API tools faq
paste
Advertisement
jonstond2

History of Police (Criminology)

jonstond2
Feb 16th, 2018
465
0
Never
Add comment
Not a member of Pastebin yet? Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!
text 76.09 KB | None | 0 0
raw download clone embed print report
  1. Introduction
  2. “Police history” predates the evolution of the “police” as a permanent occupational group within a bureaucratic institution, providing the primary state response to crime and disorder. That was primarily a development of the 19th century and a reaction to the rapid social change of the industrial revolution and rapid urbanization. Prior to 1800, governments maintained order by a variety of means, local and national. One of the key historical debates concerns the effectiveness of these approaches and the degree of continuity between the premodern and modern police models. Around 1800 a small number of distinctively different types of police institution emerged. The French, under Napoleon, instituted the Gendarmerie, a state military police model. It evolved from the “Marechaussee,” which had had a dual military and civil function since the 16th century. The model was exported across Europe by Napoleon. The British developed two models. The first, set up to answer similar challenges to the Gendarmerie in France, was the Royal Irish Constabulary model. It was close to the state military model, but distinctively styled as part of the civil power of the state and subordinated to the Magistracy. The Irish model was subsequently exported to Britain’s colonies and became the basis of forces such as the Indian Police Service. The Metropolitan Police was consciously created as a local force with a uniform that was deliberately different from the military and a mission that focused on prevention of crime rather than the repression of disorder. This state civilian model became the basis for all UK forces on the mainland and the principal influence on the development of East Coast US policing in the 1840s. As the three models have developed and evolved in different political systems over the years since 1800, they have both diverged and converged in various ways. There has been significant convergence in the basic disciplines of policing. However, the governance of the police, the use of force, and the management of public disorder have, in many cases, remained quite distinct in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. This bibliography has been organized by national histories. This is, in some ways, the easiest way to organize the material, but it also presents some difficulties in showing some of the crosscutting issues and challenges.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. This set of references provides a good overall introduction to the history of the police. Emsley 2011, in particular, provides an overview of the history of policing from premodern times to the 20th century, with extensive bibliographic resources for further research. Uchida 2011 provides a good overview of US police history. Wakefield and Fleming 2009 provides a set of succinct summaries of the police history from across the globe. However, these general introductions identify a significant gap in the literature, in that there is no credible, single-volume history of the police which has attempted to summarize the similarities and differences in the development of the police across the modern developing world. There are some more recent attempts to provide comparative analyses of late-20th-century policing, but so far policing has tended to be treated as an aspect of national history rather than a subject of more general application. This has always been a problematic approach because of the relative fragility of national states and has become progressively more problematic since World War II with the influence of transnational institutions such as Interpol, the United Nations, and the European Union and the growth of transnational policing. Mawby 2008, an article in the Handbook of Policing, addresses some of the difficulties of the comparative approach. However, it does identify some general themes about the relationship between types of policing and industrial development, colonialism and communism, which run across national and regional boundaries. Emsley 2011 provides a very wide-ranging set of articles on policing history generally, and Emsley and Shpayer-Makov 2006 provides the best coverage of the history of the detective.
  6.  
  7. Emsley, C., ed. 2011. The history of policing. 4 vols. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.
  8.  
  9. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  10.  
  11. This four-volume collection on police history is supported by first-class introductory essays and bibliographies in each volume. The collection is somewhat Anglo-Saxon in its overall focus, and the articles and papers in the collection are all in English. However, the collection provides a very comprehensive treatment of English-speaking policing and a substantial treatment of European and Commonwealth countries.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15.  
  16. Emsley, Clive, and Haia Shpayer-Makov, eds. 2006. Police detectives in history, 1750–1950. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
  17.  
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19.  
  20. A collection of essays about the role of detectives ranging from the Bow Street Runners through to modern times and covering the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, and the wider British Empire.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24.  
  25. Mawby, R. I. 2008. Models of policing. In Handbook of policing. 2d ed. Edited by T. Newburn, 17–46. Cullompton, UK: Willan.
  26.  
  27. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  28.  
  29. Mawby’s introductory article to the Handbook’s section on police history provides a region-by-region analysis of the different police systems across the world. The article identifies the difficulties of comparative approaches because of the considerable differences between national contexts and stages of societal development. Mawby includes a short bibliography at the conclusion.
  30.  
  31. Find this resource:
  32.  
  33.  
  34. Uchida, C. 2011. The development of the American police: An historical overview. In Critical issues in policing: Contemporary readings. 6th ed. Edited by R. G. Dunham and G. P. Alpert, 14–30. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
  35.  
  36. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  37.  
  38. Uchida provides the most succinct review of US police history starting with colonial police systems before the American Revolution and leading up to modern times. Uchida emphasizes the continuity of key issues from very early roots in premodern England and the recurring nature of problems such as corruption, riots, and reforms through the 19th and 20th centuries.
  39.  
  40. Find this resource:
  41.  
  42.  
  43. Wakefield, A., and J. Fleming. 2009. The SAGE dictionary of policing. London: SAGE.
  44.  
  45. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  46.  
  47. The SAGE Dictionary has an eleven-page section devoted to police history, with entries on police history in the United Kingdom, United States, Africa, Australia, China, France, Germany, Japan, Latin America, and Russia, each supported by further reading suggestions.
  48.  
  49. Find this resource:
  50.  
  51.  
  52. Journals
  53. Crime, History, and Societies is a journal dedicated to historical treatment of crime and its interaction with societies. The journal provides articles, book reviews, and opinion pieces which are invaluable to the student of police history. It has an excellent search facility, and articles other than for the most recent years are available for download online.
  54.  
  55. Crime, History, and Societies.
  56.  
  57. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  58.  
  59. The journal of the International Association for the History of Crime and Criminal Justice, Crime, History, and Societies has an extensive collection of articles about police history.
  60.  
  61. Find this resource:
  62.  
  63.  
  64. Before the “Modern Police”
  65. There has been increasing interest in the policing arrangements, which were in place before the “new police,” or modern police era, which emerged at the end of the 18th century. Emsley 2007 provides an important modern overview of the development of policing. The early writers about the “invention” of the police, such as Reith, Ascoli, and Critchley, were writing in the “Whig” tradition of historical writing, in which social progress was seen as a product of the enlightenment. In their writings, the creation of the “new police” was a response to the decay of the older systems, which are often characterized as a hangover from medieval times. More recent analysis in Kent 1986 has challenged this, finding that the 16th and 17th constabulary in England were far from as wretched as their Shakespearean caricature. Beattie 2007 also shows that the London policing systems such as the Bow Street Runners had much to commend them and much that would persist into the modern police force. This is a growing area of historical research and is providing an important corrective to the work of early-20th-century authors such as Reith. This research is well summarized in the collection Emsley 2011 and in Rawlings 2008.
