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Pre-Hispanic Art of Colombia (Art History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The art history of Pre-Hispanic Colombia hardly exists. Western categories for what may constitute “art” only partly fit ancient Colombian material culture, which stands out for its exceptional developments in metallurgy. The lack of monumental archaeological sites (with the exception of San Agustín, Tierradentro, and Ciudad Perdida) to some extent accounts for the archaeologists’ relative lack of interest in ancient Colombia, especially on an international level. The disproportionate amount of scholarly attention granted to the study of metalwork can only partially be attributed to the outstanding craftsmanship of ancient Colombian goldsmiths. Western fascination with El Dorado and modern capitalist economies have fueled an insatiable desire to own offerings, jewels, and ritual paraphernalia of the ancient Colombian civilizations, resulting in massive looting at the expense of heritage preservation. The vast majority of gold and ceramic pieces have no known provenance, and stylistic features are largely the elements that define archaeological cultures, while geographic location, extent, and historical development remain unknown. With systematic archaeological information available only for some regions, Colombia’s pre-Hispanic past still remains a puzzle. Perhaps for this very same reason, ethnographic analogies, regardless of geographical and historical specificities, are quite commonly applied to the symbolic interpretation of ancient objects. Finally, national borders often cut the ties ancient Colombian civilizations maintained with other peoples from the Andean region, Central America, and the vast Amazon basin, as evidenced by material remains and contemporary cultural continuities. Few primary and secondary sources are available in English; Spanish (mostly Colombian) studies tend to be brief and in the form of articles, with little or no attempt to create a general narrative for the cultural-historical development of ancient art. (The author wishes to acknowledge Mr. Isaías Morales for his valuable assistance with the development of this article.)
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. Historical sources, archaeological studies, and collections catalogues constitute the foundation for understanding ancient Colombian art and its context. Publications on major issues regarding heritage conservation and interpretation are also necessary for understanding the peculiarity of ancient Colombian art historical studies.
  8.  
  9. Historical and Archaeological Surveys
  10.  
  11. The diversity of Colombian archaeological past defies simple categorization. The lack of cultural uniformity has been attributed to different factors. The impact of dramatic environmental changes and consequent human adaptation, as discussed by Reichel-Dolmatoff 1986, owes to classical 19th-century study von Humboldt 2013; while processual theories, highlighted by Langebaek 1993 and in various essays in Quilter and Hoopes 2003, stress the absence of state-level institutions to account for lack of political, and consequently cultural, unity. To counter Arango Cano 1979 and its formal analyses highlighting the fragmentary nature of ancient Colombian art, Plazas and Falchetti 1985 attempts to map and group metallurgical traditions, according to stylistic and technical similarities, while Reichel-Dolmatoff 2005 and Falchetti (in Quilter and Hoopes 2003) offer a comprehensive iconographic approach that extends to contemporary practices among Colombian indigenous peoples.
  12.  
  13. Arango Cano, Jesús. Cerámica precolombina. Bogota, Colombia: Plaza & Janés, 1979.
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  15. An early descriptive analysis of ancient ceramics, divided by cultural regions, that stresses formal features over functional, iconographic, and even chronological aspects.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Langebaek, Carl Hendrik. “Arte precolombino-culturas.” In Gran enciclopedia de Colombia. Vol. 6. 27–42. Bogota, Colombia: Círculo de Lectores, 1993.
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  19. Disregarding any type of stylistic and iconographic data, this applies an abstract model of cultural development to account for ancient Colombia’s material culture through time.
  20. Find this resource:
  21. Plazas, Clemencia, and Ana María Falchetti. “Cultural Patterns in the Prehispanic Goldwork of Colombia.” In The Art of Precolumbian Gold: The Jan Mitchell Collection. Edited by Julie Jones, 47–59. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1985.
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  23. Written by two leading Colombian archaeologists, discusses the country’s ancient metallurgical cultures as part of larger traditions, based on technological, stylistic, and iconographic traits.
  24. Find this resource:
  25. Quilter, Jeffrey, and John W. Hoopes, eds. Gold and Power in Ancient Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2003.
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  27. A collection of essays that locate ancient Colombian metalwork within the larger context of Central America, a region that has shared many commercial and cultural ties with northern South America since the pre-Hispanic period.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo. Arqueología de Colombia: un texto introductorio. Bogota, Colombia: Fundación Segunda Expedición Botánica, 1986.
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  31. Still the most comprehensive and reliable introduction to Colombia’s archaeological past, written by the founder of the country’s modern practices of archaeology and anthropology.
  32. Find this resource:
  33. Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo. Goldwork and Shamanism: An Iconographic Study of the Gold Museum of the Banco de la República, Colombia. Bogota, Colombia: Villegas Editores, 2005.
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  35. Originally published in Spanish in 1988, this book relies on the author’s distinctive view of the role of shamanism in ancient Colombian art, applying to the archaeological record ethnographic data gathered among contemporary indigenous peoples of Colombia. The Spanish version is available online.
  36. Find this resource:
  37. Simón, Pedro. Noticias historiales de las conquistas de Tierra Firme en las Indias Occidentales. 9 vols. Edited by Manuel José Forero. Bogota, Colombia: Ministerio de Educación Nacional, 1953.
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  39. Only partially available in English (see Simón, Pedro. The Expedition of Pedro de Ursúa & Lope de Aguirre, in Search of El Dorado and Omagua in 1560–1. [New York: Burt Franklin, 1971]), this large compilation of the historical events and cultural encounters surrounding the Spanish invasion of the Caribbean and northern South America was compiled by a Spanish Franciscan friar in the first decades of the 17th century.
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  41. von Humboldt, Alexander. Views of the Cordilleras and Monuments of the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas: A Critical Edition. Edited and translated by Vera M. Kutzinski and Ottmar Ette. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013.
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  43. Originally published in French in 1816, this book relates the travels of the German naturalist and geographer throughout Latin America. The first of many foreigners’ explorations in modern times, it established the basis for future regional and national studies on the natural and historical heritage of the Continent. Several editions are available online.
