentary that avoids too much technicality. Includes summary of divergent interpretations in sections entitled “Other Views.”
  723.  
  724. Find this resource:
  725.  
  726.  
  727. Ovid
  728. For Ovid, the volumes Weiden Boyd 2002, Hardie 2002, and Knox 2009, offer pathways through the main debates about his poetry, with some discussion of his works’ political contexts. Syme 1978 discusses historical questions arising in Ovid’s poetry. Ovid’s Fasti is the second longest extant poem reflecting contemporary responses to Augustus ideology. Herbert-Brown 1994 explores why Ovid chose to write this poem, his use of elegiac meter, and his adaptation of his subject matter to honor Augustus and his family. Barchiesi 1997 revisits the question of “pro/anti-Augustan” attitudes in relationship to the Fasti. Other scholarly works, such as Newlands 1995, draw attention to how Ovid did not lose his capacity to poke irreverent fun, regarding the Fasti as both subversive and panegyrical. Ovid’s erotic poems are scrutinized for political significance in Davis 2006.
  729.  
  730. Barchiesi, Alessandro. 1997. The poet and the prince. Ovid and Augustan discourse. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  731.  
  732. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  733.  
  734. Essentially a translation of Il poeta e il principe. Ovidio e il discorso augusteo 1994 (Rome: Laterza). Challenges the view that the Fasti is a straightforward homage to Augustus and his family. Of wider interest for its engagement with the debate about the terms pro-Augustan and anti-Augustan.
  735.  
  736. Find this resource:
  737.  
  738.  
  739. Davis, P. J. 2006. Ovid and Augustus. A political reading of Ovid’s erotic poems. London: Duckworth.
  740.  
  741. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  742.  
  743. Examines Ovid’s Heroides, Amores, Ars Amatoria, and Remedia Amoris within their political context, suggesting that they challenge Augustan ideology, as embodied in the Julian laws on marriage and adultery (see also Augustan Social Legislation).
  744.  
  745. Find this resource:
  746.  
  747.  
  748. Hardie, Philip, ed. 2002. The Cambridge companion to Ovid. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  749.  
  750. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL0521772818Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751.  
  752. Chapter by Thomas Habinek, “Ovid and Empire,” on the generational difference between Ovid and other Augustan poets and how this affects his political outlook in a broad sense.
  753.  
  754. Find this resource:
  755.  
  756.  
  757. Herbert-Brown, Geraldine, 1994. Ovid and the Fasti. An historical study. Oxford: Clarendon.
  758.  
  759. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  760.  
  761. Detailed investigation of the poem’s response to Augustan ideology and politics during the late Augustan and early Tiberian eras. Focuses on anniversaries connected with members of the imperial family, with chapters on Augustus, Julius Caesar, Livia, Germanicus. Illustrates how Augustus and his family became embedded within religious festivals at Rome.
  762.  
  763. Find this resource:
  764.  
  765.  
  766. Knox, Peter E., ed. 2009. A companion to Ovid. Chichester, UK; and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  767.  
  768. DOI: 10.1002/9781444310627Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  769.  
  770. Chapters by Mario Citroni, “Poetry in Augustan Rome,” a general analysis of the relationship between poets and the Augustan regime, including a historical summary; Geraldine Herbert-Brown, “Fasti: The Poet, the Prince, and the Plebs”; Gareth D. Williams, “The Metamorphoses: Politics and Narrative,” tackles head-on Ovid’s representation of Augustus.
  771.  
  772. Find this resource:
  773.  
  774.  
  775. Newlands, Carole E. 1995. Playing with Time. Ovid and the Fasti. Cornell Studies in Classical Philology. Vol. 55. Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell Univ. Press.
  776.  
  777. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  778.  
  779. Emphasis on the complex character of the Fasti, as both playful and serious, panegyrical and subversive. Explores how the subject matter of the poem, the calendar, necessarily integrated political alongside literary concerns, and allowed Ovid flexibility in his choice of emphasis on certain festivals and in how he narrated and interpreted them.
  780.  
  781. Find this resource:
  782.  
  783.  
  784. Syme, Ronald. 1978. History in Ovid. Oxford: Clarendon.
  785.  
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787.  
  788. A contrasting approach to the other works cited here. Assesses historical questions that emerge from Ovid’s poems, dealing with the dating of Ovid’s works, and offering prosopographical studies of individuals named in the poems. As Syme himself acknowledges, “more history than Ovid.” (Available in a Clarendon Press Sandpiper 1997 reprint.)
  789.  
  790. Find this resource:
  791.  
  792.  
  793. Weiden Boyd, Barbara, ed. 2002. Brill’s companion to Ovid. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.
  794.  
  795. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  796.  
  797. Chapters by Peter White, “Ovid and the Augustan milieu,” assessing Ovid’s biography and relationship to Augustus; Elaine Fantham, “Ovid’s Fasti: Politics, History, and Religion”; Garth Tissol, “The House of Fame: Roman History and Augustan Politics in Metamorphoses 11–15,” on the historical character of the final books of the Metamorphoses.
  798.  
  799. Find this resource:
  800.  
  801.  
  802. Epigraphic Evidence
  803. Inscriptions are one of the most valuable sources for investigating the political, social, and cultural history of the Augustan era. They provide insight into the emerging dynastic ideology of the new political regime, into the shifting perceptions of Augustus and his family within Rome, Italy, and the provinces, and they often complement the images presented on coins (see also Numismatic Evidence). Alföldy 1991 is a fundamental study examining possible reasons for the explosion in the number of inscriptions being set up in the Augustan era. Selections of Latin and Greek inscriptions from the age of Augustus can be found in Ehrenberg and Jones 1976 and Dessau 1892–1916. The so-called Laudatio Turiae (“In praise of Turia”), edited in Wistrand 1976 and then Flach 1991, and analyzed in Horsfall 1983 (all cited under “Laudatio Turiae”), is of particular interest for the picture it paints of an otherwise unknown elite couple. It records a speech made to honor the wife (once incorrectly thought to be Turia) by her husband after her death, and spans both triumviral and Augustan eras. Two municipal decrees found at Pisa in the 17th century illustrate the emergence of new ways of expressing loyalty toward Augustus and his family in Italy, a crucial moment in the development of dynastic politics and imperial ideology. The “queen of inscriptions,” Res Gestae Divi Augusti (“Achievements of Deified Augustus”), provides invaluable insight into the political ideology of the Augustan era. Other important dossiers of epigraphic evidence (including the inscribed records for the Centennial Games in 17 BCE) are discussed under Religion.
  804.  
  805. Alföldy, G. 1991. Augustus und die Inschriften: Tradition und Innovation. Die Geburt der imperialen Epigraphik. Gymnasium 98:289–324.
  806.  
  807. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  808.  
  809. A thought-provoking study of the sudden increase in production of inscriptions and of how Augustus’s name became an integral part of many public inscriptions, such as milestones and building inscriptions.
  810.  
  811. Find this resource:
  812.  
  813.  
  814. Dessau, H. 1892–1916. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae (ILS). Berlin: Weidmann.
  815.  
  816. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  817.  
  818. Vol. 1, nos. 43–69 include Augustan inscriptions honoring Republican leaders, while nos. 70–143 offer a selection of inscriptions connected to the imperial family of the Augustan era.
  819.  
  820. Find this resource:
  821.  
  822.  
  823. Ehrenberg, V., and A. H. M. Jones. 1976. Documents illustrating the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. 2d ed. with addenda. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  824.  
  825. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  826.  
  827. The first edition of 1949 has been superseded by the second, with addenda. Includes thematic chapters of inscriptions (Latin and Greek texts only) focused on political history. Should be used with caution since some inscriptions have since been re-edited. Translated versions and short comments for many of them may be found in Cooley 2013 (cited under Textbooks and Sourcebooks).
  828.  
  829. Find this resource:
  830.  
  831.  
  832. “Laudatio Turiae”
  833. This fragmentary inscription (ILS 8393) records a speech composed by a husband in praise of his deceased wife, after many years of marriage. It illuminates the turmoil of the triumviral period and the Wistrand 1976 and, especially, Flach 1991 editions of the text offer detailed comment on the inscription’s political, social, and cultural significance.
  834.  
  835. Flach, Dieter. 1991. Die sogenannte Laudatio Turiae. Einleitung, Text, Übersetzung und Kommentar. Texte zur Forschung. Vol. 58. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
  836.  
  837. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  838.  
  839. A more detailed edition (roughly double in size) than Wistrand 1976, with extensive discussion of the possible identity of the couple concerned; full presentation of the epigraphic text with apparatus criticus. Translation into German. Line-by-line commentary; bibliography.
  840.  
  841. Find this resource:
  842.  
  843.  
  844. Horsfall, N. 1983. Some problems in the Laudatio Turiae. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 30:85–98.
  845.  
  846. DOI: 10.1111/j.2041-5370.1983.tb00438.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  847.  
  848. Considers how the surviving fragments may fit together and possible dimensions of the original inscription. Discusses the inscription within the context of other funeral speeches. Brief assessment of the couple’s identity, analysis of extent to which the inscription echoes and challenges Augustan political and social ideology.
  849.  
  850. Find this resource:
  851.  
  852.  
  853. Wistrand, Erik. 1976. The so-called Laudatio Turiae: Introduction, text, translation, and commentary. Studia Graeca et Latina Gothoburgensia 34. Lund. Göteborg, Sweden: Acta universitatis Gothoburgensis.
  854.  
  855. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  856.  
  857. Includes photographs; Latin text with facing English translation; line-by-line commentary, assessing problems of reading and supplementing and interpreting the text.
  858.  
  859. Find this resource:
  860.  
  861.  
  862. Pisan Decrees
  863. When Augustus’s younger grandson/adopted son, Lucius Caesar, died unexpectedly in 2 CE, the town of Pisa took great pains to express its deep sense of loss, especially because Lucius Caesar had been its town patron. When, subsequently, Augustus’s older adopted son Gaius Caesar died in 4 CE, the town once again lamented that the future inheritance that had seemed owed to Gaius, as “leader of the youth,” was now so abruptly brought to an end. The two decrees that were inscribed on marble and record many details of the council’s measures to mourn the deaths are available in Marotta D’Agata 1980 and Segenni 2011, and the historical context of the decrees in terms of the emergence of dynastic politics is explored in Rowe 2002. See also Lott 2012 for a student-friendly presentation of the decrees (cited under Textbooks and Sourcebooks).
  864.  
  865. Marotta D’Agata, Alida Rosina. 1980. Decreta Pisana (CIL, XI, 1420–21). Edizione critica, traduzione e commento. Testimonia 5. Pisa, Italy: Edizioni Marlin.
  866.  
  867. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  868.  
  869. Edition with apparatus criticus; translation into Italian; commentaries on each decree; chapters on paleography, language, and style, and on the political significance of the decrees. Includes four black-and-white photographs of the inscriptions.
  870.  
  871. Find this resource:
  872.  
  873.  
  874. Rowe, Greg. 2002. Princes and political culture: The new Tiberian senatorial decrees. Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  875.  
  876. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  877.  
  878. Chapter 4 assesses what the decrees reveal about Pisa’s communication and inter-relationship with the capital at Rome, and how the town responded to the deaths of Gaius and Lucius via rituals and language.
  879.  
  880. Find this resource:
  881.  
  882.  
  883. Segenni, Simonetta. 2011. I decreta pisana. Autonomia cittadina e ideologia imperiale nella colonia Opsequens Iulia Pisana. Documenti e studi 47. Bari, Italy: Edipuglia.
  884.  
  885. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  886.  
  887. Wide-ranging discussion of political, administrative, religious, and ideological context of the decrees passed by the town council of Pisa to honor Lucius and Gaius. Offers an introduction to the town of Pisa; edition and translation; thematic discussion of the domus Augusta; colonial administration; imperial ideology.
  888.  
  889. Find this resource:
  890.  
  891.  
  892. Res Gestae Divi Augusti
  893. Two recent commentaries on the Res Gestae divi Augusti (“Achievements of deified Augustus”), RGDA, differ in approach: Cooley 2009 treats the text as composed by Augustus himself and offering insights into Augustus’s self-representation of himself and his career, whereas Scheid 2007 views it as a more impersonal account of Augustus’s achievements, composed essentially by imperial officials. Of the vast bibliography available, two monographs are worth singling out for their distinctive approaches. Ridley 2003 takes issue with the assumption that Augustus could not have lied in his text, while Ramage 1987 presents detailed analysis of the language used in the inscription.
  894.  
  895. Cooley, Alison E. 2009. Res Gestae Divi Augusti: Text, translation, and commentary. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  896.  
  897. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  898.  