  66.  
  67. Beattie, J. 2007. Garrow and the detectives: Lawyers and policemen at the Old Bailey in the late eighteenth century. Crime, History and Societies 11.2: 5–23.
  68.  
  69. DOI: 10.4000/chs.212Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  70.  
  71. The article investigates the reputation of the Bow Street Runners, the group of quasi-official police officers established at the Bow Street magistrates court by Henry and John Fielding in the second half of the 18th century.
  72.  
  73. Find this resource:
  74.  
  75.  
  76. Emsley, C. 2007. Crime, police and penal policy: European experiences, 1750–1940. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  77.  
  78. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199202850.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  79.  
  80. In Part 1 of this book, Emsley draws on work from across Europe and compares the different policing structures and emergence of modern policing at the turn of the 19th century.
  81.  
  82. Find this resource:
  83.  
  84.  
  85. Emsley, C., ed. 2011. Theories and origins of the modern police. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.
  86.  
  87. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  88.  
  89. Emsley’s edited collection of essays starts with an introductory essay by Emsley placing each of the articles into the context of up-to-date research. The introduction concludes with a short bibliographic essay and select bibliography.
  90.  
  91. Find this resource:
  92.  
  93.  
  94. Kent, J. R. 1986. The English village constable, 1580–1642: A social and administrative study. Oxford: Clarendon.
  95.  
  96. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  97.  
  98. Kent challenges the “Shakespeare” view of the constable as characterized by Dogberry, Dull, and Elbow. The book explores the function, selection, and social characteristics of constables and evaluates their performance and conduct in office. Kent demonstrates that constables provided a flexible and generally effective means of interlinking the state and local communities in early modern England.
  99.  
  100. Find this resource:
  101.  
  102.  
  103. Rawlings, P. 2008. Policing before the police. In Handbook of policing. 2d ed. Edited by T. Newburn, 47–71. Cullompton, UK: Willan.
  104.  
  105. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  106.  
  107. Rawlings provides an overview of the development of police through the Middle Ages and early modern times up to the end of the eighteenth century. The chapter is supported by an extensive bibliographic section and a strong bibliography. A very useful introduction to the area, which is expanded in Rawlings 2001 (cited under United Kingdom).
  108.  
  109. Find this resource:
  110.  
  111.  
  112. Reith, C. 1938. The police idea: Its history and evolution in the eighteenth century and after. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  113.  
  114. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  115.  
  116. Reith is an important historian of the police and a central proponent of the “Whig” historical view of the police. In this approach, the police were a product of a largely consensual response to disorder arising from the end of the Napoleonic War and the inefficiency of the premodern systems. Reith places Peel as a central figure in inventing a profoundly English institution. It is from Reith’s work that “Peel’s principles” have tended to be drawn.
  117.  
  118. Find this resource:
  119.  
  120.  
  121. The Development of the “Modern Police”
  122. The reasons for the creation of a “modern police” and the ways in which the police developed around the turn of the 19th century have been subjected to substantial scrutiny, as seen in Silver 1967. Moreover, the myth of the foundation of a “new police” with a primarily preventive role in London in the 1820s has had a resonance down the two centuries since Peel’s Metropolitan Police was founded. Ascoli 1979 presents very much the official history view, consistent with Reith’s “Whig” historical approach. But even the official histories have produced controversies about the authorship of “Peel’s principles” which have been cited again and again in modern political arguments about policing—Lentz and Chaires 2007. As Styles 1987 and Brogden 1987 show, the nature and origins of modern policing in England can generate fierce political debate about the extent to which the Metropolitan Police presented a radical departure or an evolution from preexisting systems of policing and the relationship between “colonial” systems of policing and the domestic police. Emsley 1999 and Miller 1977 demonstrate the complexity of the development of policing in the United States and Europe through the 19th century.
  123.  
  124. Ascoli, D. 1979. The queen’s peace: The origins and development of the Metropolitan Police, 1829–1979. London: Hamish Hamilton.
  125.  
  126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127.  
  128. Very much the official history of the Metropolitan Police, published to coincide with the 150th anniversary of their creation, but a very good source of material on the founding and early history of the force.
  129.  
  130. Find this resource:
  131.  
  132.  
  133. Bayley, D. 1985. Patterns of policing. A comparative international analysis. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.
  134.  
  135. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  136.  
  137. Bayley starts from the 1970s and works back to the origins of modern policing systems, arguing that national cultures and political systems were the key determinant of the form of the police system and that there has been remarkable consistency in these systems since their inception.
  138.  
  139. Find this resource:
  140.  
  141.  
  142. Brogden, M. 1987. The emergence of the police: The colonial dimension. British Journal of Criminology 27.1: 4–14.
  143.  
  144. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  145.  
  146. Brogden’s article is best read together with Styles 1987. Brogden is particularly concerned with how interpretations of the history of policing have been allowed to influence modern debates about policing. Brogden’s article is something of a polemic, which can be summarized in the following quote: “ethnocentricity, inadequate comparative knowledge of policing and a-historicism are the hall marks of the Anglo-American sociology of the police” (p. 5).
  147.  
  148. Find this resource:
  149.  
  150.  
  151. Emsley, C. 1999. A typology of nineteenth-century police. Crime, History, and Societies 3.1: 19–24.
  152.  
  153. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  154.  
  155. Emsley provides a critical review of the development of the police in England, France, Italy, and Prussia. He suggests that three broad forms of policing emerged—state civilian, state military, and civilian municipal—and observes that states borrowed ideas and practices from each other. He argues against the strong focus of Bayley 1985 on national cultures as the key determinant of police systems.
  156.  
  157. Find this resource:
  158.  
  159.  
  160. Lentz, S. A., and R. H. Chaires. 2007. The invention of Peel’s principles: A study of policing “textbook” history. Journal of Criminal Justice 35 (January–February): 69–79.
  161.  
  162. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.11.016Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163.  
  164. Lentz and Chaires researched the origins of the much used “Peel’s principles.” The study found that they are largely the invention of 20th-century textbook authors. From this understanding emerge several considerations for the future of textbook history and of Peel’s principles and their subsequent use in police history and political documents on policing.
  165.  
  166. Find this resource:
  167.  
  168.  
  169. Miller, W. R. 1977. Cops and bobbies: Police authority in New York and London, 1830–1870. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  170.  