  44. Find this resource:
  45. Catalogues of Exhibitions and Collections
  46.  
  47. A paucity of archaeological excavations and, conversely, rampant looting activities have resulted in the situation that many of the Colombian pre-Hispanic artifacts are held today in museums and collections worldwide and lack provenance. As a consequence, museum and exhibition catalogues have often served as a primary venue for summarizing and presenting general considerations on the characteristics of Colombian pre-Hispanic art. The Gold Museum, Museo del Oro (see Mayr and Botero 2007) was created with the numerous gold artifacts amassed by the National Bank, Banco de la República, which was directly responsible for the creation of the nation’s gold reserve and held a monopoly in the trade of the material. For the most part, iconographic studies, such as Labbé 1998 and Oro de Colombia: Orfebrería y chamanismo 2005 are indebted to Reichel-Dolmatoff 2005 (originally 1988), cited under Historical and Archaeological Surveys, and the role of shamanism in Amerindian religion and worldview; while the studies on ceramics in Labbé 1986 and Arte de la Tierra, both available in English, tend to focus on regional diversity and formal analysis.
  48.  
  49. Arte de la tierra. Colección Tesoros Precolombinos. Bogota, Colombia: Fondo de Promoción de la Cultura, Banco Popular, 1988–1992.
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  51. A ten-volume work based on the ceramic collection of the Museo Arqueológico (MUSA) in Bogota that includes two general volumes and eight individual publications, each focused on a specific pre-Hispanic culture, with an English translation. One of the few references to offer an aesthetic perspective on the ancient ceramic art of Colombia.
  52. Find this resource:
  53. Labbé, Armand J. Colombia before Columbus: The People, Culture, and Ceramic Art of Prehispanic Colombia. New York: Rizzoli, 1986.
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  55. Researched and conceived as an introduction to the various cultures and ceramics of pre-Hispanic Colombia, this catalogue is extensively illustrated but provides no information regarding the provenance or current location of any of the pieces: a reflection of the still- flourishing, albeit illegal, commerce of looted ancient Colombian artifacts.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. Labbé, Armand J., ed. Shamans, Gods, and Mythic Beasts: Colombian Gold and Ceramics in Antiquity. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1998.
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  59. Short catalogue entries accompany one interpretative essay on the iconography of pre-Hispanic Colombian art and two essays with a regional focus on Malagana and Zenú cultures, respectively.
  60. Find this resource:
  61. Mayr, Juan, and Clara Isabel Botero. The Art of Gold: The Legacy of Pre-Hispanic Colombia. Milan: Skira, 2007.
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  63. Lavishly illustrated, this volume presents an up-to-date overview of ancient Colombian societies and their technological achievements through artifacts preserved in Bogota’s Gold Museum.
  64. Find this resource:
  65. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
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  67. A significant collection of pre-Hispanic artifacts from Colombia presented within the wider context of ancient Amerindian art.
  68. Find this resource:
  69. Museo del Oro, Banco de la República, Bogota.
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  71. An entry into the myriad manifestations of Colombia’s pre-Hispanic cultures. Although largely focused on metalwork, short essays present other relevant aspects of the different regions and cultures of ancient and modern Colombia, such as housing and domestic practices, economy and subsistence systems, and religious worldview.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Oro de Colombia: Orfebrería y chamanismo. Santiago, Chile: Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino, 2005.
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  75. Catalogue of a traveling exhibition includes a contribution by archaeologist Roberto Lleras Pérez on pre-Hispanic metallurgy and an essay by anthropologist Roberto Pineda Camacho, who follows the steps of Reichel-Dolmatoff (Reichel-Dolmatoff 2005, cited under Historical and Archeological Studies) in interpreting ancient Colombian art through the lens of shamanism. Reprinted in the United States as: The Spirit of Ancient Colombian Gold (Washington, DC: Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2006).
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Critical Studies
  78.  
  79. The interpretation of the Colombian pre-Hispanic past is fraught with a history of violence and exclusion that persists into the 21st century. Field 2012 and Londoño 2003 offer the opportunity to question the role of illegal looting (guaqería) in the creation of a national consciousness and the interpretation of ancient artifacts. Forced displacement and indigenous notions of territoriality that affect the way different stakeholders relate to the archaeological presence are discussed by Gnecco and Hernández 2008 and Londoño 2003.
  80.  
  81. Field, Les. “El sistema del oro: exploraciones sobre el destino (emergente) de los objetos de oro precolombinos en Colombia.” Antípoda: Revista de Antropología y Arqueología 14 (2012): 67–94.
  82. DOI: 10.7440/antipoda14.2012.04Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  83. Traces the history of Colombian guaquería (looting of antiquities) in relationship to the rise and development of National museums and archaeological practice. Considers the looting of Malagana in the early 1990s as a turning point (see Calima).
  84. Find this resource:
  85. Gnecco, Cristóbal, and Carolina Hernández. “History and its Discontents. Stone Statues, Native Histories, and Archaeologists.” Current Anthropology 49.3 (2008): 439–466.
  86. DOI: 10.1086/588497Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  87. A critical discussion of the historical, social, and political factors that have determined the interpretation of Tierradentro archaeological heritage by the state, the academy, and the Nasa (Paéz) people that live in the region.
  88. Find this resource:
  89. Londoño, Wilhelm. “Discurso jurídico versus discurso cultural: el conflicto social sobre los significados de la cultura material prehispánica.” Boletín del Museo del Oro 51 (2003): 1–26.
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  91. Discusses theoretically how the official archaeological discourse, promoted by the academy through state-sponsored excavations, has obliterated other possible interpretations of archaeological heritage, namely the guaqueros (looters) and indigenous points of view.
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  93. Online Resources
  94.  
  95. Although only in Spanish, archaeological and historical studies of ancient Colombian heritage are widely available on the Internet, mainly thanks to the efforts of the Biblioteca Virtual, Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango, which has digitized primary and secondary sources, many of which are the results of research sponsored by the cultural branch of the National Bank, Banco de la República. Rupestreweb: Arte rupestre en América Latina offers up-to-date essays on Colombian “rock art” (i.e., petroglyphs and pictograms from different regions of the country).