  899. Explores RGDA as a personal account by Augustus of his life’s achievements, analyzing how Augustus understood his role in Roman society, politics, and history. Parallel Greek and Latin texts, plus English translations of both versions, elucidate the way in which provincial audiences responded to, and sometimes adapted, the words of Augustus.
  900.  
  901. Find this resource:
  902.  
  903.  
  904. Ramage, Edwin S. 1987. The nature and purpose of Augustus’ “Res gestae.” Historia Einzelschriften 54. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  905.  
  906. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  907.  
  908. Examines the ideological significance of the language and rhetoric used in the RGDA. Ends with a survey of scholarship on the RGDA.
  909.  
  910. Find this resource:
  911.  
  912.  
  913. Ridley, Ronald. 2003. The emperor’s retrospect: Augustus’ Res gestae in epigraphy, historiography, and commentary. Studia Hellenistica 39. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
  914.  
  915. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  916.  
  917. Challenges the view that the public character of the RGDA would have prevented Augustus from manipulating the historical record by exploring how selectively the text deals with some aspects of Augustus’s career and by arguing that it includes some outright untruths.
  918.  
  919. Find this resource:
  920.  
  921.  
  922. Scheid, John. 2007. Res gestae divi Augusti/Hauts faits du divin Auguste. Paris: Belles Lettres.
  923.  
  924. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  925.  
  926. Budé edition, with parallel Greek and Latin texts, French translation, apparatus criticus. Essential for understanding the RGDA as an epigraphic text. Text is presented as it exists in its three copies at Ancyra, Apollonia, and Pisidian Antioch, rather than as a composite version. Extensive introduction and historical commentary.
  927.  
  928. Find this resource:
  929.  
  930.  
  931. Numismatic Evidence
  932. Wallace-Hadrill 1986 establishes the importance of analyzing coin design as a means of exploring ways in which the position of Augustus within the Roman state could be understood, while avoiding becoming too entangled in the question of whether or not coins can be viewed as propaganda. This article is complemented by Burnett 2011, which explores how coin designs illuminate responses toward Roman power on the part of provincial cities. Bricault 2012 analyzes the particular case study of the transformation of the coinage of Alexandria. One individual coin can sometimes offer significant insight into contemporary perceptions of political change: a gold coin (aureus) of 28 BCE sheds light on Octavian’s image as restorer of the state, as discussed in Rich and Williams 1999 and in Millar 2000 (cited under Political Developments: Civil Wars and Triumvirate). Sutherland 1984 shows how extensive numismatic corpora can be consulted for imperial coinage; Mattingly 1923 scrutinizes coins in the British Museum; and Burnett, et al. 1998 examines provincial coinages.
  933.  
  934. Bricault, L. 2012. Le monnayage d’Auguste à Alexandrie. In César sous Auguste. Edited by O. Devillers and K. Sion-Jenkis, 107–124. Scripta Antiqua 48. Bordeaux, France: Ausonius.
  935.  
  936. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  937.  
  938. Illustrates how images on coins minted at Alexandria changed after the city’s capture in 30 BCE. Although the coins at first continued Ptolemaic types, from c. 20 BCE they commemorated historical events of importance to Augustus, symbols associated with his person, and images alluding to Egypt’s importance as supplier of grain to Rome.
  939.  
  940. Find this resource:
  941.  
  942.  
  943. Burnett, Andrew. 2011. The Augustan revolution seen from the mints of the provinces. Journal of Roman Studies 101:1–30.
  944.  
  945. DOI: 10.1017/S0075435811000104Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  946.  
  947. Examines changes in provincial coinage during the Augustan era, how the emperor was represented on coins in words and images. Considers the designs on coins as responses from individual cities, rather than centrally imposed. Shows how the image of the emperor replaced city deities.
  948.  
  949. Find this resource:
  950.  
  951.  
  952. Burnett, Andrew, Michel Amandry, and Pere Pau Ripollès. 1998. Roman provincial coinage Vol. 1. From the death of Caesar to the death of Vitellius (44 BC–AD 69). London and Paris: British Museum Press and Bibliothèque nationale de France.
  953.  
  954. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  955.  
  956. Focuses on city coinages, to complement the other main corpora. Part 1: Introduction (on who authorized minting; production and circulation of coinage; denominations, designs, and legends; appearance of the emperor and family members on coins). Catalogue organized geographically by province. Includes kingdoms in eastern Mediterranean. Part II: indexes and plates. Based on the first edition, 1992.
  957.  
  958. Find this resource:
  959.  
  960.  
  961. Mattingly, Harold. 1923. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum. Vol. 1, Augustus to Vitellius. London: Longmans.
  962.  
  963. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  964.  
  965. Includes a general introduction to Roman Imperial coinage; introduction to coinage of Augustus (identifying moneyers; summarizing coin types; discussing mints of Rome, Lugdunum, Spain, eastern provinces); catalogue of 744 coins by mint; 21 plates illustrating Augustan coins.
  966.  
  967. Find this resource:
  968.  
  969.  
  970. Rich, J. W., and J. H. C. Williams. 1999. Leges et iura p.R. restituit: A new aureus of Octavian and the settlement of 28–27 BC. Numismatic Chronicle 159:169–213.
  971.  
  972. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  973.  
  974. Presents one of the most significant coins relating to the Augustan age, shedding light on Octavian’s claims to be restoring normality to the Roman state in 28/27 BCE.
  975.  
  976. Find this resource:
  977.  
  978.  
  979. Sutherland, C. H. V. 1984. The Roman Imperial coinage. Vol. 1, From 31 BC to AD 69. Rev. ed. London: Spink.
  980.  
  981. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  982.  
  983. A corpus of 550 Augustan coins, with introductory material on the mints, coin types, denominations, and circulation. Includes 10 plates of images. Extensively revised, this volume replaces an earlier edition of 1923.
  984.  
  985. Find this resource:
  986.  
  987.  
  988. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1986. Image and authority in the coinage of Augustus. Journal of Roman Studies 76:66–87.
  989.  
  990. DOI: 10.2307/300366Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  991.  
  992. Tracks the impact of Augustus upon the design of coins produced not just by Rome but also by provincial cities and friendly kings. Argues that Augustus used the mark of the Senate’s authority on bronze coinage as a means of consolidating his own power.
  993.  
  994. Find this resource:
  995.  
  996.  
  997. Art and Architecture
  998. The seminal work Zanker 1988 brings into focus the importance of visual material for understanding the political, cultural, religious, and social transformation of Augustan society, an approach that is explored further in Pollini 2012. Wallace-Hadrill 2008 builds on Zanker’s work and develops further the arguments outlined by Wallace-Hadrill in Habinek and Schiesaro 1997 (cited under Collections of Papers) to trace the evolution of culture in Italy and Rome during the last two centuries BCE and the ways in which the structures of authority and control of knowledge were an integral part of the new political structures. On Augustan portraiture specifically, Boschung 1993 offers a detailed study of portrait types of Augustus, while Massner 1982 examines the influence of Augustus’s portraits on those of his successors. Smith 1996 reflects on approaches to Augustan portraits, engaging specifically with Boschung 1993, and offers a critique of methodology. Kuttner 1995 shows the rich possibilities for understanding Augustan ideology offered by the iconography of a pair of silver cups found in a rustic villa near Pompeii at Boscoreale, fortuitously preserved in the eruption of Vesuvius.
  999.  
  1000. Boschung, Dietrich. 1993. Die Bildnisse des Augustus. Das römische Herrscherbild 1.2. Berlin: Mann Verlag.
  1001.  
  1002. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1003.  
  1004. Comprehensive study, in German, of Augustan portrait types, with analysis of typology and dating. Identifies five main types (Béziers-Spoleto, Lucus Feroniae, Alcudia, Louvre, Prima Porta). Richly illustrated with 239 black-and-white plates, accompanying a catalogue of over two hundred portraits.
  1005.  
  1006. Find this resource:
  1007.  
  1008.  
  1009. Kuttner, Ann L. 1995. Dynasty and empire in the age of Augustus: The case of the Boscoreale cups. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1010.  
  1011. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1012.  
  1013. Close analysis of the Boscoreale silver cups that juxtapose historical and allegorical figures to illustrate the position of Augustus as world ruler; Drusus’ benign conquest of western tribes; and a triumph and sacrifice by Tiberius. Argues that they may imitate state reliefs at Rome; in any case, a valuable record of contemporary visual ideology.
  1014.  
  1015. Find this resource:
  1016.  
  1017.  
  1018. Massner, Anne-Kathrein. 1982. Bildnisangleichung: Untersuchungen zur Entstehungs- und Wirkungsgeschichte der Augustusporträts (43 v. Chr. - 68 n. Chr.). Das römische Herrscherbild 4. Berlin: Mann Verlag.
  1019.  
  1020. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1021.  
  1022. An analysis of how Augustan portrait types influenced those of his successors. Includes 35 black-and-white plates.
  1023.  
  1024. Find this resource:
  1025.  
  1026.  
  1027. Pollini, John. 2012. Republic to empire: Rhetoric, religion, and power in the visual culture of ancient Rome. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press.
  1028.  
  1029. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1030.  
  1031. Ranges beyond Augustus, but includes extensive discussion of the Altar of Augustan Peace, the cult statue of the deified Julius, and the significance of images of Alexander for Augustus.
  1032.  
  1033. Find this resource:
  1034.  
  1035.  
  1036. Smith, R. R. R. 1996. Typology and diversity in the portraits of Augustus. Journal of Roman Archaeology 9:30–47.
  1037.  
  1038. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1039.  
  1040. Detailed review of Boschung 1993, including the evolution of research into Augustus’s portraits. Explains the unique position of the Augustan portraits, as the first instance of widespread replication and dissemination of a living person’s portrait. Analyzes the relationship between typology and diversity in the production of portraits. Essential reading for understanding the image of Augustus.
  1041.  
  1042. Find this resource:
  1043.  
  1044.  
  1045. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 2008. Rome’s cultural revolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1046.  
  1047. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1048.  
  1049. Wide ranging, with the Augustan era as the end point. Interdisciplinary and theoretically informed analysis of the evolution of a new imperial culture. The chapter “Knowing the City,” on the organization of spatial knowledge, builds on Nicolet 1991 (see General Overviews), as part of an argument for the structures of knowledge undergoing fundamental transformation in the Augustan age.
  1050.  
  1051. Find this resource:
  1052.  
  1053.  
  1054. Zanker, Paul. 1988. The power of images in the age of Augustus. Translated by Alan Shapiro. Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  1055.  
  1056. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1057.  
  1058. As important as Syme 1939 (cited under General Overviews) for shaping perceptions of the Augustan regime. Essential reading for understanding the dissemination of Augustan values and the gradual political transformation of Rome via a study of visual images in Rome, Italy, and the provinces. Translated from German, originally published as Augustus und die Macht der Bilder (Munich: Beck, 1987).
  1059.  
  1060. Find this resource:
  1061.  
  1062.  
  1063. Transformation of the City of Rome
  1064. Augustus’s transformation of the city of Rome created a sense of loyalty and obligation toward him on the part of the Roman plebs. Favro 1996 offers a detailed analysis of this transformation, while Haselberger 2007 is intended to supplement the reference work Haselberger 2008 (cited under Reference Works). Benoist 2005 explores the physical transformation of the capital, accompanied by the celebration of public games and festivals, as well as new ceremonies and rituals that expressed the centrality of Augustus and his family to Rome. At the same time, Augustus marginalized the senatorial elite, preventing them from continuing their traditional roles as builders in the capital, as argued in Eck 1984 (see Roman Upper Class Society). By the time of Augustus’s death in 14 CE, no area of the city was untouched by monuments associated with members of the imperial family. Patterson 1992 outlines the main features of this transformation, discussing different regions of the city in turn.
  1065.  
  1066. Benoist, Stéphane. 2005. Rome, le prince et la Cité: pouvoir impérial et cérémonies publiques (1er siècle av.- déut du IVe siècle apr. J.-C.) Paris: Le nœud gordien/Presses Universitaires de France.
  1067.  
  1068. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1069.  
  1070. Study of the rituals expressing imperial power and ideology that were staged in the city of Rome, as part of a wider study from Augustus to Constantine. Considers themes of entry into the city; funeral and deification ceremonial; triumphs; Centennial Games.
  1071.  
  1072. Find this resource:
  1073.  
  1074.  
  1075. Favro, Diane. 1996. The urban image of Augustan Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1076.  
  1077. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1078.  
  1079. Detailed study, tracing changes in the capital’s urban image from the late Republic to 14 CE. Juxtaposes imaginary walks through the city in 52 BCE and 14 CE. Examines the impact of politics and patronage on the cityscape. Distinctive approach in tackling individual monuments within their overall urban context.
  1080.  
  1081. Find this resource:
  1082.  
  1083.  