  171. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  172.  
  173. Miller compared the Metropolitan Police and the New York Police Department—their inception, organization, and culture. He concluded that, although the NYPD borrowed heavily from the Metropolitan Police model, NYPD fundamentally differed from the Metropolitan Police, in that it was a municipal, not a national, force and it responded to ward-level politics, not the Home Secretary as in London.
  174.  
  175. Find this resource:
  176.  
  177.  
  178. Silver, A. 1967. The demand for order in civil society: A review of some themes in the history of urban crime, police, and riot. In The police: Six sociological essays. Edited by D. J. Bordua. New York: Wiley.
  179.  
  180. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  181.  
  182. Silver’s article, which covers France, England, and the United States, suggests that the key spur to the creation of the modern police was the fear among a growing middle class of the “dangerous classes” of urban poor which rapid industrialization produced.
  183.  
  184. Find this resource:
  185.  
  186.  
  187. Styles, J. 1987. Emergence of the police: Explaining police reform in eighteenth and nineteenth century England. British Journal of Criminology 27.1: 15–22.
  188.  
  189. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  190.  
  191. Styles’s article provides a response to Brogden 1987. Styles disputes Brogden’s analysis of the “new police” and suggests that the continuities with preceding forms of policing were much greater than Brogden allows. Styles also argues that Brogden’s stark division of policing into English and colonial models does not stand scrutiny and that there was much more linkage between the two.
  192.  
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195.  
  196. Women in Policing
  197. There is increasing interest in the role of women in policing. As Joan Lock’s autobiographical study shows (Lock 1979), policewomen started to make an impact in the early part of the 20th century. Price and Gavin 1979 provide a narrative analysis of the role of women in US policing in the 20th century. Corsianos 2009 highlights the feminist historical perspective and covers both Canada and the United States.
  198.  
  199. Corsianos, M. 2009. Policing and gendered justice: Examining the possibilities. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.
  200.  
  201. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  202.  
  203. This book covers the role of women in policing in both Canada and the United States. It provides a strong feminist perspective on the development of policing and the role of women.
  204.  
  205. Find this resource:
  206.  
  207.  
  208. Lock, J. 1979. The British policewoman: Her story. London: Robert Hale.
  209.  
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211.  
  212. A personal history of the British policewoman by one of the first women police officers, who joined shortly after World War I.
  213.  
  214. Find this resource:
  215.  
  216.  
  217. Price, B. R., and S. Gavin. 1979. A century of women in policing. In Modern police administration. Edited by D. O. Schultz. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.
  218.  
  219. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  220.  
  221. The authors survey the history of women’s involvement in policing as first auxiliary officers in the early 20th century through to modern times.
  222.  
  223. Find this resource:
  224.  
  225.  
  226. United Kingdom
  227. There are important differences between the policing history of the constituent parts of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and (Northern) Ireland. Above all, the legal systems of the United Kingdoms differ significantly. The development of policing systems in the three main kingdoms followed quite distinct paths: in England, the historical focus has tended to be on 1829 and the subsequent legislation that saw a rapid growth of police forces across England and Wales through the 1840s and 1850s; in Scotland, there were considerable differences between the urban centers of Glasgow and Edinburgh and the rural, particularly Highland areas of Scotland, but it is arguable that Scotland’s earliest police forces predate the Metropolitan Police; Ireland was, generally, apart from Dublin and Belfast, the recipient of a more “colonial” type of policing, which, like the Metropolitan Police, was created by Robert Peel. After 1922 and the foundation of the Irish Republic, the policing of North and South has diverged, but with some strong cultural continuities. Cowley 2011 and Rawlings 2001 provide good introductions to the history. Palmer 1988, a much more detailed work, illustrates how the constituent parts of the United Kingdom influenced each other.
  228.  
  229. Cowley, R. 2011. A history of the British police from its earliest beginnings to the present day. Stroud, UK: History Press.
  230.  
  231. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  232.  
  233. Cowley provides an up-to-date narrative of the British police service. The book draws extensively on material from local police histories and has a useful bibliography of local force histories.
  234.  
  235. Find this resource:
  236.  
  237.  
  238. Palmer, S. H. 1988. Police and protest in England and Ireland. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  239.  
  240. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241.  
  242. Palmer’s work is a substantial and careful analysis of the contrasting development in England and Ireland and the ways in which developments in each influenced the other.
  243.  
  244. Find this resource:
  245.  
  246.  
  247. Rawlings, P. 2001. Policing: A short history. Cullompton, UK: Devon.
  248.  
  249. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250.  
  251. Rawlings provides a more modern version of Critchley’s seminal work. He deals extensively with the development of policing in the Middle Ages and early modern periods and draws on modern research which has placed greater emphasis on the effectiveness of the premodern policing systems.
  252.  
  253. Find this resource:
  254.  
  255.  
  256. England and Wales
  257. The history of policing in England and Wales has probably been the subject of the most extensive historical research of any policing system so far. The interplay between historical research and modern political debate about policing continues to be a significant element of this research, because the “British bobby” remains a powerful national symbol in Britain and a source of national pride. The range of work is so extensive that this section is divided into 19th- and 20th-century coverage.
  258.  
  259. 19th Century
  260. A good place to start is with Emsley 2009, a best-selling book on the “British bobby,” and Emsley 1991, an earlier study of the English police. The myth of a golden age of policing strongly supported by the public is central to Critchley 1967. His approach has been subjected to careful and critical analysis in Philips and Storch 1999 and Taylor 1997. A number of the studies, including those two, cited here demonstrate that the foundation of the modern police was both controversial and contested and that their creation led to power plays between local elites for their control. The Lawrence 2011 collection does an excellent job of pulling together the different perspectives. Increasingly our understanding of the history has been developed by detailed studies of the different police forces and the individual narratives of the officers and staff who served in them and of the chief constables who ran them (Wall 1998 and Stallion and Wall 2011). The social history of policing has been able to demonstrate how policing both responded to wider social changes and influenced them.
  261.  
  262. Critchley, T. A. 1967. A history of the police in England and Wales. London: Constable.
  263.  
  264. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  265.  
  266. The author of this important work was the Secretary to the Royal Commission on the Police from 1960 to 1962. Critchley’s work provides a careful, if somewhat “Whig history,” review of the historic development of the police from Saxon times. The strongest sections of the book are post–World War I, where Critchley, as a senior civil servant in the Home Office, had access to primary source material.
  267.  
  268. Find this resource:
  269.  
  270.  
  271. Emsley, C. 1991. The English police: A political and social history. Hemel Hempstead, UK: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
  272.  