  96.  
  97. Biblioteca Virtual, Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango.
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  99. The leading research library in the country has a large amount of primary and secondary sources available online. Among others, the Boletín del Museo del Oro (the journal of the Gold Museum), archaeological reports, as well as colonial chronicles and 19th-century explorations.
  100. Find this resource:
  101. Instituto Colombiano de Antropología e Historia (ICANH).
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  103. The Colombian Institute of Anthropology and History promotes the protection of the country’s archaeological heritage, sponsors archaeological, ethnographic, and historical research and makes available the results on their website, including the leading journal Revista Colombiana de Antropología.
  104. Find this resource:
  105. Rupestreweb: Arte rupestre en América Latina.
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  107. Continental in scope, this site offers many articles on Colombian rock art, ranging from iconographic interpretations to issues of heritage and conservation, with a regional focus on the highlands of the Eastern Cordillera (departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá). For an English summary of recent studies and critical approaches to Colombian rock art, see also Argüello García, Pedro María, and Diego Martínez Celis. “Rock Art Research in Colombia.” In Rock Art Studies: News of the World IV. Edited by Paul Bahn, Natalie R. Franklin, and Matthias Strecker, 319–328 (Oxford: Oxbow, 2012).
  108. Find this resource:
  109. Southwestern Colombia and the Pacific Coast
  110.  
  111. Archaeological studies on the civilizations of modern southwestern Colombia and their ties with the Isthmus tend to either stress the cultural unity of region, such as Drennan 2008, Falchetti 2008, and Plazas and Falchetti 1983, or focus on regional variations, such as Arte de la tierra: San Agustín, Tierradentro y Corinto-Cauca 1992, Brezzi 2003 (cited under Tumaco–La Tolita (700 BC–AD 350)), Cardale de Schrimpff and Bray 2005 (cited under Calima (1500 BC–AD 1700)), and Reichel-Dolmatoff 1972 (cited under San Agustín and Tierradentro (200 BC–AD 900)). Tumaco–La Tolita developed along the Pacific coast earlier than Quimbaya, San Agustín, Tierradentro, and Calima, all of which are Andean civilizations. Nariño refers to a modern department that includes Tumaco on the coast and the highland Pasto, a region with many commercial and cultural ties with the Andean cultures of Ecuador.
  112.  
  113. Area Surveys
  114.  
  115. With no historical sources and only scattered archaeological information available, Drennan 2008 resorts to anthropological theories, while Plazas and Falchetti 1983 and Falchetti 2008 turn to formal and technical analysis to reconstruct the cultural background of ancient southwestern Colombia.
  116.  
  117. Drennan, Robert. “Chiefdoms of Southwestern Colombia.” In The Handbook of South American Archaeology. Edited by Helaine Silverman and William H. Isbell, 381–403. New York: Springer, 2008.
  118. DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-74907-5_21Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. With a decidedly processual approach that focuses on social complexity and organization, this offers an overview of the ancient archaeological cultures of the region and the Muisca of the eastern Cordillera.
  120. Find this resource:
  121. Falchetti, Ana María. “The Darién Gold Pendants of Ancient Colombia and the Isthmus.” Metropolitan Museum Journal 43 (2008): 39–73.
  122. DOI: 10.1086/met.43.25699085Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123. Traces the origin and development of a specific kind of gold figurine found in many pre-Columbian cultures of the northern region, including Calima, Quimbaya, and Zenú. Sketches a chronological and geographical outline and recognizes that the same subject reappears despite differences in style, material, and ornament.
  124. Find this resource:
  125. Plazas, Clemencia, and Ana María Falchetti. “Tradición metalúrgica del suroccidente colombiano.” Boletín del Museo del Oro 14 (1983): 1–32.
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  127. Highlights and defines the cultural horizon of the southwestern part of Colombia between 500 BC and AD 1000, based primarily on goldwork.
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  129. Calima (1500 BC–AD 1700)
  130.  
  131. Cardale de Schrimpff and Bray 2005 have pioneered Calima archaeology since the infamous looting spree of the rich tombs that were accidentally discovered in Malagana, a country estate in the municipality of Palmira, Valle del Cauca, in 1990.
  132.  
  133. Cardale de Schrimpff, Marianne, and Warwick Bray, eds. Calima and Malagana: Art and Archaeology in Southwestern Colombia. Bogota, Colombia: Pro Calima Foundation, 2005.
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  135. With many full color illustrations, reconstructs Calima chronology, settlement patterns, and subsistence system, detailing differences between archaeological areas and periods: Ilama, Yotoco, Malagana, and Sonso.
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  137. Nariño (AD 400–AD 1600)
  138.  
  139. The southwestern most part of Colombia is a highland region that has shared close ties with the central Andes since ancient times. López Pérez 2007 discusses Mopa-Mopa, or Barniz de Pasto, which is found in colonial Andean and Inca ceremonial objects (see also Rappaport and Cummins 2012, cited under Colonial Continuities and Modern Legacies).
  140.  
  141. Arte de la tierra: Nariño. Colección Tesoros Precolombinos. Bogota, Colombia: Fondo Promoción de la Cultura, Banco Popular, 1992.
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  143. Describes the three archaeological culture periods and their distinctive ceramic styles, characterized by the most geometric and abstract designs of ancient Colombian art.
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  145. López Pérez, María del Pilar. “El Barniz de Pasto. Encuentro entre tradiciones locales y foráneas que han dado identidad a la región Andina del sur de Colombia.” In Patrimonio cultural e identidad. Edited by Paz Cabello Carro, 225–234. Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 2007.
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  147. Although with several omissions in the reference section, this offers a good overview of the current studies on this ancient lacquer technique for decorating precious and ceremonial objects.
  148. Find this resource:
  149. Quimbaya (500 BC–AD 1600)
  150.  
  151. Bruhns 1969 and Uribe Villegas 2010 analyze Quimbaya’s naturalistic style and iconography, while Gamboa Hinestrosa 2002 discusses the systematic depredation of Quimbaya tombs, whose artifacts became a form of diplomacy in the 19th and early 20th century.