  1084. Haselberger, Lothar. 2007. Urbem adornare: die Stadt Rom und ihre Gestaltumwandlung unter Augustus/Rome’s urban metamorphosis under Augustus. Translated by Alexander Thein. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  1085.  
  1086. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1087.  
  1088. Bilingual (German and English) book intended to supplement the reference work Haselberger 2008 (see Reference Works). Illustrates the new prominence of the Field of Mars within the city and analyzes the significance of Augustus’s division of the capital into districts in 7 BCE. Includes dated list of Augustan buildings.
  1089.  
  1090. Find this resource:
  1091.  
  1092.  
  1093. Patterson, John R. 1992. The city of Rome: From Republic to Empire. Journal of Roman Studies 82:186–215.
  1094.  
  1095. DOI: 10.2307/301291Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1096.  
  1097. Surveys latest interpretations and archaeological discoveries relating to the Forum, Field of Mars, Palatine, and Augustan Forum; a section called “The Emperor and the People” focuses on games and baths for the Augustan era. Extends beyond Augustan era, but contains much information on Augustan Rome and contextualizes the Augustan material.
  1098.  
  1099. Find this resource:
  1100.  
  1101.  
  1102. Field of Mars (Campus Martius)
  1103. The Field of Mars (Campus Martius) was newly developed from a flood plain of the Tiber into a dynastic display case, with buildings by Agrippa and Augustus himself dominating the landscape from the 30s BCE onwards. Rehak 2006 offers an interpretation of the northern part of the Field of Mars that focuses on Augustus’s self-commemoration via its monuments. The earliest monument was Augustus’s Mausoleum, completed in 28 BCE. In 13 BCE, the Senate decreed the construction of the Altar of Augustan Peace (Ara Pacis Augustae), which was subsequently dedicated on 30 January 9 BCE. The altar is famous for its complex decorative scheme, reflective of Augustan ideology, and distinctively combines allegorical and mythical scenes alongside what appear to be historical figures. Scenes depict the goddess Roma; a female figure nursing two infants; a sacrificial scene; the Lupercal with Mars, Faustulus, the twins Romulus and Remus, and the she-wolf. Along its long sides are processional scenes depicting Augustus preceded by lictors and followed by other priests, members of the imperial family (including women and children), and other Romans as they prepare for a sacrifice. As well as heated debate over identifying the altar’s scenes, its topographical context, and possible relationship to the so-called “sundial of Augustus” are still generating considerable dispute.
  1104.  
  1105. Rehak, Paul. 2006. Imperium and cosmos: Augustus and the northern campus Martius. Edited by John G. Younger. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press.
  1106.  
  1107. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1108.  
  1109. Argues that Augustus’s choice of monuments and topographical juxtapositions on the northern Campus Martius were designed to consolidate his monarchical power during his lifetime as well as to assert his unique place in history and put forward a claim for deification after death.
  1110.  
  1111. Find this resource:
  1112.  
  1113.  
  1114. Mausoleum
  1115. This monument impressed one contemporary observer, Strabo, who described the tomb and its environs in his account of the city of Rome. Its construction set the dynastic tone for the coming years, and, as Kraft 1967 argues persuasively, should probably be viewed in the context of Octavian’s ideological battle against Marc Antony in the lead-up to Actium. Von Hesberg and Panciera 1994 present archaeological and epigraphic evidence from the structure, while Davies 2000 sets it into the context of other imperial tombs.
  1116.  
  1117. Davies, Penelope J. E. 2000. Death and the emperor: Roman imperial funerary monuments from Augustus to Marcus Aurelius. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1118.  
  1119. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1120.  
  1121. Discusses the design and location of Augustus’s mausoleum alongside those of other imperial funerary monuments. Argues that the monument was both tomb and war trophy, and was intended to justify the emperor’s apotheosis and secure dynastic succession.
  1122.  
  1123. Find this resource:
  1124.  
  1125.  
  1126. Kraft, K. 1967. Der Sinn des Mausoleums des Augustus. Historia 16:189–206.
  1127.  
  1128. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1129.  
  1130. Argues that Octavian decided to build the Mausoleum as a clear message to the people of Rome that he was fundamentally committed to their city, in contrast to Marc Antony’s apparent defection to Cleopatra and Alexandria.
  1131.  
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133.  
  1134.  
  1135. von Hesberg, H., and Silvio Panciera. 1994. Das Mausoleum des Augustus. Der Bau und seine Inschriften. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften Philosophisch-historische Klasse Abhandlungen. Neue Folge Heft 108. Munich: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  1136.  
  1137. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1138.  
  1139. Detailed presentation of the architectural remains and inscriptions. Brief consideration of historical and political context, demonstrating its dynastic significance. Plates and drawings illustrate the primary material. Reveals that its decoration included a marble copy of the shield of virtues, and laurel trees carved in relief to imitate Augustus’s Palatine house.
  1140.  
  1141. Find this resource:
  1142.  
  1143.  
  1144. Altar of Augustan Peace (Ara Pacis Augustae)
  1145. The Altar of Augustan Peace (Ara Pacis Augustae) is much studied, and there is a great deal of debate about how to identify both the historical figures depicted on its processional relief and the allegorical and mythical panels. Rose 1990 and Rehak 2001 present a taste of this debate. Despite the informal and apparently realistic atmosphere of the procession, the essentially artificial nature of the relief is demonstrated in Elsner 1991 and in Torelli 1982, who also shows how the altar derives significance from its topographical context and formal similarities to the gates of Janus. Bowersock 1990 offers a contrasting approach. The most recent overview of the monument is Rossini 2007, while Castriota 1995 focuses on interpreting the altar’s floral friezes.
  1146.  
  1147. Bowersock, G. W. 1990. The pontificate of Augustus. In Between republic and empire: Interpretations of Augustus and his principate. Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Mark Toher, 380–394. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1148.  
  1149. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1150.  
  1151. Argues that the processional frieze did represent a real event, namely the day on which Augustus took up the position of supreme pontiff (pontifex maximus).
  1152.  
  1153. Find this resource:
  1154.  
  1155.  
  1156. Castriota, David. 1995. The Ara Pacis Augustae and the imagery of abundance in later Greek and early Roman imperial art. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1157.  
  1158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1159.  
  1160. Refocuses attention on the stylized floral ornament alongside the processional friezes and figural reliefs, exploring its role within the monument’s meaning, beyond that of mere decoration. Argues that the imagery is linked to ideas of prosperity and moral virtue, and that it juxtaposes allusions to Apollo, Dionysus, and Venus.
  1161.  
  1162. Find this resource:
  1163.  
  1164.  
  1165. Elsner, John (Jaś). 1991. Cult and sculpture: Sacrifice in the Ara Pacis Augustae. Journal of Roman Studies 81:50–61.
  1166.  
  1167. DOI: 10.2307/300488Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1168.  
  1169. Focuses on the sacrificial function of the altar and how this would have influenced the way in which ancient viewers interpreted the altar, as they participated in sacrificial ritual.
  1170.  
  1171. Find this resource:
  1172.  
  1173.  
  1174. Rehak, Paul. 2001. Aeneas or Numa? Rethinking the meaning of the Ara Pacis Augustae. The Art Bulletin 83.2: 190–208.
  1175.  
  1176. DOI: 10.2307/3177206Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1177.  
  1178. Reinterprets the panel generally thought to depict Aeneas sacrificing at the site of Lavinium as instead representing Numa, second king of Rome.
  1179.  
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181.  
  1182.  
  1183. Rose, Charles Brian. 1990. “Princes” and barbarians on the Ara Pacis. American Journal of Archaeology 94.3: 453–467.
  1184.  
  1185. DOI: 10.2307/505797Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1186.  
  1187. Argues that the children in foreign dress should not be identified as Gaius and Lucius Caesar but as foreign princes from the Bosporus and Gaul respectively, brought up and educated as “guests” at Rome. Suggests alternative figures that can instead be identified as the heirs of Augustus.
  1188.  
  1189. Find this resource:
  1190.  
  1191.  
  1192. Rossini, Orietta. 2007. Ara Pacis. Translated into English by Stefano Fox. Milan: Electa.
  1193.  
  1194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1195.  
  1196. A new guidebook to the altar, translated from the Italian version, to coincide with the opening of its new museum.
  1197.  
  1198. Find this resource:
  1199.  
  1200.  
  1201. Torelli, Mario. 1982. Typology and structure of Roman historical reliefs. Jerome Lectures 14. Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  1202.  
  1203. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1204.  
  1205. Chapter 2, “A New Start: The Ara Pacis Augustae,” analyzes the similarities and the relationship between the altar within its precinct and the gates of Janus; demonstrates the significance of location for its meaning. Argues that the altar is an alternative to celebrating a triumph and that the processional figures map out Augustus’s dynastic plans.
  1206.  
  1207. Find this resource:
  1208.  
  1209.  
  1210. Meridian Line/ Sundial (horologium)
  1211. Scholars argue vehemently for divergent interpretations of one of the most hotly disputed monuments in Augustan Rome, the fragmentary grid found far below the level of the modern Field of Mars. The long-held view that the remains are those of a sundial, whose shadow was designed to reach the entrance to the Altar of Augustan Peace on Augustus’s birthday, has been rigorously challenged, and its function as a meridian line rather than sundial has been proposed. Haselberger 2011, with accompanying responses and remarks by Heslin, et al., presents an excellent sense of the controversies.
  1212.  
  1213. Haselberger, L. 2011. A debate on the Horologium of Augustus: Controversy and clarifications, with responses by P. J. Heslin and M. Schütz, and additional remarks by R. Hannah and G. Alföldy. Journal of Roman Archaeology 24:47–98.
  1214.  
  1215. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1216.  
  1217. Articles reassess the archaeological evidence for the obelisk and grid, weighing up the possible spatial and thematic relationships between the solar instrument and the altar. Alföldy suggests that it was based on a similar monument in Alexandria.
  1218.  
  1219. Find this resource:
  1220.  
  1221.  
  1222. Roman Forum and Augustan Forum
  1223. Purcell 1995 describes succinctly the traditional center of Roman public life, the Roman Forum (forum Romanum), which was gradually transformed into a space defined on every side by monuments celebrating Augustus’s family and imperial power, so that it gradually lost its central importance to Rome’s identity. Monuments celebrated Augustus’s military victories, and the forum became symbolic of Rome as the center of the known world, with the setting up of the golden milestone. Rich 1998 and Simpson 1992 dispute individual aspects of the forum’s monumentalization, notably the location and existence of a Parthian arch of Augustus. Anderson 1984 presents the layout of the Augustan Forum (forum Augustum), while DeRose Evans 1992 and Luce 1990 focus on the statuary displayed in the forum. Bonnefond 1987 analyzes how some of the ceremonies traditionally performed on the Capitol were transferred to the temple of Mars the Avenger, showing how the new monumental complex took over important rituals associated with political, military, and civic life.
  1224.  
  1225. Anderson, James C., Jr. 1984. The historical topography of the Imperial Fora. Collection Latomus. Vol. 182. Brussels: Latomus.
  1226.  
  1227. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1228.  
  1229. Chapter 2 presents a detailed description of the Augustan Forum, its layout, architecture, and sculpture. Also analyzes evidence for its functions and the ceremonies that took place in it.
  1230.  
  1231. Find this resource:
  1232.  
  1233.  
  1234. Bonnefond, Marianne. 1987. Transferts de fonctions et mutation idéologique: le Capitole et le forum d’Auguste. In L’urbs. Espace urbain et histoire 1er siècle avant J.-C. – IIIe siècle après J.-C. 251–278. Collection de l’École Française de Rome 98. Rome: École Française de Rome/Palais Farnèse.
  1235.  
  1236. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1237.  
  1238. Taking her cue from the account of the dedication of the temple of Mars the Avenger given by Dio Cassius, Bonnefond demonstrates how the new space effectively marginalized the Capitol by usurping many of the key rituals and ceremonials traditionally performed there.
  1239.  
  1240. Find this resource:
  1241.  
  1242.  
  1243. DeRose Evans, J. 1992. The art of persuasion. Political propaganda from Aeneas to Brutus. Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  1244.  
  1245. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1246.  
  1247. Chapter 6 “The Forum Augustum,” offers a synopsis of evidence for the statuary displayed in the forum, focusing on the figures of Aeneas and Romulus.
  1248.  
  1249. Find this resource:
  1250.  
  1251.  
  1252. Luce, T. J. 1990. Livy, Augustus, and the Forum Augustum. In Between republic and empire: Interpretations of Augustus and his principate. Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Mark Toher, 123–138. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1253.  
  1254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1255.  
  1256. This article explores the discrepancies between the careers of Rome’s generals as represented by their inscriptions in the Augustan Forum and in Livy’s history, and suggests that the statues in the forum represented an approved view of Roman history that was intended to justify Augustus’s own rather irregular career pattern. Reprinted in Edmondson 2009 (see Textbooks and Sourcebooks).