  273. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  274.  
  275. Emsley has been one of the most important authors on police history and, particularly, English police history. This work on the English police provides the best single-volume survey. The underlying theme of Emsley’s work is that since the 19th century there has been a creeping centralization of English policing driven by arguments for better efficiency, national emergencies such as the world wars, and the growth of police professionalism.
  276.  
  277. Find this resource:
  278.  
  279.  
  280. Emsley, C. 2009. The great British bobby: A history of British policing from the 18th century to the present. London: Quercus.
  281.  
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283.  
  284. Emsley tells the story of the institutions of policing in Britain through the history of the bobby, the nickname for the police constable that derived from Sir Robert Peel.
  285.  
  286. Find this resource:
  287.  
  288.  
  289. Lawrence, P., ed. 2011. The new police in the nineteenth century. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.
  290.  
  291. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  292.  
  293. This second volume of Emsley 2011 (cited under General Overviews) takes the history on through the 19th century. The 19th-century reforms and creation of the “new police” in London and rural England, and the development of policing in Ireland and some wider European, US, and colonial comparisons, provide a wide-ranging coverage. Lawrence’s introductory essay concludes with a short bibliographic essay.
  294.  
  295. Find this resource:
  296.  
  297.  
  298. Philips, D., and R. Storch. 1999. Policing provincial England, 1829–1856: The politics of reform. London: Leicester Univ. Press.
  299.  
  300. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  301.  
  302. This book focuses on the key transition period between the enabling legislation that allowed local constabularies to be formed and the requirement to have a police force. The authors examine the power and influence of local rural elites and the way in which they shaped the new police forces.
  303.  
  304. Find this resource:
  305.  
  306.  
  307. Stallion, M., and D. S. Wall. 2011. The British police: Police forces and chief officers, 1829–2011. 2d ed. Bramshill, UK: Police History Society.
  308.  
  309. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  310.  
  311. This book provides a comprehensive account of the setting up of local police in the United Kingdom and a full listing of all the forces, their chief constables, and the dates they were founded, merged, or abolished. It concludes with an indispensable ninety-page bibliography of local police force histories.
  312.  
  313. Find this resource:
  314.  
  315.  
  316. Taylor, D. 1997. The new police in nineteenth century England: Crime, conflict and control. Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press.
  317.  
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319.  
  320. Taylor provides an up-to-date introduction, which sets the development of modern policing in the wider social and economic context of an urbanizing and industrializing society. The study focuses on popular responses and highlights the ambivalence that surrounded the new police and the continuing, often vicious, opposition to the police in many parts of urban and rural England, which frustrated the hopes of police reformers and their supporters.
  321.  
  322. Find this resource:
  323.  
  324.  
  325. Wall, D. S. 1998. Chief constables of England and Wales: The socio-legal history of a criminal justice elite. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate.
  326.  
  327. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328.  
  329. The book is based on a study of all chief officers that are known to have held office in the provincial forces in England and Wales between 1836 and 1996. It explores how the organizational context, legislation, and social change affected the character and style of the chief constables over time.
  330.  
  331. Find this resource:
  332.  
  333.  
  334. 20th Century
  335. As with the 19th-century works cited, the British bobby remains a key topic. The Williams 2011 collection provides the richest coverage of the topic. The symbolic importance of the police is emphasized in a number of studies of later, 20th-century, policing, notably Loader and Mulcahy 2003 and Newburn 2008. There has been an ongoing debate about who should and who is controlling the police, as Reiner 2010, a survey of the history, and Brain 2010, a study of the recent history of the police, show. Jones 1996 and Klein 2010 provide local force histories which shed important light on the day-to-day workings of the police. The report of the Royal Commission on the Police 1962 is both a seminal document on the police and an important “official” history—the first chapters of the Commission review the history of the police before the authors, who included Critchley, moved on to the recommendations.
  336.  
  337. Brain, T. 2010. A history of policing in England and Wales from 1974: A turbulent journey. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  338.  
  339. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  340.  
  341. Brain, a former chief constable of Gloucestershire, provides the most authoritative account of the police service since the Royal Commission of 1962. Brain documents the drift toward central control and the constant tensions between local police forces and the Home Office. The sections on the 1990s and 2000s are underpinned by the author’s personal knowledge and involvement as an actor.
  342.  
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345.  
  346. Jones, D. 1996. Crime and policing in the twentieth century: The South Wales experience. Cardiff, UK: Univ. of Wales Press.
  347.  
  348. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  349.  
  350. A careful and scholarly study of one police force’s history in the 20th century, which provides a strong insight into the policing of Wales.
  351.  
  352. Find this resource:
  353.  
  354.  
  355. Klein, J. 2010. Invisible men: The secret lives of police constables in Liverpool, Manchester and Birmingham, 1900–1939. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool Univ. Press.
  356.  
  357. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  358.  
  359. Klein provides a very readable study of the working lives of police officers outside London in the period between the two world wars that saw considerable reform following the Police Strike in 1919.
  360.  
  361. Find this resource:
  362.  
  363.  
  364. Loader, I., and A. Mulcahy. 2003. Police and the condition of England: Memory, politics and culture. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  365.  
  366. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198299066.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367.  
  368. Loader and Mulcahy draw on documentary analysis of official “representations” of policing, and oral historical research with citizens, police officers, former government ministers, and civil servants, to show that, far from being “demystified,” policing is a cultural institution that remains deeply entangled with questions of subjectivity, recognition, belonging, and collective identity. They highlight the significance of “policing past” for the “policing present.”
  369.  
  370. Find this resource:
  371.  
  372.  
  373. Newburn, T. 2008. Policing since 1945. In Handbook of policing. 2d ed. Edited by T. Newburn, 90–114. Cullompton, UK: Willan.
  374.  
  375. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  376.  
  377. Newburn provides an authoritative review of developments in the United Kingdom since World War II with particular attention to the way that the police role and organization expanded, the issues of legitimacy and local governance, and the relationship with central government. Newburn’s central thesis is that police have increased in importance as an institution but have also lost the public’s respect along the way.
  378.  
  379. Find this resource:
  380.  
  381.  
  382. Reiner, R. 2010. The politics of the police. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  383.  
  384. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  385.  
  386. This is a key work of both criminology and the history of the police. The first section of the book provides a compelling narrative of the creation and legitimization of the modern police. Reiner reviews the orthodox histories (such as Critchley) and the revisionist approaches (such as Storch) and seeks to provide a synthesis of the arguments on the creation and development of English policing.
  387.  
  388. Find this resource:
  389.  
  390.  