  152.  
  153. Bruhns, Karen Olsen. “Stylistic Affinities between the Quimbaya Gold Style and a Little-Known Ceramic Style of the Middle Cauca Valley, Colombia” Ñawpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology 7–8 (1969): 65–83.
  154. DOI: 10.1179/naw.1969.7-8.1.006Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. Recognizes that a specific ceramic type (Brown Incised, Marrón Inciso) is closely related to an equally distinctive goldwork tradition in terms of style. With different functions, both types of artifacts derive from funerary contexts.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Gamboa Hinestrosa, Pablo. El Tesoro de los Quimbayas. Historia, identidad y patrimonio. Bogota, Colombia: Planeta, 2002.
  158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. Relates the history of one of the richest archaeological findings in Colombian history since the looting in 1890, its subsequent dispersion, and the current location of the artifacts in Madrid and Chicago. Reflects on the changing notions of antiquities, heritage, and national identity in Colombian political and intellectual history in the 20th century.
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  161. Uribe Villegas, María Alicia. “Mujeres, calabazos, brillo y tumbaga. Símbolos de vida y transformación en la orfebrería Quimbaya temprana.” Boletín de Antropología 19.36 (2010): 61–93.
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  163. Extensive analysis and symbolic interpretation of a specific type of gold object, characteristic of early Quimbaya: round and naturalistic representations of females and fruits, based on contextual information, ethnographic comparisons, and technical considerations.
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  165. San Agustín and Tierradentro (200 BC–AD 900)
  166.  
  167. Ayala 1977, Bruhns 1992, and Sotomayor and Uribe 1987 present the best-known aspect of San Agustín and Tierradento cultures, namely monumental tombs and sculptures, whose iconographic meaning and significance, nonetheless, remain practically unknown. Although somewhat dated, Reichel-Dolmatoff 1972 still offers the most reliable and comprehensive view on the matter.
  168.  
  169. Arte de la tierra: San Agustín, Tierradentro y Corinto-Cauca. Colección Tesoros Precolombinos. Bogota, Colombia: Fondo de Promoción de la Cultura, Banco Popular, 1992.
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  171. A general introduction to the major artistic manifestations of the cultures of San Agustín and Tierradentro, and an archaeological discussion of the changes that followed their demise.
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Ayala, Leonardo. “Las tumbas pintadas de Tierradentro.” In Historia del arte colombiano. Vol. 1. Edited by Eugenio Barney Cabrera, 189–212. Bogota, Colombia: Salvat, 1977.
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  175. Describes the architecture of Tierradentro hypogea, secondary burials modeled after residential structures. Based on the analyses of such elements as stairs, chambers, and columns, the study recognizes two different regional styles.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Bruhns, Karen Olsen. “Monumental Sculpture as Evidence of Hierarchical Societies.” In Wealth and Hierarchy in the Intermediate Area. Edited by Frederick W. Lange, 331–356. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1992.
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  179. Argues that little can be inferred about social hierarchy from monumental sculpture, despite the richness of its iconography; however, Bruhns does highlight a thematic corpus that encompasses archaeological cultures throughout central and northern South America.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo. San Agustín: A Culture of Colombia. New York: Praeger, 1972.
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  183. Analyzes stone sculpture and lesser-known pottery and information from excavation debris in order to establish an absolute chronology. Iconographic interpretations center on the jaguarlike figures, common representations in many pre-Columbian cultures.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Sotomayor, María Lucía, and María Victoria Uribe. Estatuaria del Macizo Colombiano. Bogota, Colombia: Instituto Colombiano de Antropología, 1987.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. A catalogue of stone sculptures and petroglyphs from the Colombian Massif, illustrated with line drawings. A final chapter offers suggestions for interpreting the meaning of the sculptures based on ethnographic comparisons and anthropological theories of ritual and death.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Tumaco–La Tolita (700 BC–AD 350)
  190.  
  191. Although part of the southwestern archaeological horizon, Tumaco–La Tolita shares many recognizable features with other northern Pacific civilizations beyond the Colombian border. Brezzi 2003 offers a comprehensive look at the artistic forms of this ancient culture, while Scott 2011 highlights the specificities of their metallurgical achievements, and Ugalde 2009 brings the perspective of the Ecuadorian side.
  192.  
  193. Brezzi, Andrea. Tulato, ventana a la prehistoria de América. Bogota, Colombia: Villegas Editores, 2003.
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  195. A fully catalogued presentation of Tumaco–La Tolita material culture (ceramics, metalwork, wood, and bone), complete with archaeological, historical, iconographic, and stylistic analyses, as well as historiographical considerations.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Scott, David A. “The La Tolita-Tumaco Culture: Master Metalsmiths in Gold and Platinum.” Latin American Antiquity 22.1 (2011): 65–95.
  198. DOI: 10.7183/1045-6635.22.1.65Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. A technical discussion of the metallurgical achievements of this Pacific coast civilization, whose platinum and gold alloys are among the most technologically advanced in the ancient world.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Ugalde, Maria Fernanda. Iconografía de la cultura Tolita: lecturas del discurso ideológico en las representaciones figurativas del desarrollo regional. Forschungen zur Archäologie Aussereuropäischer Kulturen. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert, 2009.
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  203. Offers an interpretative taxonomy of the formal features and iconographic motifs of more than a thousand Tumaco–La Tolita ceramics. It provides a brief history of the studies and archaeological excavations performed on both sides of the Colombian-Ecuadorian border of the Pacific coast, home of Tumaco–La Tolita civilization.
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  205. Northern Lowlands and the Tairona
  206.  