  1257.  
  1258. Find this resource:
  1259.  
  1260.  
  1261. Purcell, Nicholas. 1995. Roman Forum (Imperial Period). In Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae. Vol. 2, D–G. Edited by E. M. Steinby, 336–342. Rome: Quasar.
  1262.  
  1263. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1264.  
  1265. A concise overview of the transformation of the Roman Forum during the Augustan era.
  1266.  
  1267. Find this resource:
  1268.  
  1269.  
  1270. Rich, John. 1998. Augustus’s Parthian honors, the temple of Mars Ultor, and the arch in the Forum Romanum. Papers of the British School at Rome 66:71–128.
  1271.  
  1272. DOI: 10.1017/S0068246200004244Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1273.  
  1274. Argues that Augustus rejected the Senate’s offer of a new arch to commemorate his Parthian victory and instead accepted modifications to the existing Actian arch in the Roman Forum.
  1275.  
  1276. Find this resource:
  1277.  
  1278.  
  1279. Simpson, C. J. 1992. On the unreality of the Parthian arch. Latomus 51:835–842.
  1280.  
  1281. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1282.  
  1283. Revisits literary and numismatic evidence to question whether a Parthian arch was ever constructed in the Forum in 19 BCE.
  1284.  
  1285. Find this resource:
  1286.  
  1287.  
  1288. Palatine
  1289. The temple of Apollo on the Palatine was dedicated in 28 BCE as part of a complex that included a library and porticoes, where the Senate sometimes held meetings. Its dedication was celebrated by contemporary poet Propertius. Along with the House of Augustus, hut of Romulus, and the temples of Cybele and Victory, it formed part of a sequence of buildings on the Palatine Hill designed to associate Augustus with Rome’s early foundation and expansion, as shown in Wiseman 1984. Even fundamental aspects of the temple’s design are disputed, but some account of its architecture can be found in Zink 2008 and Zink and Piening 2009.
  1290.  
  1291. Wiseman, T. P. 1984. Cybele, Virgil, and Augustus. In Poetry and politics in the age of Augustus. Edited by David West and Tony Woodman, 117–128. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1292.  
  1293. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1294.  
  1295. Explores the topography of the Palatine, as transformed under Augustus. Reprinted in Edmondson 2009 chapter 12 (see Textbooks and Sourcebooks).
  1296.  
  1297. Find this resource:
  1298.  
  1299.  
  1300. Zink, Stephan. 2008. Reconstructing the Palatine temple of Apollo: A case study in early Augustan temple design. Journal of Roman Archaeology 21:47–63.
  1301.  
  1302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1303.  
  1304. Offers a critical assessment of earlier studies of the temple, along with an analysis of the extant remains, studied during 2005–07. Proposes a reconstruction of its ground-plan and façade. Contains detailed drawings and photographs of surviving architectural fragments.
  1305.  
  1306. Find this resource:
  1307.  
  1308.  
  1309. Zink, Stephan, and Heinrich Piening. 2009. Haec aurea templa: The Palatine temple of Apollo and its polychromy. Journal of Roman Archaeology 22:109–122.
  1310.  
  1311. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1312.  
  1313. Uses 3-dimensional computer modeling, architectural documentation, and ultraviolet spectrometry to reconstruct the color scheme on the temple, revealing that it had a brightly colored entablature and white columns with gilded capitals. Includes color illustrations of the reconstruction.
  1314.  
  1315. Find this resource:
  1316.  
  1317.  
  1318. Religion
  1319. Galinsky 2007 offers an introductory analysis of the main features of official religions in the Augustan era. Augustus was just as eager to present himself as the restorer of Rome’s traditional religious cults as he was to be regarded as the restorer of constitutional propriety, but it was a distinctive feature of his activities that innovations were represented as revivals of traditional practices. This is as true of his revivals of particular priesthoods such as the Arvals, the sources for which are detailed in Scheid 1998, as it was of his revivals of religious rites and festivals, such as the Centennial Games (sometimes called Secular Games). Feeney 1998 elucidates the ways in which the Augustan Centennial Games of 17 BCE drew upon Greek cult traditions, while Schnegg-Köhler 2002 provides a detailed edition of the inscribed dossier from which much of our information about the games is derived. For Horace’s hymn, commissioned especially for the games, see Horace. Likewise, the revival by Augustus of crossroad cults in the neighborhoods of Rome in 7 BCE, discussed in Lott 2004, transformed a traditional, rather troublesome cult, into one that helped to express the loyalty of slaves and freedmen toward Augustus, opening up participation in organizing state cult to the non-elite. Gradel 2002 explores another context for expressions of loyalty toward the emperor and argues that, although Augustus was not officially consecrated as a god at Rome until after his death, divine imagery in visual and literary culture was common, and he was worshipped in Italian towns as well as in the provinces. Scheid 1999 demonstrates that the timing of Augustus’s interventions in Rome’s religious life was partly dictated by his delayed election as pontifex maximus, which took place only in 12 BCE: before the death of the current incumbent Lepidus, who was hostile to him, Augustus avoided intervening in any religious affairs that were under the authority of the pontifex maximus. After he assumed the role in 12 BCE, however, Augustus extended his activities to other areas of religion.
  1320.  
  1321. Feeney, Denis. 1998. Literature and religion at Rome. Cultures, contexts, and beliefs. Roman Literature and Its Contexts. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1322.  
  1323. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1324.  
  1325. Chapter 1, “Belief,” includes an analysis of the place of Greek cult traditions within the celebration of the Centennial Games in 17 BCE and examines the fundamental ways in which the Augustan games were innovative. A short but incisive, sequence of pages that sums up many of the most important features of Augustan religion. Focuses on Horace’s hymn.
  1326.  
  1327. Find this resource:
  1328.  
  1329.  
  1330. Galinsky, Karl. 2007. Continuity and change: Religion in the Augustan semi-century. In A Companion to Roman Religion. Edited by Jörg Rüpke, 71–82. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  1331.  
  1332. DOI: 10.1002/9780470690970Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1333.  
  1334. An introductory essay that emphasizes how Augustus’s approach to religion, as to politics, combined tradition and innovation, continuity and change.
  1335.  
  1336. Find this resource:
  1337.  
  1338.  
  1339. Gradel, Ittai. 2002. Emperor worship and Roman religion. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1340.  
  1341. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1342.  
  1343. Sets the development of emperor worship into the framework of divine honors at Rome more widely. Chapter 5 focuses on Augustus. Counters the misleading claim of Dio that Augustus was not worshipped within Italy during his lifetime. Focuses on emperor worship as an expression of power relationships.
  1344.  
  1345. Find this resource:
  1346.  
  1347.  
  1348. Lott, J. Bert. 2004. The neighborhoods of Augustan Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1349.  
  1350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1351.  
  1352. After an analysis discussing the characteristics of pre-Augustan neighborhoods at Rome, offers a detailed examination of Augustus’s reforms to the urban structure of the capital, discussing how the crossroad cults integrated the non-elite into Augustan ideology. An appendix catalogues crossroad shrines.
  1353.  
  1354. Find this resource:
  1355.  
  1356.  
  1357. Scheid, John, ed. 1998. Commentarii Fratrum Arvalium qui supersunt. In Les copies épigraphiques des protocoles annuels de la confrérie arvale (21 av.-304 ap. J.-C.). Roma Antica 4. Paris and Rome: Ecole française de Rome and Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma.
  1358.  
  1359. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1360.  
  1361. Full edition and commentary of all of the inscribed fragments relating to the activities of the Arvals. Two fragments from Augustan era preserved, from 21/20 BCE and 14 CE, the latter of which provides a snapshot of the college at the end of Augustus’s life.
  1362.  
  1363. Find this resource:
  1364.  
  1365.  
  1366. Scheid, John. 1999. Auguste et le grand pontificat: Politique et droit sacré au début du Principat. Revue historique de droit français et étranger 77.2: 1–19.
  1367.  
  1368. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1369.  
  1370. Demonstrates that, before 12 BCE, Augustus targeted his interventions in religion at areas in which he was not obliged to consult his enemy Lepidus, who was still pontifex maximus up until his death; after Augustus was himself elected pontifex maximus, he extended the scope of his religious initiatives.
  1371.  
  1372. Find this resource:
  1373.  
  1374.  
  1375. Schnegg-Köhler, B. 2002. Die augusteischen Säkularspiele. Munich and Leipzig: Saur.
  1376.  
  1377. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1378.  
  1379. A new edition of the inscribed dossier relating to the celebration of the Centennial Games. Includes thematic chapters on the historical, mythical, and oracular origins of the celebrations; the topography of Rome; the prosopography of the priesthood of the Fifteen; Horace’s hymn; the commemorative coins; political and social context of the celebrations.
  1380.  
  1381. Find this resource:
  1382.  
  1383.  
  1384. Political Developments
  1385. Political narrative of the period of Augustus’s rise to power during the civil wars and triumvirate is complex, as key players created and broke alliances with each other, and all parties laid claim to resonant ideals such as “freedom.” The assassination of Julius Caesar, the subsequent civil wars and period of triumviral government are discussed by ancient authors (see Historical Sources), but it is difficult to avoid the teleological view that the emergence of Augustus as sole ruler of Rome was somehow predestined and that everything led inevitably to his victory over Antony and Cleopatra. The phenomenon of the Augustan Principate did not emerge fully developed at one moment. Arguably, we perceive an Augustan Principate with the benefit of hindsight; to contemporary observers, the process by which Augustus negotiated his place within Roman political life was a piecemeal one. Despite the tendency of modern scholars to refer to “the first settlement of 27 BCE” and “the second settlement of 23 BCE,” Augustus’s powers emerged through trial and error over some decades, as analyzed in Ferrary 2001 (cited under the Powers of Augustus and Augustan Political Discourse). Another problem lies in assessing how much opposition he met with and whether such opposition had an impact on his actions. In many respects, the fundamental political changes introduced by Augustus lay not so much in specific powers, but in the hugely important structural changes in power brought about by the development of an imperial court, the influence wielded by imperial women, and above all via the administrative posts carried out by imperial freedmen. Examination of these informal changes is just as important as trying to define exactly what constitutional powers Augustus possessed at any point. Augustus’s personal authority or charisma were as significant as the powers granted officially to him, and his long period in power appears largely to have been the result of successfully creating an Augustan ideology that could be presented as a consensus, focusing on ideas of peace, world-rule, and the restoration of constitutional government. New words emerged to express the emergence of a new political order, but Augustan political discourse also combined the traditional alongside the innovative in a way that was typical of the age. The history of the Augustan era arguably does not so much map the emergence of a new political system as the emergence of an exceptional individual, whose legacy was strong enough to pass on supreme power to a designated successor, Tiberius. He was the one who then faced the problem of how to consolidate and systematize the Principate.
  1386.  
  1387. Civil Wars and Triumvirate
  1388. Pelling 1996 gives a lucid account of the triumviral period, while Osgood 2006 analyzes literary responses to that tumultuous era and combines a chronological with a thematic approach to offer a rich overview of the impact of the political turmoil on society in the Roman empire. Syme 1958 and Millar 2000 trace different aspects of the early stages in Octavian’s career, while Welch 2012 re-establishes the political centrality of Sextus Pompey in this period. The constitutional workings of the triumvirate are considered in Millar 1973, while inscriptions published in Reynolds 1982 provide contemporary documentary evidence for the mechanisms of power and perceptions of the triumvirs from the Greek East. Gurval 1995 and Hjort Lange 2009 offer different perspectives on the ideological significance of Actium.
  1389.  
  1390. Gurval, R. A. 1995. Actium and Augustus. The politics and emotions of civil war. Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  1391.  
  1392. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1393.  
  1394. Via detailed readings of literary and archaeological evidence, examines changing responses to the battle of Actium in the Augustan era. A nuanced approach, demonstrating the shifting representation of the battle over time. Analyzes coinage, victory monuments in the Greek East, Temple of Palatine Apollo, Horace, Propertius, Virgil.
  1395.  
  1396. Find this resource:
  1397.  
  1398.  
  1399. Hjort Lange, C. 2009. Res Publica Constituta. In Actium, Apollo and the Accomplishment of the Triumviral Assignment. Impact of Empire vol.10. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.
  1400.  
  1401. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1402.  
  1403. Assesses Augustus’s rise to power. Challenges the view that Actium was represented as a foreign, not a civil, war. Argues that the 28/27 BCE settlement was the completion of the task entrusted to triumvirs of rebuilding the state. Takes issue with Gurval’s argument (1995) that links between Apollo and Actium were only developed later.
  1404.  
  1405. Find this resource:
  1406.  
  1407.  
  1408. Millar, Fergus. 1973. Triumvirate and principate. Journal of Roman Studies 63:50–67.
  1409.  