  391. Royal Commission on the Police. 1962. Final Report: Cmnd 1728. London: HMSO.
  392.  
  393. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  394.  
  395. Apart from being a seminal document in itself on the development of the police service in England and Wales, the Royal Commission report also contains a careful examination of the historical development of England and Wales policing, the role of the police, the role and authority of the constable and chief constable, and the governance arrangements for police forces.
  396.  
  397. Find this resource:
  398.  
  399.  
  400. Williams, C. A., ed. 2011. Police and policing in the twentieth century. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.
  401.  
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403.  
  404. This book, the third volume of Emsley 2011, (cited under General Overviews)is focused exclusively on the British police through the 20th century. Subjects covered include the organization of the police, the impact of technology, the nature of the police role, crises of policing, and the police themselves. Williams’s introductory essay places the articles into context and provides a short bibliographic essay and selected readings.
  405.  
  406. Find this resource:
  407.  
  408.  
  409. English Police Bibliographies
  410. English police history is supported by some rich resources, and Brett 1979 and the Bibliography of British Police History are two of the more significant, deriving as they do from the Police History Society and the Open University’s substantial commitment to police history.
  411.  
  412. Bibliography of British Police History.
  413.  
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415.  
  416. A comprehensive and searchable bibliography of British police history maintained at the Open University in the United Kingdom, which was started by Stanley Nash, Rutgers University, and is maintained by Chris Williams of Open University.
  417.  
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420.  
  421. Brett, D. T. 1979. The police of England and Wales: A bibliography, 1829–1979 Bramshill, UK: Police Staff College Library.
  422.  
  423. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  424.  
  425. A bibliography compiled and published for the Police History Society and drawing on the resources of the National Police Staff College at Bramshill in Hampshire.
  426.  
  427. Find this resource:
  428.  
  429.  
  430. Scotland
  431. There is an increasingly impressive volume of research on Scottish police history. Scotland’s importance to the intellectual arguments in support of new policing systems, the early development of police systems in Scotland set out in Barrie 2008 and McGowan 2010, and the contribution of Scotland, particularly cities like Glasgow, have spread Scottish influence on police and policing far beyond the nation’s boundaries. The Scottish legal system and local government system was and is distinctively different from England and Wales and Ireland, and this has resulted in some quite marked differences in governance and practice, as discussed in Dinsmor and Goldsmith 2005.
  432.  
  433. Barrie, D. G. 2008. Police in the age of improvement: Police development and the civic tradition in Scotland, 1775–1865. Cullompton, UK: Willan.
  434.  
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436.  
  437. This provides an in-depth analysis of the economic, social, intellectual, and political factors that shaped police reform, development, and policy in Scottish burghs during the “Age of Improvement.” Barrie covers premodern systems and their workings, the development of the police in urban centers, and the way that Scotland paralleled elsewhere in Britain.
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441.  
  442. Dinsmor, A., and A. Goldsmith. 2005. Scottish policing: A historical perspective. In Policing Scotland. Edited by D. Donnelly and K. Scott, 40–61. Cullompton, UK: Willan.
  443.  
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. The authors provide an overview of Scottish police history from the development of modern systems in the late 18th century through to modern times.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450.  
  451. McGowan, J. 2010. Policing the metropolis of Scotland: A history of the police and systems of police in Edinburgh and Edinburghshire, 1770–1833. Mussleburgh, UK: Turlough.
  452.  
  453. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  454.  
  455. McGowan describes the development of modern policing systems in Edinburgh and the rural areas around Edinburghshire. His particular focus is on the ways in which changes to the local franchise system allowed representative democracy to develop and provide oversight and governance of the emerging “modern” police.
  456.  
  457. Find this resource:
  458.  
  459.  
  460. Ireland, Northern Ireland, and Eire
  461. Irish police history is important not just because of what it says about the policing of Ireland, but also because of the way that developments in Irish policing have been influential in other parts of the world, particularly within the British Empire. Ireland was seen by Westminster politicians as in need of different treatment from England and Wales. Yet, even here, there was a distinction made between the Ireland of the Pale (the original Anglo-Irish settlement around Dublin) and Belfast—covered by Griffin 1995 and Griffin 1997—and Catholic rural Ireland. Dublin and, initially, Belfast, was given its own Metropolitan Police force, while Ireland as a whole was provided with the Irish Constabulary, which evolved from the Peace Preservation Force, which was designed to provide a repressive capability based on a primarily military model. Peel was one of the architects of both the legislation and the resultant force and like many English politicians of the time saw Ireland as needing a “despotic” approach, as discussed in Ó Ceallaigh 1966. The Irish model was highly influential in the subsequent design of police forces in the colonies (Sinclair 2011), where it was perceived that there was a need to hold the ground and control populations. There is debate among historians as to how far it was the direct effect of the Irish model or simply that the characteristics of the Irish model—a primary state military model—fit the tasks. Lowe and Malcolm 1992, Lowe 1994, and Fulham 1981 show that its history was more complex than the rhetoric of repression that was generated by the struggle for Irish independence. Malcolm 2006 takes the history up to the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922. More recently, Irish policing has become a model of a different kind, with the dramatic changes brought about by the Belfast peace agreement between the British government and the nationalist community in Northern Ireland. Some commentators hail the transformation of the Royal Ulster Constabulary—the direct descendants of the Royal Irish Constabulary—into the Police Service of Northern Ireland as a model for new democratic police forces.
  462.  
  463. Fulham, Gregory J. 1981. James Shaw-Kennedy and the reform of the Irish Constabulary, 1836–38. Eire-Ireland 16:93–106.
  464.  
  465. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466.  
  467. Fulham’s article concerns the way that James Shaw-Kennedy, the Irish Commissioner, organized the Irish Constabulary as a military force and deployed them in controlling the population outside Dublin.
  468.  
  469. Find this resource:
  470.  
  471.  
  472. Griffin, B. 1995. “Such varmint”: The Dublin police and the public, 1838–1913. Irish Studies Review 4.13: 21–25.
  473.  
  474. DOI: 10.1080/09670889508455512Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475.  
  476. Griffin explores working-class views of the “new police” and seeks to explain the background to violent clashes between the Dublin Metropolitan Police and striking workers before World War I.
  477.  
  478. Find this resource:
  479.  
  480.  
  481. Griffin, B. 1997. The bulkies: Police and crime in Belfast, 1800–1865. Dublin: Irish Academic Press.
  482.  
  483. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  484.  
  485. Griffin shows how the civilian municipal model was also adopted in Belfast for part of the 19th century.
  486.  
  487. Find this resource:
  488.  