  207. Northern Colombia and the Caribbean area witnessed one of the earliest pottery traditions in the Americas, discussed in Pratt 1999 (cited under Ceramics). Boomert 1987 (cited under Shell, Stone, Wood) points to the importance of contact with the Antilles and the Amazon, which were possibly frequent from an early period. Beginning in the 3rd century BC, Zenú, or Sinú, peoples developed a vast and complex irrigation and mound system in the lowlands, extensively investigated by Oyuela Caycedo 2008 (cited under Landscape and Architecture) and Plazas de Nieto, et al. 1993, and a quite distinctive metallurgical style, which shares traits with Colombian southwestern cultures and the Isthmus, as discussed by Arte de la tierra: Sinú y Río Magdalena (cited under Ceramics), Falchetti 2000 and Plazas 2007 (both cited under Metalwork). The Tairona, ancestors of modern Kogi, a fact established by Reichel-Dolmatoff 1953, were settled in the mountainous area of the Caribbean coast at the time of the Spanish invasion. Speakers of a Chibchan language, they have linguistic ties with people from the Isthmus and the Muisca of the central highlands. Soto Holguín 1988 (cited under Landscape and Architecture) relates the most peculiar features as well as archaeological expeditions in Ciudad Perdida, also known as Buritaca 200 and Teyuna, one of the few monumental archaeological sites in Colombia, today under the jurisdiction of the National Institute of Anthropology and History (ICANH) (but reclaimed by Kogi people). A joint statement on this issue by the native peoples of the Teyuna Park is found in Declaración conjunta de las cuatro organizaciones indígenas de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta para la interlocución con el estado y la sociedad nacional (cited under Landscape and Architecture).
  208.  
  209. Historical and Archaeological Sources
  210.  
  211. Plazas de Nieto, et al. 1993 and Mason 1939 offer an archaeological overview of ancient Zenú, or Sinú, and Tairona cultures, respectively, to be complemented with Bischof 1982, which mainly relies on historical sources. The influential Reichel-Dolmatoff 1953 demonstrated the cultural continuity between ancient Tairona and modern Kogi living in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
  212.  
  213. Bischof, Henning. “Indígenas y españoles en la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, siglo XVI.” Revista Colombiana de Antropología 24 (1982): 75–124.
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  215. A historical reconstruction of Tairona culture at the time of the Spanish invasion and the subsequent confrontation, based on 16th- and 17th-century Spanish sources.
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  217. Mason, J. Alden. Archaeology of Santa Marta, Colombia: The Tairona Culture. 3 vols. Anthropological Series. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1939.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. A primary archaeological source that illustrates fieldwork sites, ceramic, metallurgical, and lithic findings from the main settlement area of the ancient Tairona. A detailed presentation of many different artifacts based on their archaeological context. Available online.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Plazas de Nieto, Clemencia, Ana María Falchetti, Juanita Sáenz Samper, and Sonia Archila. La sociedad hidraúlica zenú: Estudio arqueológico de 2000 años de historia en las llanuras del Caribe colombiano. Bogota, Colombia: Banco de la República, 1993.
  222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. An archaeological survey of the vast lowland region inhabited by Zenú people between 800 BC and the 14th century, complete with maps, excavation drawings, and illustrations of ceramic findings.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo. “Contactos y cambios culturales en la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.” Revista Colombiana de Antropología 1 (1953): 17–122.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Groundbreaking work demonstrating that contemporary Kogi people, living in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, are the direct descendants of the ancient Tairona. All subsequent archaeological and historical studies on the region are indebted to this study.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Landscape and Architecture
  230.  
  231. Oyuela Caycedo 2008 gives an overview of the more than six thousand years of human occupation of the lowlands and mountains of northern Colombia have led to a deep transformation of the landscape. More recently, the “discovery” of Ciudad Perdida (meaning “Lost City”) in 1975 following massive looting activities prompted a state-sponsored archaeological project, detailed in Soto Holguín 1988, and an ongoing negotiation with Kogi people over jurisdiction of the site (see Declaración conjunta de las cuatro organizaciones indígenas de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta para la interlocución con el estado y la sociedad nacional). Oyuela Caycedo and Fischer 2006 brings the academic discussion of cultural continuity to the sanctification of architectural sites.
  232.  
  233. Declaración conjunta de las cuatro organizaciones indígenas de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta para la interlocución con el estado y la sociedad nacional.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. A 1999 joint declaration of the four indigenous organizations representing various communities living in the area of Teyuna National Park. Clarifies their position with respect to land occupation, declaring their ultimate sovereignty over the sacred sites based on traditional authority.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Oyuela Caycedo, Augusto. “Late Pre-Hispanic Chiefdoms of Northern Colombia and the Formation of Anthropogenic Landscape.” In Handbook of South American Archaeology. Edited by Helaine Silverman and William H. Isbell, 405–428. New York: Springer, 2008.
  238. DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-74907-5_22Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. An environmental study of the adaptation and impact of human occupation in both Zenú and Tairona areas. It explains architecture, ridges, and mounds as intrinsically bound to both the physical aspects of the land and socioeconomic necessities of the inhabitants.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Oyuela Caycedo, Augusto, and Manuela Fischer. “Ritual Paraphernalia and the Foundation of Religious Temples: The Case of the Tairona-Kágaba/Kogi, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia” Baessler-Archiv 54 (2006): 145–162.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. Utilizes early 20th-century ethnographic material to analyze the symbolic significance of temple construction and dedication, in accordance to seasonal cycles, among the Tairona/Kogi people.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Soto Holguín, Álvaro. La ciudad perdida de los Tayrona: historia de su hallazgo y descubrimiento. Bogota, Colombia: Gente Nueva, 1988.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Reports on ten years of archaeological studies in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, from 1973 to 1982, delving into the different stages and methodologies of its “discovery.” Describes housing structures, the road system, and topographical modifications of the site.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Metalwork
  250.  
  251. Studies on Zenú and Tairona metalwork focus either on stylistic interpretations, such as those by Falchetti 2000 and Plazas 1987, or iconographic analysis, such as Legast 1980 and Plazas 2007, even though almost all the material has no secure provenance or known archaeological context.
  252.  