  1410. DOI: 10.2307/299165Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1411.  
  1412. Argues that the triumvirate was not purely a period of violent and arbitrary exercise of power, but that the triumvirs also showed respect for constitutional propriety by working through laws passed by the popular assembly. Reprinted in Millar 2002 (see Collections of Papers) and in Edmondson 2009 (see Textbooks and Sourcebooks).
  1413.  
  1414. Find this resource:
  1415.  
  1416.  
  1417. Millar, Fergus. 2000. The first revolution: Imperator Caesar, 36–28 BC. In La révolution romaine après Ronald Syme: bilans et perspectives: sept exposés suivis de discussions, Vandœuvres-Genève, 6–10 septembre 1999. Edited by Adalberto Giovannini, 1–38. Geneva, Switzerland: Fondation Hardt.
  1418.  
  1419. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1420.  
  1421. Analyzes how Octavian’s travels in the Greek East immediately after Actium show how he adopted a new role as sole ruler and developed mechanisms for wielding power, which were to remain characteristic of his later years too. Discusses the political context of the aureus minted in 28 BCE (see Rich and Williams 1999 cited under Numismatic Evidence).
  1422.  
  1423. Find this resource:
  1424.  
  1425.  
  1426. Osgood, Josiah. 2006. Caesar’s legacy: Civil war and the emergence of the Roman Empire. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1427.  
  1428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1429.  
  1430. Focuses on literary texts as a means of exploring personal responses to the tumultuous events of the triumviral period. Argues that a crucial step in Octavian’s rise to power was his responsiveness to the views of the non-elite in Rome, Italy, and the provinces.
  1431.  
  1432. Find this resource:
  1433.  
  1434.  
  1435. Pelling, Christopher. 1996. The triumviral period. In The Cambridge ancient history. Vol. X, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69. 2d ed. Edited by Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, and Andrew Lintott, 1–69. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1436.  
  1437. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1438.  
  1439. A political narrative of the period from 43 to 30 BCE, in bite-sized chunks.
  1440.  
  1441. Find this resource:
  1442.  
  1443.  
  1444. Reynolds, J. M. 1982. Aphrodisias and Rome. Journal of Roman Studies Monographs 1. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.
  1445.  
  1446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1447.  
  1448. Chapter 3, “The Triumviral Period” presents a dossier of nine Greek inscriptions from Aphrodisias in Caria (southwest Turkey) illuminating Octavian’s actions within the triumvirate during the 30s BCE.
  1449.  
  1450. Find this resource:
  1451.  
  1452.  
  1453. Syme, Ronald. 1958. Imperator Caesar: A study in nomenclature. Historia 7:172–188.
  1454.  
  1455. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1456.  
  1457. Explores why it was Octavian who emerged as sole ruler; how the young Caesar transformed his names as a means of securing and consolidating his grip on power and in marking himself apart from his peers. Reprinted in Edmondson 2009 (cited under Textbooks and Sourcebooks).
  1458.  
  1459. Find this resource:
  1460.  
  1461.  
  1462. Welch, Kathryn. 2012. Magnus Pius: Sextus Pompeius and the transformation of the Roman Republic. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.
  1463.  
  1464. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1465.  
  1466. Argues that Sextus Pompey was a key player along with Brutus and Cassius in leading opposition to the triumvirs, and focuses on the battle of Naulochus in 36 BCE rather than those at Philippi in 42 BCE as the turning-point in the fortunes of Antony and Octavian.
  1467.  
  1468. Find this resource:
  1469.  
  1470.  
  1471. The Powers of Augustus and Augustan Political Discourse
  1472. Discussions of whether or not Augustus claimed to have restored the Republic, exactly what constitutional powers were granted to him, and analyses of the settlements of 27 BCE and 23 BCE, have long dominated scholarship on Augustus, but alongside this narrowly legalistic approach, scholars have realized that exploring the creation of Augustan political ideology may be just as useful for understanding the position of Augustus within Roman political life. Lacey 1996 and Ferrary 2001 are representative of the more traditional approach, focusing on constitutional powers, while Eder 2005 focuses on the experimental and shifting roles played by Augustus within the state. Sumi 2005 offers an alternative view of Augustus, suggesting that he deliberately took control of public ceremonial to distinguish himself from the rest of society—to advocate the dynastic importance of his family, to represent his dominance at Rome as a continuation of the city’s history, and to negotiate a good relationship with the commoners of Rome. Hickson 1991 offers a detailed case study of how Augustus took control of one key ceremony, the triumph. Wallace-Hadrill 1982 tackles the problem of how to reconcile constitutional and ceremonial approaches, arguing that the ambivalence of the emperor’s position as “first among equals” lies at the heart of the issue. Lobur 2008 traces the way in which consensus became a key component of Augustan political ideology. Wallace-Hadrill 1990 takes the example of honorific arches in order to explore how a new political discourse emerged during this period. Strothmann 2000 explores how three interlinking concepts could combine to create a sense of unity within the disparate parts of the Roman empire.
  1473.  
  1474. Eder, W. 2005. Augustus and the power of tradition. In The Cambridge companion to the age of Augustus. Edited by Karl Galinsky, 13–32. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1475.  
  1476. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL0521807964Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1477.  
  1478. Offers a balanced assessment of the ways in which Augustus’s position within the state evolved over time, from 44 BCE onwards. Explores Augustus’s attitude to monarchy and how monarchical interpretations of his era became more prominent in historians writing in later times. First printed in Raaflaub and Toher 1990 (cited under Collections of Papers).
  1479.  
  1480. Find this resource:
  1481.  
  1482.  
  1483. Ferrary, Jean-Louis. 2001. A propos des pouvoirs d’Auguste. Cahiers du Centre G. Glotz 12:101–154.
  1484.  
  1485. DOI: 10.3406/ccgg.2001.1546Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1486.  
  1487. Detailed analysis of Augustus’s legal and constitutional powers at Rome and in the provinces. Offers an overview of past scholarship. Illustrates how Augustus’s powers gradually evolved over decades. Discusses the question of co-rulers and the succession. Translated by Jonathan Edmondson as “The Powers of Augustus” in Edmondson 2009 (cited under Textbooks and Sourcebooks).
  1488.  
  1489. Find this resource:
  1490.  
  1491.  
  1492. Hickson, F. V. 1991. Augustus triumphator: Manipulation of the triumphal theme in the political program of Augustus. Latomus 50:124–138.
  1493.  
  1494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1495.  
  1496. Demonstrates how Augustus manipulated sources of triumphal imagery, while at the same time refusing to celebrate an actual triumph after 29 BCE, gradually monopolizing ceremonies and visual imagery in art, architecture, and on coins. Further triumphs were restricted, being reserved only for Augustus’s potential successors.
  1497.  
  1498. Find this resource:
  1499.  
  1500.  
  1501. Lacey, W. K. 1996. Augustus and the Principate. The evolution of the system. ARCA: Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers and Monographs 35. Leeds, UK: Francis Cairns.
  1502.  
  1503. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1504.  
  1505. A collection of articles focusing on constitutional and political matters.
  1506.  
  1507. Find this resource:
  1508.  
  1509.  
  1510. Lobur, John Alexander. 2008. Consensus, concordia, and the formation of Roman imperial identity. New York: Routledge.
  1511.  
  1512. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1513.  
  1514. A study of imperial ideology, examining how consensus might be viewed as the foundation for Augustan politics. Distinctive for its focus on literary texts produced by Valerius Maximus, Seneca, and Velleius Paterculus.
  1515.  
  1516. Find this resource:
  1517.  
  1518.  
  1519. Strothmann, Meret. 2000. Augustus: Vater der res publica. Zur Funktion der drei Begriffe restitutio, saeculum, pater patriae im augusteischen Principat. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
  1520.  
  1521. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1522.  
  1523. A wide-ranging study of the themes of restoration and reconstruction in the metaphorical political and physical spheres; of the dawning of a new age (saeculum); and of the father of the fatherland (pater patriae) in Rome, Italy, and the provinces, exploring how these concepts generated unity within the Roman world.
  1524.  
  1525. Find this resource:
  1526.  
  1527.  
  1528. Sumi, Geoffrey F. 2005. Ceremony and power: Performing politics in Rome between republic and empire. Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  1529.  
  1530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1531.  
  1532. Chapter 9, “The Princeps as Performer,” considers how Augustus transformed traditional types of public performances and ceremonies into displays of his power at Rome. Illustrates the importance of Augustus’s showmanship for consolidating his leading position in Roman society and for establishing his successor.
  1533.  
  1534. Find this resource:
  1535.  
  1536.  
  1537. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1982. Civilis princeps: Between citizen and king. Journal of Roman Studies 72:32–48.
  1538.  
  1539. DOI: 10.2307/299114Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1540.  
  1541. Examines the fundamental ambivalence of an emperor’s position as both autocrat and citizen. Illustrates the divergent approaches of scholars who emphasize constitutional and ceremonial aspects respectively.
  1542.  
  1543. Find this resource:
  1544.  
  1545.  
  1546. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1990. Roman arches and Greek honors: The language of power at Rome. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 36:143–181.
  1547.  
  1548. DOI: 10.1017/S0068673500005265Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1549.  
  1550. Examines the way in which the procedure for setting up honorific arches and the language used to describe them changed in significant ways during the Augustan era.
  1551.  
  1552. Find this resource:
  1553.  
  1554.  
  1555. Opposition to Augustus
  1556. Given the longevity of Augustus’s rule, it can seem difficult to unearth signs of dissent and opposition to his regime. The historical context and significance of alleged conspiracies by named individuals remain obscure, as can be seen from the Rohr Vio 2000 survey of such conspiracies. Pettinger 2012 argues for a much stronger tradition of opposition to Augustus’s political regime. Raaflaub and Samons 1990 notes, however, that political opposition should not be limited to discussion of senatorial or equestrian opponents. The different interpretations of Stockton 1965, Swan 1967, and Daly 1978 show how notoriously difficult to assess is the character of the so-called conspiracy of Murena; not only are the identities of the conspirators unclear, but also the (alleged) conspiracy’s date (23/22 BCE), motivations, and outcome. Birley 2000 makes a strong case for disruption surrounding the consular elections of 19 BCE. For similar differences of opinion over the spolia opima controversy, see Livy.
  1557.  
  1558. Birley, A. 2000. Q. Lucretius Vespillo (cos. ord. 19). Chiron 30:711–748.
  1559.  
  1560. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1561.  
  1562. Argues that Vespillo’s appointment as consul in 19 BCE should be viewed in the context of the problematic ambitions and execution for conspiracy of Egnatius Rufus.
  1563.  
  1564. Find this resource:
  1565.  
  1566.  
  1567. Daly, L. 1978. Varro Murena, cos. 23 B.C. Historia 27:83–94.
  1568.  
  1569. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1570.  
  1571. Restates the case that a gap in the official inscribed calendar (fasti Capitolini) should be supplemented as referring to the removal from consular office of Varro Murena, who had been caught conspiring against Augustus.
  1572.  
  1573. Find this resource:
  1574.  
  1575.  
  1576. Pettinger, Andrew. 2012. The Republic in danger: Drusus Libo and the succession of Tiberius. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1577.  
  1578. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199601745.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1579.  
  1580. Although focusing on the conspiracy of Libo Drusus in 16 CE, much of this monograph explores the nature of opposition under Augustus, arguing that the regime was brutal and unpopular. Discusses the place of Agrippa Postumus in plans for the succession. Offers a new interpretation of Julia the Younger’s exile.
  1581.  
  1582. Find this resource:
  1583.  
  1584.  
  1585. Raaflaub, K. A. and L. J. Samons II. 1990. Opposition to Augustus. In Between republic and empire: Interpretations of Augustus and his principate. Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Mark Toher, 417–454. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1586.  
  1587. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1588.  
  1589. Takes a broader view of what constituted opposition to Augustus, so as to discuss “intellectual opposition” as well as conspiracies, but comes to the surprising conclusion that there was, on the whole, a distinct lack of opposition to Augustus.
  1590.  
  1591. Find this resource:
  1592.  
  1593.  
  1594. Rohr Vio, Francesca. 2000. Le voci del dissenso. Ottaviano Augusto e i suoi oppositori. Ricerche 12. Padova, Italy: Il Poligrafo.
  1595.  
  1596. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1597.  
  1598. A comprehensive survey of conspiracies by named individuals against Augustus, from 39 BCE to 8 CE. Considers episodes that were inaccurately distorted so as to appear to be conspiracies as well as other episodes whose political significance was deliberately hidden. Argues that opposition ended up strengthening Augustus’s position.
  1599.  
  1600. Find this resource:
  1601.  
  1602.  
  1603. Stockton, D. 1965. Primus and Murena. Historia 14:18–40.
  1604.  