  489.  
  490. Lowe, W. J., and E. L. Malcolm. 1992. The domestication of the Royal Irish Constabulary, 1836–1922. Irish Economic and Social History 19:27–48.
  491.  
  492. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  493.  
  494. Lowe and Malcolm take the story provided in Fulham’s article and move it on toward the later 19th century, showing how the Irish Constabulary became a key institution and, if not loved, at least became a normalized part of society.
  495.  
  496. Find this resource:
  497.  
  498.  
  499. Lowe, W. J. 1994. Policing famine Ireland. Eire-Ireland 29:47–67.
  500.  
  501. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  502.  
  503. Lowe shows how significant a watershed the Irish famine was in the normalization of the Irish Constabulary. There were violent clashes during the famine, yet soon after the famine, the more routine duties seemed to bring the Constabulary into a normal routine with the people.
  504.  
  505. Find this resource:
  506.  
  507.  
  508. Malcolm, E. 2006. The Irish policeman, 1822–1922: A life. Dublin: Four Courts Press.
  509.  
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511.  
  512. Malcolm provides the major history of the Irish police up to the creation of the Irish Republic. The book draws on the articles she published earlier with Lowe.
  513.  
  514. Find this resource:
  515.  
  516.  
  517. Ó Ceallaigh, Tadhg. 1966. Peel and police reform in Ireland, 1814–18. Studia Hibernica 6:25–48.
  518.  
  519. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  520.  
  521. Ó Ceallaigh sets out the details of Peel’s first foray into police legislation in Ireland and the way that Peel designed the new Irish police force to provide a “salutary period of despotic government” (p. 333).
  522.  
  523. Find this resource:
  524.  
  525.  
  526. Sinclair, G., ed. 2011. Globalising British policing. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.
  527.  
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529.  
  530. Sinclair’s edited volume provides an outstanding collection of articles on the ways in which British models of policing influenced policing in the British Empire and Commonwealth countries. There is a particular focus on the extent to which Irish models were exported.
  531.  
  532. Find this resource:
  533.  
  534.  
  535. Europe
  536. European police history is distinctively different from the United Kingdom and the United States, yet shares similar themes. Many of the references here provide coverage of the development and dissemination of the Gendarmerie model—the state military model—in France and then across most countries in Europe, including Emsley 1999. There was always, from the early development of modern policing, parallel development of state civilian and municipal civilian models—France had variations on all three models, according to Emsley and Weinburger 1991. A key theme of a number of the histories is the impact of and operation of the police in Europe under right-wing dictatorships or Communist regimes in the 20th century. It is only recently that historians of the Nazi era and of the Occupation in countries such as France have been able to stand back from the immediacy of the events and compile more objective historical work on the police role, as seen in Dunnage 2006. Blaney 2007 and Oram 2003 provide some much needed coverage of Eastern Europe, whereas Fijnaut 2004 focuses exclusively on the north of Europe.
  537.  
  538. Blaney, G. 2007. Policing inter-war Europe: Continuity, change and crisis, 1918–1940. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
  539.  
  540. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  541.  
  542. Blaney’s edited collection features original research on ten different countries ranging from Portugal to Poland and Britain to Bulgaria. The coverage of Eastern Europe is wider than the other collections in this general section.
  543.  
  544. Find this resource:
  545.  
  546.  
  547. Dunnage, J. 2006. Policing right wing dictatorships: Some preliminary comparisons of Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany and Franco’s Spain. Crime, History, and Society 10.1: 93–122.
  548.  
  549. DOI: 10.4000/chs.200Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  550.  
  551. An important recent study of the common issues and differences in policing under the right-wing dictatorships between the wars and during World War II.
  552.  
  553. Find this resource:
  554.  
  555.  
  556. Emsley, C., and B. Weinburger, eds. 1991. Policing Western Europe: Politics, professionalism and public order, 1850–1940. New York: Greenwood.
  557.  
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559.  
  560. This collection of essays examines the growth of professionalization in national police forces in England, France, Germany, Ireland, and the Netherlands.
  561.  
  562. Find this resource:
  563.  
  564.  
  565. Emsley, C. 1999. Gendarmes and the state in nineteenth century Europe. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  566.  
  567. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198207986.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  568.  
  569. Emsley provides an account of how the Gendarmerie model was developed and spread across Europe.
  570.  
  571. Find this resource:
  572.  
  573.  
  574. Fijnaut, Cyril, ed. 2004. The impact of World War II on policing in North-West Europe. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven Univ. Press.
  575.  
  576. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577.  
  578. This collection brings together studies comparing the Dutch police with other northwest European countries and seeks to explore the way that the Dutch police and others operated during and after the war. The studies also touch on the way in which the postwar world of European cooperation has been influenced by the war years.
  579.  
  580. Find this resource:
  581.  
  582.  
  583. Oram, G., ed. 2003. Conflict and legality: Policing mid-twentieth century Europe. Papers presented at a conference held at the Open Univ., Milton Keynes, May 2003. London: Francis Boutle.
  584.  
  585. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  586.  
  587. This collection of eight essays contains, among others, four essays on policing on Nazi Germany and essays on the policing of situations of conflict and repression. It does not, however, cover Eastern Europe.
  588.  
  589. Find this resource:
  590.  
  591.  
  592. France
  593. The history of policing in France shows a more obvious institutional continuity between the ancient regime and the modern police systems than in Great Britain. The French model has a stronger state military tradition than the British model. The Gendarmerie evolved from the pre-Napoleonic Marechaussee according to Larrieu 2002, which Levy suggests was a substantial influence on the creation of the Royal Irish Constabulary, itself a major influence on Britain’s colonial model of policing. Alongside the Gendarmerie, which had a primary responsibility for rural France, there was also a strong tradition of municipal policing accountable to the prefect of the department and the local mayor. These issues are well covered in Berliere and Levy 2011 and Berliere 2011. Gradually, over the 19th century, the national government assumed a larger role in dictating the shape of local policing and the nature of the relationships between prefect and mayor and the police, culminating in the 20th century with the creation of the National Police in 1941, which assumed responsibility for the police of cities of more ten thousand people. The policing of the German Occupation between 1940 and 1945 is a particularly controversial task for French historians, as Berliere and Chabrun 2009 set out. Anderson 2011 deals with key themes in French policing history, notably the parallel existence of the state civilian model in the cities and the state military model in the countryside and the tensions between the local and national layers of politics. Merriman 2005 studies the lives of police officers and provides a more individual focus.
  594.  
  595. Anderson, M. 2011. In thrall to political change: Police and Gendarmerie in France. Oxford: Oxford Univ.Press.
  596.  