  253. Falchetti, Ana María. “The Gold of Greater Zenú: Prehispanic Metallurgy in the Caribbean Lowlands of Colombia.” In Precolumbian Gold: Technology, Style and Iconography. Edited by Colin McEwan, 132–151. London: British Museum, 2000.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Originally published in Spanish in 1995, charts the development, extent, and regional variations of Zenú metallurgical styles, offering iconographic interpretations based on ethnohistorical and ethnographic sources.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Legast, Anne. La fauna en la orfebrería sinú. Bogota, Colombia: Fundación de Investigaciones Arqueológicas Nacionales, Banco de la República, 1980.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Iconographic identification of local fauna in Zenú metalwork based on the presumed provenience of pieces in the Gold Museum.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Plazas, Clemencia. “Forma y función en el oro Tairona.” Boletín del Museo del Oro 19 (1987): 24–33.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. A typological classification of Tairona goldwork based on the thousands of aritifacts that arrived at Bogota’s Gold Museum in the wake of major looting activities in the 1960s and 1970s, without any secure provenance information.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Plazas, Clemencia. Vuelo nocturno: El murciélago prehispánico del istmo centroamericano y su comparación con el murciélago Tairona. Bogota, Colombia: Fundación de Investigaciones Arqueológicas Nacionales, Banco de la República, 2007.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Discusses the origin and development of bat representations in the material culture of the Isthmus and Caribbean coast, highlighting the relationship between the two cultural regions, based on stylistic and technological considerations.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Ceramics
  270.  
  271. A few scattered studies in Sáenz Samper 1993 and various authors in Arte de la tierra: Sinú y Río Magdalena have approached the specificity of Zenú and Tolima iconography in relation to historical and ethnographic sources (but see also Falchetti in Labbé 1998, cited under Catalogues of Exhibitions and Collections). Mason 1939, cited under Historical and Archaeological Sources, offers a good introduction to Tairona ceramics.
  272.  
  273. Arte de la tierra: Sinú y Río Magdalena. Colección Tesoros Precolombinos. Bogota, Colombia: Fondo de Promoción de la Cultura, Banco Popular, 1992.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. A general historical and archaeological introduction followed by an iconographic interpretation of a specific funerary type from the Tolima culture of the Middle Magdalena River.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Pratt, Jo Ann F. “Determining the Function of One of the New World’s Earliest Pottery Assemblages: The Case of San Jacinto, Colombia.” Latin American Antiquity 10.1 (1999): 71–85.
  278. DOI: 10.2307/972212Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Argues that the elaborate forms and decorations on ceramic remains from the Caribbean coast, which date to almost six thousand years before the present era, indicate a social rather than functional purpose behind the development of early ceramic technology.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Sáenz Samper, Juanita. “Mujeres de barro: estudio de las figurinas cerámicas de Montelíbano.” Boletín del Museo del Oro 34–35 (1993): 77–109.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Discusses a wide array of female figurines from the northern lowlands, roughly produced between the 6th and 10th century. Relies on later historical sources to argue for the predominant role of women in Zenú society.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Shell, Stone, Wood
  286.  
  287. Stones and other carved objects played and continue to play an important role in Tairona and Kogi life. Whereas Boomert 1987 and Bray 2003 stress the role of precious materials in the creation of social structure and inequality, Legast 1987 and Looper 2003 rely on the observation of modern practices to explore the iconographic meaning and symbolic significance of carved artifacts.
  288.  
  289. Boomert, Arie. “Gifts of the Amazons: “Green Stone” Pendants and Beads as Items of Ceremonial Exchange in Amazonia and the Caribbean.” Antropológica 67 (1987): 33–54.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. An anthropological study that traces the creation of a common culture area between the lowlands of northern South America, the Caribbean coast, and the Antilles through the circulation of carved stone artifacts.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Bray, Warwick. “Gold, Stone, and Ideology: Symbols of Power in the Tairona Tradition of Northern Colombia.” In Gold and Power in Ancient Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia. Edited by Jeffrey Quilter and John W. Hoopes, 301–344. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2003.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Extensive discussion of Tairona material culture, including metalwork, stonework, and ritual paraphernalia. It combines archaeological data, historical sources, and contemporary practices among the Kogi, the descendants of the ancient Tairona.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Legast, Anne. El animal en el mundo mítico Tairona. Bogota, Colombia: Fundación de Investigaciones Arqueológicas Nacionales, Banco de la República, 1987.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Studies more than two hundred Tairona animal depictions found in the collection of Bogota’s Gold Museum, based on three categories of analysis: representations of a single animal, creatures with more than one animal characteristic, and humans with animal features or vice versa.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Looper, Matthew G. “From Inscribed Bodies to Distributed Persons: Contextualizing Tairona Figural Images in Performance.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 13.1 (2003): 25–40.
  302. DOI: 10.1017/S0959774303000027Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. A cross-media study that interprets images of seated individuals in relation to architectural settings and modern ritual practices among the Kogi. To be read in conjunction with Oyuela Caycedo and Fischer 2006 (cited under Landscape and Architecture).
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Muisca
  306.  
  307. The Muisca lived in the highlands of the eastern Cordillera at the time of the Spanish invasion. Colonial Spaniards recognized the importance and complexity of Muisca political and social organization, which is likely the reason that the two most important towns of Nueva Granada (Santafé de Bogotá and Tunja) were founded in the vicinity of the sites of major Muisca centers, such as Bacatá and Hunza. Correa Rubio 2004, Langebaek Rueda 1987, and Londoño Laverde 1986 (cited under Metalwork) complement colonial chronicles and archival documents to offer a fuller understanding of Muisca art known through the archaeological record. As Uribe Villegas and Martinón Torres 2012 shows, offerings are not only among the most common metal findings but possibly the reason for the production of the most elaborate ceramics as well, as argued by Sáenz Samper 1990 (cited under Ceramics). Textiles, while also part of a votive system, have mostly been recovered in burial contexts and were integral elements of the flourishing trade throughout the region (see also Langebaek Rueda 1987).
  308.  
  309. Historical Sources
  310.  
  311. The Muisca are among the best-known peoples of ancient Colombia, owing to the fact that they inhabited the highland region where the Spaniards founded their main settlements. Correa Rubio 2004 and Langebaek Rueda 1987 are somewhat complementary studies. Where the former aims to reconstruct the hermeneutics of Muisca power (i.e., the way politics and power were conceived among the Muisca), the latter applies an economic and materialist approach to account for Muisca hegemony in the highlands of the eastern Cordillera at the time of the Spanish invasion.