  1605. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1606.  
  1607. Proposes that Primus was put on trial in the first half of 23 BCE and was defended by Aulus Terentius Varro Murena, who was at the time consul with Augustus; that Murena was then accused of conspiracy and was killed; and that the whole episode was a motivating factor for the “second settlement” of 23 BCE.
  1608.  
  1609. Find this resource:
  1610.  
  1611.  
  1612. Swan, Michael. 1967. The consular fasti of 23 BC and the conspiracy of Varro Murena. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 71:235–247.
  1613.  
  1614. DOI: 10.2307/310766Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1615.  
  1616. Dates the conspiracy to 22 BCE, and argues that Murena should not be identified as the consul in 23 BCE.
  1617.  
  1618. Find this resource:
  1619.  
  1620.  
  1621. Augustan Social Legislation
  1622. A series of laws was passed, some under Augustus’s direct sponsorship (as ‘Julian laws’), whose aim was to maintain (or perhaps better, regain after the depletions of the civil wars) the quality and quantity of the Roman citizen body and particularly to boost the governing classes. For an overview of this legislation, see Treggiari 1996. The Julian laws of 18 BCE, on which see Treggiari 1991, restricted marriages between different social orders and imposed severe penalties for adultery. Brunt 1971 summarizes the “Julian law on marrying categories” (lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus), intended to encourage marriage and the production of legitimate children, and, as Wallace-Hadrill 1981 contends, to control the transmission of wealth through inheritance among Rome’s upper classes. Galinsky 1981 proposes a different interpretation of the laws as being connected with consolidating Rome’s moral right to rule. The marriage law was unpopular and was later modified in 9 CE by the Papian Poppaean law, which closed loopholes and mitigated some of the restrictions. The “Julian law on restraining adulteries” (lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis) made adultery a criminal offence for the first time and represented a startling intervention into Roman domestic life, as discussed in Cohen 1991. The date of introduction is unknown for the Julian Law on Theatres (lex Julia theatralis), the evidence for which is painstakingly pieced together in Rawson 1987. It governed seating in theatres, with different social groups being assigned to different parts of the seating auditorium. The Fufian Caninian law (lex Fufia Caninia) of 2 BCE and later the Aelian Sentinan law (lex Aelia Sentina) of 4 CE, set into historical context in Gardner 1993, imposed restrictions on the manumission of freed slaves, restricting the number of slaves whom any individual master could set free in his will, and imposing quality controls on slaves freed during a master’s lifetime. Primary documentation on the laws can be found in the Cooley 2013 sourcebook, Section S (see Textbooks and Sourcebooks).
  1623.  
  1624. Brunt, P. A. 1971. Italian manpower: 225 B.C.–A.D. 14. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1625.  
  1626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1627.  
  1628. Appendix 9, “The Augustan Marriage Laws,” offers an overview of the legislation, discussing whether Augustus had already tried to enact a similar law in the early 20s BCE. Assesses the legislation’s demographic impact, the content of the law, and its place within Roman social legislation more widely.
  1629.  
  1630. Find this resource:
  1631.  
  1632.  
  1633. Cohen, David. 1991. The Augustan law on adultery: The social and cultural context. In The family in Italy from antiquity to the present. Edited by David I. Kertzer and Richard P. Saller, 109–126. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale Univ. Press.
  1634.  
  1635. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1636.  
  1637. On attitudes toward female sexuality implicit in the adultery laws.
  1638.  
  1639. Find this resource:
  1640.  
  1641.  
  1642. Galinsky, Karl. 1981. Augustus’s legislation on morals and marriage. Philologus 125:126–144.
  1643.  
  1644. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1645.  
  1646. Argues that Augustus’s aims were not just demographic and that the legislation was particularly targeted at the moral regeneration of the upper classes. Maintains that this was related to an ethical justification for Roman imperialism, based on the ideal of Roman moral superiority.
  1647.  
  1648. Find this resource:
  1649.  
  1650.  
  1651. Gardner, Jane. 1993. Being a Roman citizen. London: Routledge.
  1652.  
  1653. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1654.  
  1655. Chapter 2 includes discussion of how the Augustan laws on manumission marked a turning point in legislation governing the freeing of slaves.
  1656.  
  1657. Find this resource:
  1658.  
  1659.  
  1660. Rawson, Elizabeth. 1987. Discrimina ordinum: The Lex Julia Theatralis. Papers of the British School at Rome 55:83–114.
  1661.  
  1662. DOI: 10.1017/S0068246200008965Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1663.  
  1664. Analyzes evidence for regulations governing the seating of different social groups (such as slaves, women, children, and foreigners) at public shows. Suggests that the Augustan legislation extended to seating in amphitheaters as well as theaters. Reprinted in E. Rawson, 1991. Roman Culture and Society: Collected Papers Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp.508–545.
  1665.  
  1666. Find this resource:
  1667.  
  1668.  
  1669. Treggiari, Susan. 1991. Roman marriage: Iusti coniuges from the time of Cicero to the time of Ulpian. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1670.  
  1671. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1672.  
  1673. The standard work on all aspects of Roman marriage, it includes extensive discussion of the evidence and controversies surrounding the Augustan laws of 18 BCE on marriage and adultery.
  1674.  
  1675. Find this resource:
  1676.  
  1677.  
  1678. Treggiari, Susan. 1996. Social status and social legislation. In The Cambridge ancient history. Vol. X, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69. 2d ed. Edited by Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, and Andrew Lintott, 873–904. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1679.  
  1680. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1681.  
  1682. Introductory survey, outlining the main features of Augustus’s legislation (pp. 886–897).
  1683.  
  1684. Find this resource:
  1685.  
  1686.  
  1687. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1981. Family and inheritance in the Augustan marriage laws. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 27:58–80.
  1688.  
  1689. DOI: 10.1017/S0068673500004326Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1690.  
  1691. Argues that Augustus’s laws of 18 BCE were concerned to stabilize the transmission of property among Rome’s elite by ensuring a good supply of legitimate children. Reprinted in Edmondson 2009 (see Textbooks and Sourcebooks).
  1692.  
  1693. Find this resource:
  1694.  
  1695.  
  1696. Roman Upper Class Society
  1697. The composition of the ruling elite at Rome underwent a fundamental shift during the age of Augustus. Many of the traditional senatorial families of the Republic disappeared during the civil wars, and new families were promoted to fill their place, as described in Syme 1986 and Nitschke 2006. In particular, elite families from the towns of Italy and from the provinces became more prominent in Roman politics, as traced in the prosopographical studies Schäfer 2000 and Wiseman 1971. The increasing role of Italian municipal elites in the politics of Rome is one of the phenomena tracked in Syme 1939 (cited under General Overviews). The phenomenon of “new men” entering the senate is exhaustively studied in Wiseman 1971. At the same time, as Talbert 1996 shows, changes to senatorial procedure and the weeding-out of members from the senate via censuses altered the amount of power wielded by the senate as a body. This was counterbalanced by increasing the specific functions of equestrian officials in public life. Eck 1984 and Nicolet 1984, in Millar and Segal 1984 (see Collections of Papers), develop aspects of this picture in more detail, illustrating clearly how, on the one hand, individual senators were marginalized in the city of Rome, while new prominence was given to the equestrian order.
  1698.  
  1699. Eck, Werner. 1984. Senatorial self-representation: Developments in the Augustan period. In Caesar Augustus: Seven aspects. Edited by Fergus Millar and Erich Segal, 129–167. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1700.  
  1701. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1702.  
  1703. Argues that senators were increasingly excluded from traditional forms of publicly displaying their status in the capital in the form of triumphs and their commemoration, funerary monuments, and the giving of games, and that inscriptions listing their careers rose in popularity instead.
  1704.  
  1705. Find this resource:
  1706.  
  1707.  
  1708. Nicolet, Claude. 1984. Augustus, government, and the propertied classes. In Caesar Augustus: Seven aspects. Edited by Fergus Millar and Erich Segal, 89–128. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1709.  
  1710. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1711.  
  1712. Explores how both the senatorial and equestrian classes were redefined under Augustus, with an emphasis on wealth and moral worthiness.
  1713.  
  1714. Find this resource:
  1715.  
  1716.  
  1717. Nitschke, J. 2006. Dignitas und auctoritas. In Der römische Senat und Augustus. Prosopographie Überlegungen zur Karriere der Konsuln und Statthalter 30 v. Chr. Bis 14 n. Chr. 2d ed. Munich: Herbert Utz.
  1718.  
  1719. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1720.  
  1721. Examines how career patterns and backgrounds of leading senators changed under Augustus, looking at the characteristics of various political offices and priesthoods. Includes a prosopographical catalogue.
  1722.  
  1723. Find this resource:
  1724.  
  1725.  
  1726. Schäfer, Nadja. 2000. Die Einbeziehung der Provinzialen in den Reichsdienst in augusteischer Zeit. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
  1727.  
  1728. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1729.  
  1730. Analysis of senators and equestrians of provincial origin, including a prosopographical catalogue of over 40 individuals.
  1731.  
  1732. Find this resource:
  1733.  
  1734.  
  1735. Syme, Ronald. 1986. The Augustan aristocracy. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1736.  
  1737. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1738.  
  1739. A series of detailed prosopographical studies analyzing the fate of the ruling families at Rome under Augustus, from the late Republic down to Neronian times.
  1740.  
  1741. Find this resource:
  1742.  
  1743.  
  1744. Talbert, Richard. 1996. The senate and senatorial and equestrian posts. In The Cambridge ancient history. Vol. X, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69. 2d ed. Edited by Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, and Andrew Lintott, 324–343. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1745.  
  1746. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521264303Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1747.  
  1748. Summarizes the important changes made to the composition and functions of the senatorial and equestrian orders. Augustus’s dealings with the senate are shown to have combined a desire to increase the body’s dignity and actions to curtail its power. Explores the new roles played by equestrians in public administration.
  1749.  
  1750. Find this resource:
  1751.  
  1752.  
  1753. Wiseman, T. P. 1971. New men in the Roman Senate 139 B.C.–A.D. 14. London: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1754.  
  1755. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1756.  
  1757. Detailed study of the “new men” entering the Roman senate (those of equestrian or municipal origin), extending to the end of Augustus’s lifetime. Lists prosopographical data pertaining to new entrants to the senate.
  1758.  
  1759. Find this resource:
  1760.  
  1761.  
  1762. The Imperial Family
  1763. One of the most fundamental structural changes that took place in Roman society during the Augustan era was the emergence of the imperial family as the leading family at Rome. Augustus was not just an autocrat who worked alongside traditional institutions within the Roman state, he was also an autocrat who increasingly expected to choose his successor. Since Augustus lacked a son, the women of his family took on significance as the conduits of dynastic power, as Corbier 1995 argues. Millar 1993 demonstrates a contemporary perspective on the structure and political importance of this new family unit as found in Ovid’s poetry. Augustus’s family became central to the welfare of the state, and the ultimate accolade of granting to Augustus the title “father of the fatherland” reflected the potential for family concepts to be used as a means of articulating Augustus’s relationship to the state. This is one of the important themes explored in Severy 2003, which demonstrates how the gradual transformation of Augustus’s family into an instrument of state smoothed the way to the passing on of Augustus’s personal power to a successor. Livia’s two sons, Tiberius and Drusus, played an important role in military action on Augustus’s behalf, while Augustus’s daughter Julia was married off in turn to three key players in the dynastic game, namely Augustus’s nephew Marcellus, his right-hand man Agrippa, on whom see Roddaz 1984, and Tiberius. As Hurlet 1997 examines, members of Augustus’s family were not just groomed as potential heirs to his position, but shared real powers during his lifetime and gained valuable experience in public political life and military campaigning. Pollini 1987 studies the contribution of portraiture to the creation of dynastic expectations in relation to images of Gaius and Lucius Caesar. Scharf 2001 makes a case for regarding Agrippa Postumus as initially part of Augustus’s dynastic plans, illustrating how Augustus’s dynastic plans shifted over time, as Levick 1999 also reveals in the case of Tiberius. Gradually, Augustus’s family was regarded as a dominant role model for the rest of society, which made the disgrace of the two Julias all the more painful. Their exile for adultery in 2 BCE and 8 CE resulted in a hostile historical tradition toward them, and the pattern was set from then on, that imperial women would be attacked for sexual misdemeanors, making it particularly difficult to separate out stereotype from reality.
  1764.  
  1765. Corbier, Mireille. 1995. Male power and legitimacy through women: The domus Augusta under the Julio Claudians. In Women in antiquity: New assessments. Edited by Richard Hawley and Barbara Levick, 178–193. London and New York: Routledge.
  1766.  
  1767. DOI: 10.4324/9780203428559Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1768.  
  1769. Examines how Augustus’s lack of direct male heirs resulted in the creation of a new type of family unit (which came to be known as the domus Augusta, or Augustan household), whereby women served as a conduit by which indirect male heirs might be legitimized via adoption and marriage.