  597. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  598.  
  599. A major new analysis of the French police and Gendarmerie and their relationship with the French Republic and their politicians. Anderson seeks to set the development of the French police in the wider context of historical and sociological debates about policing.
  600.  
  601. Find this resource:
  602.  
  603.  
  604. Berliere, J. M. 2011. Naissance de la police moderne. Paris: Librairie Academique Perrin.
  605.  
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607.  
  608. Berliere documents the reforms at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries—institutional, technological, and professional—that have led to the development of the modern police.
  609.  
  610. Find this resource:
  611.  
  612.  
  613. Berliere, J. M., and L. Chabrun. 2009. Policiers français sous l’occupation: D’Après les archives de l’épuration. Paris: Librairie Academique Perrin.
  614.  
  615. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  616.  
  617. This book examines the role of the French police under the Nazi Occupation. The authors use much archive material that was not previously available, and they have had the benefit of writing at sufficient distance from the subject to be able to exercise greater historical objectivity on a subject that remains painful for many French people.
  618.  
  619. Find this resource:
  620.  
  621.  
  622. Berliere, J. M., and R. Levy. 2011. Histoire des polices en France: De l’Ancien Régime à nos jours. Paris: Nouveau Monde.
  623.  
  624. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  625.  
  626. Berliere and Levy provide a major new analysis of the history of policing in France. They explore the continuities between the policing of the ancient regime and modern police, examining the different missions of the police—public order, criminal investigation, and political police—and how the French system was organized and developed to respond to these.
  627.  
  628. Find this resource:
  629.  
  630.  
  631. Larrieu, L. 2002. Histoire de la Maréchaussée et de la Gendarmerie: Des origines à la quatrième République. Ivry-sur-Seine, France: Phenix Editions.
  632.  
  633. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  634.  
  635. Written by a former soldier and Gendarmerie officer, this work provides a detailed and wide-ranging treatment of the early history and 19th-century development of the Gendarmerie.
  636.  
  637. Find this resource:
  638.  
  639.  
  640. Merriman, J. 2005. Police stories: Building the French state: 1815–1851. New York: Oxford Univ.Press.
  641.  
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643.  
  644. Merriman focuses on the importance of the emerging police force as an emblem of the state for the citizen. His “stories” revolve around the lives of police officers and their careers, the street life that they dealt with, and the problems they encountered, drawn from primary sources.
  645.  
  646. Find this resource:
  647.  
  648.  
  649. Germany
  650. Germany did not become a unified state until the late 19th century, and even then the responsibility for policing rested primarily at the local level with the Länder, according to Reinke 1991 and Reinke 2007, who is a key historian of German policing. It was only during the Nazi era that policing became a national function, as seen in Evans 2003. The essays in Oram 2003 also provide an important discussion of policing in the Third Reich. After the fall of Hitler, policing returned to the Länder in West Germany but not in Communist East Germany, where the nationalized Nazi system developed into the Stasi, the Communist state security system. On reunification, East Germany also reverted to the localized model, which is discussed in Bessel 2003. Germany was slower than Great Britain and France to industrialize in the 19th century and slower to replace “ancien regime” systems of policing with modern systems. The military continued to play a large part in the maintenance of public order right up to World War I. Angolia and Taylor 2004 and Angolia and Taylor 2009 provide a very detailed history of the individual police forces, their organization, and their uniforms.
  651.  
  652. Angolia, J., and H. Taylor. 2004. Uniforms, organization, and history of the German police. Vol. 1. San Jose, CA: R. James Bender.
  653.  
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655.  
  656. This first volume provides substantial comprehensive coverage of the history and organization of the German police, with very good photographs and supporting illustrations.
  657.  
  658. Find this resource:
  659.  
  660.  
  661. Angolia, J., and H. Taylor. 2009. Uniforms, organization, and history of the German police. Vol. 2. San Jose, CA: R. James Bender.
  662.  
  663. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  664.  
  665. The second volume of the series deals with the specialist units of the German police. Like the first volume, it is very well illustrated.
  666.  
  667. Find this resource:
  668.  
  669.  
  670. Bessel, R. 2003. Policing in East Germany in the wake of the Second World War. Crime, History, and Society 7.2: 7–21.
  671.  
  672. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  673.  
  674. Bessel focuses on policing in Germany in the Soviet Occupation Zone after 1945, and how the new “People’s Police” developed during the difficult postwar years. Initially, when the needs of the population for police protection were greatest, the new police force was least able to provide that protection. Lacking sufficient trained personnel, equipment, and powers, the Volkspolizei could not really effectively police a profoundly shaken postwar society.
  675.  
  676. Find this resource:
  677.  
  678.  
  679. Evans, R. J. 2003. The coming of the Third Reich. London: Allen Lane.
  680.  
  681. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  682.  
  683. Evans’s history of the Third Reich—its development and coming to power, its operation when in power, and the Third Reich at war—provides considerable coverage of the way in which the Nazis suborned and controlled the police and how “police” units committed atrocities within Germany and in Occupied territory. Evans’s work places the police within the context of the wider Nazi machine.
  684.  
  685. Find this resource:
  686.  
  687.  
  688. Oram, G., ed. 2003. Conflict and legality: Policing mid-twentieth century Europe. London: Francis Boutle.
  689.  
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691.  
  692. This collection of essays contains, among others, four essays on policing in Nazi Germany. The essays on Nazi Germany are particularly strong and usefully set.
  693.  
  694. Find this resource:
  695.  
  696.  
  697. Reinke, H. 1991. “Armed as if for a war”: The state, the military and the professionalisation of the Prussian police in Imperial Germany. In Policing Western Europe: Politics, professionalism and public order, 1850–1940. Edited by C. Emsley and B. Weinburger, 55–73. New York: Greenwood.
  698.  
  699. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  700.  
  701. Reinke is a key historian of the German police, and this article presents a key theme about German policing—the strong relationship between the police and the military model in Prussia.
  702.  
  703. Find this resource:
  704.  
  705.  
  706. Reinke, H. 2007. Crime and criminal justice history in Germany: A report on recent trends. Crime, History and Societies 15.1: 117–137.
  707.  
  708. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  709.  
  710. Reinke provides an up-to-date bibliographic overview of work on German criminal justice and police history.
  711.  
  712. Find this resource:
  713.  
  714.  
  715. Other European Police Histories
  716. There are a limited number of histories of other European countries—the histories of policing in Eastern Europe tends to be restricted to single essays rather than major historical works. Beck and Robertson 2005 stands out for its treatment of Russia. Cyrille Fijnaut’s expertise in the study of Dutch policing makes Fijnaut 2008 an important study, particularly given the Dutch police’s wider influence as a postwar model.