  312.  
  313. Correa Rubio, François. El sol del poder. Simbología y política entre los Muiscas del norte de los Andes. Bogota, Colombia: Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2004.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Relies on colonial sources and archival documents to reconstruct the religious and ideological views of the ancient Muisca. With a strong anthropological and comparative approach, it also applies studies on the political ideology and social organization of other native Central and South American societies.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Langebaek Rueda, Carl Henrik. Mercados, poblamiento e integración étnica entre los Muiscas, Siglo XVI. Bogota, Colombia: Banco de la República, 1987.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Written by an archeologist, this study utilizes colonial documents to reconstruct the extent, nature, and organization of the Muisca presence in the eastern Cordillera during the late pre-contact and early post-conquest period.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Metalwork
  322.  
  323. Whereas Lleras Pérez 1999 describes in detail the specificities of Muisca goldwork, its style, and votive function, Londoño Laverde 1986 offers the perspective from the archive, and Historias de ofrendas muiscas and Uribe Villegas and Martinón Torres 2012 rely on chemical analysis to tackle the difficult task of uncovering the meaning and significance of Muisca tunjos (miniature flat figurines, mostly anthropomorphic) and related objects.
  324.  
  325. Historias de ofrendas muiscas. Bogota, Colombia: Banco de la República, 2013.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. An accessible and visually appealing presentation of the research published in Uribe Villegas and Martinón Torres 2012. Detailed formal and technical explanations accompany archaeological or historical information for each piece, in order to gain a deeper understanding of the meaning of the Muisca offering.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Lleras Pérez, Roberto. Prehispanic Metallurgy and Votive Offerings in the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. BAR International Series 778. Oxford: Archaeopress, 1999.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. An analytical study of 3,000 metal objects in the collections of Bogota’s Gold Museum. Proposes a new classificatory system for Muisca gold artifacts, derived from (presumed) provenance, function, and, finally, iconography. Argues (perhaps not too convincingly) that a dualistic worldview, based on complementary female/male roles in nature and society, underlies the functioning and meaning of Muisca offerings.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Londoño Laverde, Eduardo. “Un mensaje del tiempo de los Muiscas.” Boletín del Museo del Oro 16 (1986): 48–57.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Presents the rather exceptional finding of a Muisca offering in the Bogota neighborhood of Fontibón. Because almost all ancient artifacts arrive at private and public collections through reckless looting practices, this case is a rare opportunity to understand the offering as a whole, with both ceramic and metal elements intact.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Uribe Villegas, María Alicia, and Marcos Martinón Torres. “Composition, Colour and Context in Muisca Votive Metalwork (Colombia, AD 600–1800).” Antiquity 86.333 (2012): 772–791.
  338. DOI: 10.1017/S0003598X00047918Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Pioneering study realized on a number of Muisca gold pieces that reveals the relationship between metallurgical technology and religious worldview. Demonstrates that offerings were created as a unique combination of specific alloys and symbolic associations at each occasion.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Ceramics
  342.  
  343. Legast 1998 offers one of the few iconographic studies of Muisca ceramics, while the essays in Arte de la tierra: Muiscas y Guanes and Sáenz Samper 1990 mostly focus on social structure and organization.
  344.  
  345. Arte de la tierra: Muiscas y Guanes. Colección Tesoros Precolombinos. Bogota, Colombia: Fondo de Promoción de la Cultura, Banco Popular, 1989.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Offers a brief overview of the archaeology from the highlands of Cundinamarca and Santander, home of the Muisca and Guane, describing differences in social organization, artifacts, and ceramic styles.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Legast, Anne. “La fauna Muisca y sus símbolos.” Boletín de Arqueología de la Fian 13.3 (1998): 5–103.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. One of the few studies that attempts an iconographic interpretation of the motifs found on Muisca ceramics, focusing on animal imagery. It considers metalwork as well.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Sáenz Samper, Juanita. “Los antiguos alfareros del bajo Valle de Tenza, su poblamiento y manufacturas.” Boletín del Museo del Oro 27 (1990): 36–53.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. A descriptive analysis of the different types of Muisca ceramics from an important regional center for pottery production.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Textiles
  358.  
  359. Fiber arts were definitely more developed among ancient Colombian civilizations than archaeological remains indicate today. The colder climate of the highlands allowed the conservation of a higher number of fragments, especially from the region of Santander, whose original inhabitants, the Guane, are in fact mostly known for their textiles. Langebaek Rueda 1987, cited under Historical Sources, offers a good historical reconstruction of the production and circulation of textiles in the region at the time of the Spanish invasion and the changes that followed it. El arte del tejido en el país de Guane 1993, Cardale de Schrimpff 1986, and Tavera de Téllez and Urbina Caycedo 1994, on the other hand, focus on technical qualities. The fragmentary nature of the remains, together with the decidedly abstract forms of the designs have, up until the 21st century, prevented any serious attempt at iconographic interpretation.
  360.  
  361. Cardale de Schrimpff, Marianne. “Painted Textiles from Caves in the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia.” In The Junius B. Bird Conference on Andean Textiles. Edited by Ann Pollard Rowe, 205–218. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1986.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Describes the few painted textiles found in Muisca and Guane tombs and recognizes two principal styles shared by both cultures, which is an indication of intense exchange between the peoples from the eastern Cordillera highlands and those settled to the north, in the modern department of Santander.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. El arte del tejido en el país de Guane. Bucaramanga, Colombia: Banco de la República, 1993.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Catalogue of an exhibition on the textiles of the Guane, a people with close cultural and economic ties with the Muisca. It offers a thorough analysis of the many fragments found in the caves of the department of Santander, their formal aspects, and historical discovery.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Tavera de Téllez, Gladys, and Carmen Urbina Caycedo. Textiles muiscas y guanes. Quito, Ecuador: Instituto Andino de Artes Populares del Convenio Andrés Bello, 1994.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. A comprehensive introduction to the formal and technical features of the Muisca and Guane textiles and related fiber arts, realized by two professors of the now defunct Department of Textiles of the Universidad de los Andes, Bogota.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Amazonas and Eastern Tropical Lowlands
  374.  