  1770.  
  1771. Find this resource:
  1772.  
  1773.  
  1774. Hurlet, Frédéric. 1997. Les collègues du prince sous Auguste et Tibère: de la légalité républicaine à la légitimité dynastique. Rome: Collection de l’École française de Rome 227.
  1775.  
  1776. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1777.  
  1778. Uses texts and archaeology to explore the way in which expectations about dynastic succession were created under Augustus.
  1779.  
  1780. Find this resource:
  1781.  
  1782.  
  1783. Levick, Barbara. 1999. Tiberius the politician. revised ed. London: Routledge.
  1784.  
  1785. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1786.  
  1787. A biography of Tiberius that extends well beyond the Augustan era but includes an examination of Tiberius’ accession, and the way in which Tiberius tried to redefine his role in the state.
  1788.  
  1789. Find this resource:
  1790.  
  1791.  
  1792. Millar, Fergus. 1993. Ovid and the domus Augusta: Rome seen from Tomoi. Journal of Roman Studies 83:1–17.
  1793.  
  1794. DOI: 10.2307/300975Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1795.  
  1796. Illustrates how Ovid should be regarded as an archetypal “Augustan” poet, his exile poetry acting almost as a litmus paper tracking the shift in official ideology that heralded the invention of the Augustan household (domus Augusta) that helped to secure Tiberius’ succession. Revised version published in Millar 2002 (see Collections of Papers).
  1797.  
  1798. Find this resource:
  1799.  
  1800.  
  1801. Pollini, John. 1987. The portraiture of Gaius and Lucius Caesar. New York: Fordham Univ. Press.
  1802.  
  1803. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1804.  
  1805. A catalogue of portraits identified as depicting Augustus’s adopted sons and heirs. Identifies five portraits for Gaius and three for Lucius; presents discussion of methodological problems involved in typological approaches.
  1806.  
  1807. Find this resource:
  1808.  
  1809.  
  1810. Roddaz, J.-M. 1984. Marcus Agrippa. Bibliothèque des Écoles Françaises d’Athènes et de Rome, 253. Rome: École Française de Rome.
  1811.  
  1812. DOI: 10.3406/befar.1984.1220Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1813.  
  1814. Detailed study of the place of Agrippa within the Augustan regime, his military and political career, and building projects.
  1815.  
  1816. Find this resource:
  1817.  
  1818.  
  1819. Scharf, Ralf. 2001. Agrippa Postumus. Splitter einer historischen Figur. Landauer Universitätsschriften Geschichte 6. Landau, Germany: Knecht.
  1820.  
  1821. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1822.  
  1823. Gathers together all the evidence for Agrippa Postumus, using epigraphic and numismatic sources to probe the biases inherent in literary representations. Argues that he was, from early on, part of Augustus’s dynastic plans, and analyzes how he became a marginalized figure. An appendix discusses his portraiture.
  1824.  
  1825. Find this resource:
  1826.  
  1827.  
  1828. Severy, Beth. 2003. Augustus and the family at the birth of the Roman Empire. New York and London: Routledge.
  1829.  
  1830. DOI: 10.4324/9780203211434Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1831.  
  1832. Shows how members of Augustus’s family were central to many aspects of public life, including government and administration, military campaigning, and religion. Continues the discussion about the emergence of the domus Augusta and its significance for the succession.
  1833.  
  1834. Find this resource:
  1835.  
  1836.  
  1837. Imperial Women
  1838. Several recent monographs and articles have explored the role of imperial women in public and political life. Milnor 2005 offers insights into the juxtaposition of domestic ideals and public roles found among Augustus’s female relatives. Barrett 2002 and Bartman 1999 discuss in detail Augustus’s wife, Livia. Purcell 1986 analyzes the centrality of Livia as a role model for other women at Rome. Bartman 1999 and Wood 2001 discuss the new phenomenon represented by the development of public portraiture of imperial women; Wood 2001 who extends the study beyond Livia to include Octavia and Julia the Elder, and continues into the Julio-Claudian period. Fantham 2006 offers a biography of Augustus’s daughter Julia. The possible political reasons for the exile of both Julias, Elder and Younger, are analyzed in Syme 1974 and Levick 1976. On the exile of the younger Julia, see also Pettinger 2012 (cited under Political Developments: Opposition to Augustus).
  1839.  
  1840. Barrett, Anthony A. 2002. Livia: First Lady of Imperial Rome. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale Univ. Press.
  1841.  
  1842. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1843.  
  1844. A biographical treatment of the life of Livia in Part One, followed by thematic studies in Part Two. These include chapters on her role as Augustus’s wife and possible sources of her wealth. Includes 19 appendices dealing with detailed problems such as Livia’s year of birth.
  1845.  
  1846. Find this resource:
  1847.  
  1848.  
  1849. Bartman, Elizabeth. 1999. Portraits of Livia: Imaging the imperial woman in Augustan Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1850.  
  1851. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1852.  
  1853. Argues boldly that Livia was actively involved in creating her own public image. Considers the significance of hairstyle, dress, ornament, and body language. Discusses how to identify portraits as representing Livia. Catalogues over 110 portraits and lists epigraphic evidence. Illustrates marble busts, statues, and gems.
  1854.  
  1855. Find this resource:
  1856.  
  1857.  
  1858. Fantham, Elaine. 2006. Julia Augusti, the emperor’s daughter. Women of the Ancient World. London and New York: Routledge.
  1859.  
  1860. DOI: 10.4324/9780203392423Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1861.  
  1862. Biography of Julia the Elder, with an introduction discussing wives and daughters in the late Republic. Two appendixes of source material; two family trees. Examines the dynastic struggles that surrounded Julia and her children. Delves behind the anti-Julia rhetoric of hostile sources, with a reassessment of later representations in modern scholarship.
  1863.  
  1864. Find this resource:
  1865.  
  1866.  
  1867. Levick, Barbara. 1976. The fall of Julia the Younger. Latomus 35:301–339.
  1868.  
  1869. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1870.  
  1871. Assesses the circumstances that led to the exile in 8 CE of Augustus’s granddaughter Julia.
  1872.  
  1873. Find this resource:
  1874.  
  1875.  
  1876. Milnor, Kristina. 2005. Gender, domesticity, and the age of Augustus: Inventing private life. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1877.  
  1878. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1879.  
  1880. Engages in close reading of literary texts to explore the new prominence played by imperial women in political life, looking at the relationship between private morality and political life, as represented by female domesticity.
  1881.  
  1882. Find this resource:
  1883.  
  1884.  
  1885. Purcell, Nicholas. 1986. Livia and the womanhood of Rome. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 32:78–105.
  1886.  
  1887. DOI: 10.1017/S0068673500004831Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1888.  
  1889. One of the earliest and most influential studies of Augustan imperial women, this article offers an analysis of Livia’s prominent public position as princeps femina (leading woman) at Rome, and further claims that the married women of Rome in effect formed a distinctive public body. Reprinted in Edmondson 2009 (see Textbooks and Sourcebooks).
  1890.  
  1891. Find this resource:
  1892.  
  1893.  
  1894. Syme, Ronald. 1974. The crisis of 2 B.C. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch-Historische Klasse. Sitzungsberichte 3–34.
  1895.  
  1896. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1897.  
  1898. Explores the political context of 2 BCE to suggest that Julia’s exile may not have been solely prompted by her wanton behavior. Reprinted in Syme R. 1984. Roman Papers. Vol. 3, edited by Anthony Birley, 912–936. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  1899.  
  1900. Find this resource:
  1901.  
  1902.  
  1903. Wood, Susan E. 2001. Imperial women: A study in public images, 40 BC–AD 68. 2d ed. Mnemosyne supp. 194. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1904.  
  1905. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1906.  
  1907. A beautifully illustrated study of the portraiture of imperial women, looking at statues, busts, gems, and coins, and assessing their ideological significance. Octavia, Julia, and Livia all receive detailed analysis.
  1908.  
  1909. Find this resource:
  1910.  
  1911.  
  1912. Finances
  1913. As the Res gestae makes clear, Augustus had access to unprecedented sums of money with which he could fund buildings, donations, and games. Rickman 1980 studies the supply of grain to the city of Rome and discusses Augustus’s reform of the supply and distribution of grain. Another financial institution whose administration and personnel were overhauled during this period was the state treasury, on which see Corbier 1974. This gave Augustus enormous control over public finances, via his freedmen. The importance of finances to his rise to power and continuing rule has not been much analyzed, with the notable exception of Speidel 2000 for the civil war period.
  1914.  
  1915. Corbier, Mireille. 1974. L’aerarium Saturni et l’aerarium militare. Administration et prosopographie sénatoriale. Rome: Collection de l’École française de Rome 24.
  1916.  
  1917. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1918.  
  1919. This wide-ranging study includes discussion of the administrative development of the treasuries during the Augustan era and a detailed prosopographical analysis of their officials.
  1920.  
  1921. Find this resource:
  1922.  
  1923.  
  1924. Rickman, Geoffrey. 1980. The corn supply of Ancient Rome. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1925.  
  1926. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1927.  
  1928. Analysis of the food supply to the city of Rome, vital to the success and stability of that city and its political regimes. Includes discussion of Augustus’s efforts to reform and reorganize the supply and distribution of grain.
  1929.  
  1930. Find this resource:
  1931.  
  1932.  
  1933. Speidel, Michael Alexander. 2000. Geld und Macht. Die Neuordnung des staatlichen Finanzwesens unter Augustus. In La révolution romaine après Ronald Syme: bilans et perspectives: sept exposés suivis de discussions, Vandœuvres-Genève, 6–10 septembre 1999. Edited by Adalberto Giovannini, 113–166. Geneva, Switzerland: Fondation Hardt.
  1934.  
  1935. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1936.  
  1937. Argues that Octavian gained experience in raising and spending cash during the civil wars, which was to prove invaluable in later years.
  1938.  
  1939. Find this resource:
  1940.  
  1941.  
  1942. Military
  1943. Augustus’s rise to power was the result of his victories in the civil wars (see Civil Wars and Triumvirate). In the aftermath of the defeat of Antony at Actium, he constructed an impressive victory monument at the location of his campsite, the remains of which are published in Murray and Petsas 1989 and in Zachos 2003, and he founded the victory-city of Nicopolis to mark the site of the naval battle. Purcell 1987 examines the political, social, cultural, and economic implications of this foundation. Augustus rewarded the veterans who had fought for him by settling them in colonies, to retain their ties of loyalty toward him. Keppie 1983 examines in details his veteran colonies in Italy. Once his power had become more established, Augustus proceeded to reform the terms of service of soldiers in the various parts of the Roman army (legionaries, auxiliaries, and praetorians), in effect creating a professional Roman army for the first time. He made the legions permanent entities and set up a military treasury to fund retirement pensions for veterans. The Roman navy was also developed during this period. These military reforms are clearly summarized in Keppie 1998, and in Bowman, et al. 1996 (cited under General Overviews). The most notorious military reverse suffered by Augustus was the massacre of three legions led by Varus in Germany in 9 CE. Schlüter 1999 reports the full extent of the massacre, uncovered by excavations in the area of Kalkriese near Osnabrück; but Schnurbein 2003, a study of Roman settlements on the east bank of the Rhine, offers new evidence relating to a town at Waldgrimes, establishing that the period before Varus’s massacre should be regarded as one in which Roman authority and urbanism spread beyond the area subsequently considered to be the limits of Roman power. Despite this reverse in Germany, by 14 CE, the claim was made in the heading of the Res Gestae that Augustus’s empire extended across the whole world, and an image as world conqueror was an important part of representations of Augustus both during and after his lifetime; the Augustan era as a whole may be characterized for its development of a distinctive ideology and discourse of imperial power.
  1944.  
  1945. Keppie, Lawrence. 1983. Colonisation and veteran settlement in Italy: 47–14 B.C. London: British School at Rome.
  1946.  
  1947. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1948.  
  1949. Largely epigraphic in approach, assesses the evidence for when individual colonies in Italy were founded; with which groups of veterans they should be associated; the impact of veterans on the settlements. A detailed analysis of one of the most disruptive economic and social phenomena within Italy.
  1950.  
  1951. Find this resource:
  1952.  
  1953.  
  1954. Keppie, Lawrence. 1998. The making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire. London: Routledge.
  1955.  
  1956. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1957.  
  1958. Chapter 6 offers a clear outline of the important changes made by Augustus to create a professional Roman army, to create permanent stations for the navy, and to establish himself as supreme military commander to whom all soldiers ultimately owed their loyalty. Originally published in 1984.
  1959.  
  1960. Find this resource:
  1961.  
  1962.  