  375. Although the forests of the Amazon and Orinoco basins make up a considerable portion of Colombian territory, little is known of them archaeologically. Boomert 1987 places the vast lowland region within the larger context of the so-called Intermediate-Caribbean Area. Herrera, et al. 1980–1981 summarizes the results of archaeological findings from a specific area in the Amazon, with little interpretative effort but offering a useful background for other studies, such as von Hildebrand 1975, Pineda Camacho 1994, and Urbina 1994, which deal with petroglyphs and pictograms of the Colombian Amazon and their possible meaning.
  376.  
  377. Boomert, Arie. “Gifts of the Amazons: “Green Stone” Pendants and Beads as Items of Ceremonial Exchange in Amazonia and the Caribbean.” Antropológica 67 (1987): 33–54.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Although only partially related to the Colombian lowlands, this study highlights the importance of the interregional trade of precious goods and the cultural ties between the peoples of the Amazon and Orinoco basins and the Caribbean.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Herrera, Leonor, Warwick Bray, and Colin McEwan. “Datos sobre la arqueología de Araracuara (Comisaría del Amazonas, Colombia).” Revista Colombiana de Antropología 23 (1980–1981): 185–251.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. A report on the only area of the Colombian Amazon that has been the subject of significant archaeological research. It offers data on settlement patterns, ceramic typology, and stone tools technology. Useful as a complement to von Hildebrand 1975.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. von Hildebrand, Elizabet H. R. “Levantamiento de los petroglifos del río Caquetá entre La Pedrera y Araracuara.” Revista Colombiana de Antropología 19 (1975): 303–370.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Related to Herrera, et al. 1980–1981, this is a survey of the petroglyphs found in the Araracuara region, mostly useful for its detailed drawings and accurate photographs.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Pineda Camacho, Roberto. “Los bancos taumaturgos.” Boletín del Museo del Oro 36 (1994): 3–41.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. An anthropological analysis of the importance of the shaman’s stool among the Uitoto people of the Colombian Amazon. Many interpretations presented here are useful for understanding Amazonian iconography (see Urbina 1994) and that of other ancient Colombian cultures.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Urbina, Fernando. “El hombre sentado. Mitos, ritos y petroglifos en el río Caquetá.” Boletín del Museo del Oro 36 (1994): 67–111.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Written by a philosopher, this study applies oral literature of different Amazonian peoples to understand a specific set of depictions commonly found on petroglyphs. Whereas some identifications of the “seated man” may seem unlikely, this study still offers a valid perspective on Amazonian thought and worldview.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Colonial Continuities and Modern Legacies
  398.  
  399. Even though indigenous peoples made up a substantial portion of the population of Nueva Granada, as the area roughly corresponding to modern Colombia was known during the colonial period, their role in the cultural and artistic developments of the Iberian world has been largely unrecognized. The combination of archival, archaeological, and ethnographic research found in Historias de ofrendas muiscas, Londoño Laverde 1989, López Pérez 2007 (cited under Nariño (AD 400–AD 1600)), Mora de Jaramillo 1974, and Osborn 1985 help fill this gap not only for the post-conquest period, but also for modern traditions. The innovative study of Machado Caicedo 2011 further opens the field of inquiry to include the contribution of African descendants that constitute more than 10 percent of modern Colombian population nationwide, with a concentration in the northwestern part of the country. Rappaport and Cummins 2012 discusses different and somewhat isolated artistic phenomena based on primary and secondary sources scarcely known to an English-speaking audience.
  400.  
  401. Historias de ofrendas muiscas. Bogota, Colombia: Banco de la República, 2013.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. A useful companion to Londoño Laverde 1989, this presents material findings related to Muisca religion and ritual, many of which date to the decades following the establishment of the colonial order.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Londoño Laverde, Eduardo L. “Santuarios, santillos, tunjos: Objetos votivos de los Muiscas en el siglo XVI.” Boletín del Museo del Oro 25 (1989): 93–119.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Presents several excerpts from archival documents testifying the continuing practice of pre-contact religion among colonial Muisca, involving the use of traditional objects, textiles, and adornments, and the visitation of ancient sacred places. A useful documentary complement to Historias de ofrendas muiscas 2013.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Machado Caicedo, Martha Luz. La escultura sagrada chocó en el contexto de la memoria de la estética de África y su diáspora: ritual y arte. Bogota, Colombia: Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Centro de Estudios Sociales, 2011.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. A thorough formal analysis of wooden sculptures from the Pacific coast of Colombia produced and used by the Emberá and Wounaan peoples. It demonstrates that modern native tradition incorporates many elements of African origin, a testament to the close connection between these cultures since the early colonial period.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Mora de Jaramillo, Yolanda. Cerámica y ceramistas de Ráquira, Boyacá. Bogota, Colombia: Museo Arqueológico del Banco Popular, 1974.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. An anthropological and social study of pottery production in a rural town of the department of Boyacá, to the north of Bogota. Examines the functioning of family workshops, ceramic techniques, the different forms and functions of the pots, and their final market distribution.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Osborn, Ann. El vuelo de las tijeretas. Bogota, Colombia: Fundación de Investigaciones Arqueológicas Nacionales, Banco de la República, 1985.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. An early attempt at collaborative research with indigenous people, namely the U’wa of the eastern Cordillera. It relates knowledge derived from an orally transmitted myth to the settlements and sacred sites in the regional landscape and more remote areas. A partial English version is available in: Osborn, Ann. “Multiculturalism in the Eastern Andes.” In Archaeological Approaches to Cultural Identity. Edited by S. J. Shennan, 141–156. London: Routledge, 1989.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Rappaport, Joanne, and Thomas B. F. Cummins. Beyond the Lettered City: Indigenous Literacies in the Andes. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. The first attempt made by North American scholars, namely Rappaport, an anthropologist and historian, and Cummins, an art historian, to identify indigenous agency in the visual culture of Nueva Granada, as Colombia was known during the colonial period.
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