  1963. Murray, William M., and Photios M. Petsas. 1989. Octavian’s campsite memorial for the Actian War. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 79.4: 1–172.
  1964.  
  1965. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1966.  
  1967. Publishes the results of a survey held in 1986 at the campsite memorial. Focus is on sockets where bronze rams from Antony’s ships were fitted into the monument; these reveal the impressive size of the ships that fought at Actium. Reviews accounts of the battle and ancient sources on the campsite memorial.
  1968.  
  1969. Find this resource:
  1970.  
  1971.  
  1972. Purcell, Nicholas. 1987. The Nicopolitan synoecism and Roman urban policy. In Nikopolis 1: praktika tou prōtou Diethnous Symposiou gia tē Nikopolē (23–29 Septemvriou 1984). Edited by Euangelos K. Chrysos, 71–90. Preveza, Greece: Dēmos Prevezas.
  1973.  
  1974. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1975.  
  1976. Discusses the impact of the creation of Nicopolis by synoecism of neighboring city-states on the region of northwestern Greece.
  1977.  
  1978. Find this resource:
  1979.  
  1980.  
  1981. Schlüter, Wolfgang. 1999. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest: Archaeological research at Kalkriese near Osnabrück. In Special Issue: Roman Germany: Studies in cultural interaction. Edited by R. J. A. Wilson and J. D. Creighton, 125–159. Journal of Roman Archaeology supp. 32.
  1982.  
  1983. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1984.  
  1985. Presents evidence from Kalkriese indicating the scale of disaster to have overcome Varus’s legions, with many metal finds, military equipment, everyday objects, and human skulls with battle wounds.
  1986.  
  1987. Find this resource:
  1988.  
  1989.  
  1990. Schnurbein, S. von. 2003. Augustus in Germania and his new ‘town’ at Waldgrimes East of the Rhine. Journal of Roman Archaeology 16:93–107.
  1991.  
  1992. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1993.  
  1994. New archaeological discoveries illuminate Roman activities in Germany before the Varus disaster, revealing a town developed in the Augustan period at Waldgrimes to the east of the Rhine, complete with a bronze equestrian statue of Augustus in its forum. Summarizes other evidence for Roman settlements and military bases in the region.
  1995.  
  1996. Find this resource:
  1997.  
  1998.  
  1999. Zachos, K. L. 2003. The tropaeum of the sea-battle of Actium at Nikopolis: Interim report. Journal of Roman Archaeology 16:65–92.
  2000.  
  2001. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2002.  
  2003. Publishes new material from the monumental trophy discovered since 1995: an open-air sanctuary with a stoa on three sides; large terraced platform displaying the bronze rams from the captured ships; monumental dedicatory inscription to Neptune and Mars; marble fragments from the altar frieze, with a triumphal procession and possible Amazonomachy.
  2004.  
  2005. Find this resource:
  2006.  
  2007.  
  2008. Ideology of Imperial Power
  2009. Military conquest and pacification remained important priorities in this period and were an important source of prestige for Augustus himself, as Rich 2003 illustrates. Gruen 1996 tracks the geographical expansion of Rome’s empire under Augustus. Nicolet 1991 (cited under General Overviews) examines the transformation of geographical knowledge that was crucial to Roman perceptions that theirs was a world empire. This shift in imperial ambition was accompanied by the development of a new discourse. Richardson 2008 explores how the idea of the Roman empire as a territorial entity emerged during this period, and how the new definition of empire was dependent on the political transformation of military and magisterial authority at Rome.
  2010.  
  2011. Gruen, Erich S. 1996. The expansion of the empire under Augustus. In The Cambridge ancient history. Vol. X, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69. 2d ed. Edited by Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, and Andrew Lintott, 147–197. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2012.  
  2013. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521264303Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2014.  
  2015. Surveys the campaigns fought in different parts of the world under Augustus, by region. Includes an analysis of imperial ideology and an evaluation of whether or not Augustus can be regarded as having an imperial policy.
  2016.  
  2017. Find this resource:
  2018.  
  2019.  
  2020. Rich, John W. 2003. Augustus, war and peace. In The representation and perception of Roman imperial power: Proceedings of the Third Workshop of the International Network, Impact of Empire. Edited by L. de Blois, P. P. M. Erdkamp, O. J. Hekster, G. de Kleijn-Eijkelestam, and S. T. A. M. Mols, 329–357. Netherlands Institute in Rome, 20–23 March 2002. Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben.
  2021.  
  2022. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2023.  
  2024. Shows how military victories were important themes in visual media representing Augustus and in contemporary literature. Argues that the significance of some victories was sometimes exaggerated and suggests that, rather than trying to trace a consistent policy on Augustus’s part, his military activities instead reflected the need to train a potential successor. Reprinted in Edmondson 2009 (see Textbooks and Sourcebooks).
  2025.  
  2026. Find this resource:
  2027.  
  2028.  
  2029. Richardson, John. 2008. The language of empire. Rome and the idea of empire from the third century BC to the second century AD. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2030.  
  2031. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511575341Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2032.  
  2033. Within a wider study of changing ideas of empire at Rome, chapter 4 focuses on the Augustan empire. Presents a detailed analysis of changes in meaning in literary texts of the Latin words imperium and provincia, which only under Augustus came to mean “empire” and “province” in a territorial sense.
  2034.  
  2035. Find this resource:
  2036.  
  2037.  
  2038. Ruling the Provinces
  2039. In 27 BCE, the structure of Roman provincial government was overhauled, with some provinces becoming imperial provinces ruled by governors directly nominated by the emperor as his deputies (legates), and others becoming public provinces, whose governors (proconsuls) were selected by lot. Provinces were not permanently assigned to one category or the other, but the identity of their governor at any particular period depended on political and military judgment. On this reorganization, see Millar 1966 and Millar 1989. Brunt 1961 considers the extent to which provincial government improved during the imperial period. Chapters of thematic relevance (notably “Provincial Administration and Taxation” by A.K. Bowman) and province-by-province surveys may be found in Bowman, et al. 1996 (cited under General Overviews). Wells 1972, Capponi 2005, and Spawforth 2012 offer more extensive analyses of the impact of the Augustan regime on particular provinces, while Bowersock 1965 traces the role of personal connections between Romans and the elite of the Greek East in integrating the region into the empire.
  2040.  
  2041. Bowersock, G. W. 1965. Augustus and the Greek World. Oxford: Clarendon.
  2042.  
  2043. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2044.  
  2045. Illustrates how individuals, Romans in the Greek East and Greeks at Rome, whether public officials, rulers, or intellectuals, played a role in integrating the Greek East into the Roman Empire. An appendix lists cults of Roman magistrates in the Greek world.
  2046.  
  2047. Find this resource:
  2048.  
  2049.  
  2050. Brunt, P. A. 1961. Charges of provincial maladministration under the early Principate. Historia 10.2: 189–223.
  2051.  
  2052. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2053.  
  2054. Challenges the clear contrast, claimed by Tacitus, between provincial maladministration in the late Republic and better governance under the Principate. Argues that improvements under Augustus have been exaggerated by modern scholars.
  2055.  
  2056. Find this resource:
  2057.  
  2058.  
  2059. Capponi, Livia. 2005. Augustan Egypt: The creation of a Roman province. London and New York: Routledge.
  2060.  
  2061. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2062.  
  2063. Focusing on papyrological evidence, assesses the changes made to the administration of Egypt when it was taken over by Augustus after the defeat of Cleopatra. Examines systems of justice, taxation, liturgies, and landholding. Can be used as a paradigm for provincial administration more widely, for continuity and change, and for gradual transformation.
  2064.  
  2065. Find this resource:
  2066.  
  2067.  
  2068. Millar, Fergus. 1966. The emperor, the senate, and the provinces. Journal of Roman Studies 56:156–166.
  2069.  
  2070. DOI: 10.2307/300142Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2071.  
  2072. Challenges the view that imperial and public provinces were governed in fundamentally different ways. Offers a model for how the emperor might intervene in provincial administration, and examines provincials’ perceptions of Roman power. Largely focused on the Augustan period. Reprinted in Millar 2002 (see Collections of Papers).
  2073.  
  2074. Find this resource:
  2075.  
  2076.  
  2077. Millar, Fergus. 1989. “Senatorial” provinces: An institutionalized ghost. Ancient World 20:93–97.
  2078.  
  2079. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2080.  
  2081. Demonstrates that the common term “senatorial” provinces is a misleading modern invention, and should be replaced by “public” provinces or “provinces of the Roman people,” in order to reflect the way in which the Roman people retained significance as a sovereign body. Reprinted in Millar 2002 (see Collections of Papers).
  2082.  
  2083. Find this resource:
  2084.  
  2085.  
  2086. Spawforth, A. J. S. 2012. Greece and the Augustan cultural revolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2087.  
  2088. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2089.  
  2090. Augustan era viewed as a turning point for the development of the province, with the evolution of a version of Hellenism derived from classical Athens and Sparta that could be acceptable to Roman sensibilities. Illustrates how the Greek elite collaborated with Roman power.
  2091.  
  2092. Find this resource:
  2093.  
  2094.  
  2095. Wells, Colin M. 1972. The German policy of Augustus: An examination of the archaeological evidence. Oxford: Clarendon.
  2096.  
  2097. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2098.  
  2099. Examines Augustus’s attitude toward expansion in Germany. For more recent evidence, see von Schnurbein 2003 (cited under Military).
  2100.  
  2101. Find this resource:
  2102.  
  2103.  
  2104. “Friendly Kings”
  2105. “Friendly kings” is the term coined to describe the kings (sometimes also called “client kings”) who ruled independent kingdoms around the margins of Augustus’s empire, but who enjoyed Roman support and in return represented themselves as “Rome/emperor-loving.” Braund 1984 analyzes the general phenomenon, while Kreikenbom, et al. 2008 discusses various individual client kings, focusing especially on their self-representation and relationship to Augustus. Roller 1998 presents the best-known of the “friendly kings,” Herod of Judaea, and Roller 2003 covers Juba II of Mauretania. The richness in the historical record of Herod the Great is reflected in Jacobson and Kokkinos 2009.
  2106.  
  2107. Braund, David. 1984. Rome and the friendly king: The character of the client kingship. New York: St. Martin’s.
  2108.  
  2109. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2110.  
  2111. An analysis of the importance of friendly kings for the security of Rome’s empire, from the third century BCE to the Severan period. Illuminates the impact of political change during the Augustan era on the relationship of kings and Rome.
  2112.  
  2113. Find this resource:
  2114.  
  2115.  
  2116. Jacobson, David M., and Nikos Kokkinos, eds. 2009. Herod and Augustus: Papers presented at the IJS conference, 21st–23rd June 2005. IJS Studies in Judaica 6. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.
  2117.  
  2118. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004165465.i-418Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2119.  
  2120. Nineteen papers on a range of topics: Herod’s portrayal in literary sources, his coins, building projects (including rebuilding the Jewish Temple), and promotion of Hellenistic institutions; his political and military relationship to Rome; and his possible exceptional role as Augustus’s financial agent in Syria.
  2121.  
  2122. Find this resource:
  2123.  
  2124.  
  2125. Kreikenbom, Detlev, Karl-Uwe Mahler, Patrick Schollmeyer, and Thomas M. Weber, eds. 2008. Augustus – Der Blick von außen. Die Wahrnehmung des Kaisers in den Provinzen des Reiches und in den Nachbarstaaten. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag.
  2126.  
  2127. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2128.  
  2129. Includes papers by Schumacher on self-representation of Juba II and Cleopatra Selena of Mauretania, focusing on coins; Weber on the relationship between Herod, Agrippa, and Augustus as expressed in visual culture, particularly sculpture; Fleischer on similarities between portraits of Octavian/Augustus and various kings, particularly Antiochus III of Commagene.
  2130.  
  2131. Find this resource:
  2132.  
  2133.  
  2134. Roller, Duane W. 1998. The building program of Herod the Great. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  2135.  
  2136. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2137.  
  2138. Illustrates how Herod rivaled Augustus in the innovativeness of his building program. Explores the background of Herod’s relationship to Rome, his visits to the capital and friends; discusses the intellectual circle at Herod’s court. Includes a catalogue of Herod’s buildings.
  2139.  
  2140. Find this resource:
  2141.  
  2142.  
  2143. Roller, Duane W. 2003 The world of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal scholarship on Rome’s African frontier. New York and London: Routledge.
  2144.  
  2145. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2146.  
  2147. Explores culture and politics of the rulers brought up by Augustus at Rome and then installed by him to rule Mauretania. Focuses on the career and scholarship of Juba and his role in informing Rome about the geography of lands to the south of the Mediterranean; argues that Cleopatra deliberately emphasized her Egyptian/Ptolemaic heritage.
  2148.  
  2149. Find this resource:
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