  717.  
  718. Beck, A., and A. Robertson. 2005. Police reform in Russia. In Ruling Russia: Crime, law and justice in a changing society. Edited by W. Pridemore, 247–260. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.
  719.  
  720. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  721.  
  722. There are very few studies of Eastern European policing, and this is one of the best.
  723.  
  724. Find this resource:
  725.  
  726.  
  727. Fijnaut, C. 2008. A history of the Dutch police. Amsterdam: Boom.
  728.  
  729. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  730.  
  731. One of a limited number of national histories of policing, Fijnaut draws on wider comparative research to provide an important study of the Dutch police.
  732.  
  733. Find this resource:
  734.  
  735.  
  736. United States
  737. There is a considerable body of work on US police history, but it has an overwhelming focus toward urban East Coast America. Vila and Morris 1999 provide a good place to start with a very useful collection of original documents. From the start, the US Constitution, with its strong principles in favor of local self-government, encouraged the development of local, municipal police forces. In the 21st century there are more than sixteen thousand of these at municipal, county, and state levels, including police forces policing universities, ports, and national parks. The earliest municipal forces were created on the East Coast in the large conurbations such as New York, Boston, Baltimore, and Philadelphia. Monkkonnen 1981, a very influential historian, provides the most important account of the development of US policing. Most of the general accounts of American police history, such as Reppetto 2010, concentrate almost exclusively on these police forces, which are very much the exception to the majority of US police forces, which are small and situated in market towns and rural areas. Wilson 1968, a study of police forces in the 1960s and a historical document in itself now, manages to capture some of this complexity and variety, with the implications for policing style and practice. However, there remains a gap in the study of the West and particularly the Midwest of the United States, which is only partially filled by Wadman and Allison 2003. The studies of US policing have tended to echo themes in the studies of English policing, not least because the premodern policing of the English systems of government provided much of the model for local governance in the American colonies before independence. Moreover, the London model also influenced the creation of the East Coast police forces. Here, however, the similarities tend to finish, because as Miller 1977 (cited under The Development of the “Modern Police”) shows, the context and structures of governance diverged quickly. Although both systems follow the “state civilian” model, the NYPD was and is a local police force with very little relationship with national government, whereas the London force reported to the Home Secretary, who also, by the 1850s, had powers of inspection of local forces. This pattern of extreme localism in the United States allowed the development of widely differing models of policing in urban and rural settings. Kelling and Moore 1988 shows how the common problems—particularly as technology expanded—propelled a level of common professionalism through the 20th century. Vollmer 1971 was a crucial figure in the development of modern professionalism, and his personal testament still very much deserves reading.
  738.  
  739. Kelling, G. L., and M. H. Moore. 1988. Evolving strategy of policing. Perspectives on Policing 4. Cambridge, MA: John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard Univ.
  740.  
  741. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  742.  
  743. The authors argue that the history of policing can be divided into three different eras distinguished by their strategies: the political era of close police-politics ties from the 1840s to the 1900s; the reform era, a reaction to the political era that took hold in the 1930s, thrived during the 1950s and 1960s, and began to erode in the 1970s; and the era emerging in the 1980s that emphasized community problem solving.
  744.  
  745. Find this resource:
  746.  
  747.  
  748. Monkkonnen, E. H. 1981. Police in urban America, 1860–1920. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ.Press.
  749.  
  750. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511572449Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751.  
  752. Monkkonnen shows how the adoption of policing as an urban municipal service spread across urban America through the second half of the 19th century. The book demonstrates how far the system and organization of local departments was affected by local political realities, but also how influential the “English” model, as adopted by NYPD, was as a benchmark.
  753.  
  754. Find this resource:
  755.  
  756.  
  757. Reppetto, T. 2010. American police: A history, 1845–1945. New York: Enigma.
  758.  
  759. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  760.  
  761. This book provides a very readable narrative history of the development of US policing. It is heavily biased toward the urban East Coast, with substantial material on police forces in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. There is one chapter devoted to California and one to Chicago. The weakness of the book is the complete absence of any treatment of small-town, southern, or Midwestern policing.
  762.  
  763. Find this resource:
  764.  
  765.  
  766. Vila, B., and C. Morris. 1999. The role of police in American society: A documentary history. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
  767.  
  768. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  769.  
  770. The book provides primary source material with a commentary on each era of American policing from the British colony through to modern times. It is a good introductory text.
  771.  
  772. Find this resource:
  773.  
  774.  
  775. Vollmer, A. 1971. The police and modern society. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith.
  776.  
  777. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  778.  
  779. Vollmer, the police chief of Berkeley, CA, was one of the most important police reformers in the United States before World War II. This short monograph, originally published in 1936, presents his vision for police reform. The book served as an important template for police reform and the “professional” postwar police movement.
  780.  
  781. Find this resource:
  782.  
  783.  
  784. Wadman, R. C., and W. T. Allison. 2003. To protect and serve: A history of police in America. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
  785.  
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787.  
  788. The authors set out to provide an introductory text on American policing. Their central themes are organizational development, police theory, and regional evolution. They provide a good, short bibliographic essay on the main works in their introduction.
  789.  
  790. Find this resource:
  791.  
  792.  
  793. Walker, S. 1977. A critical history of police reform: The emergence of professionalism. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.
  794.  
  795. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  796.  
  797. Walker focuses on the way in which the profession of policing developed from its early beginnings in the 19th century. He shows the way in which the employment conditions of police officers and their recruitment and training affected their professional standards and how they interacted with the politics of the town hall.
  798.  
  799. Find this resource:
  800.  
  801.  
  802. Wilson, J. Q. 1968. Varieties of police behavior: The management of law and order in eight communities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  803.  
  804. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  805.  
  806. Wilson’s study remains one of the finest studies of policing. The book examines the style of policing and leadership in eight departments. Wilson reviews the historical development of the departments and shows how the changes in the departments’ policing style and leadership were affected by political and historical context.
  807.  
  808. Find this resource:
  809.  
  810.  
  811. Canada
  812. Canada’s policing history was very different from that of its neighbor, the United States. Both were British colonies, but Canada, following the independence of the United States, became both the home of British loyalists and a large population of French settlers, remnants of the French colony. The larger cities of the east coast gradually created police forces that were somewhat similar to those on the East Coast of the United States. Sewell 1985 shows how, as the railroads opened up Canada, this system spread west, but the north and west of Canada was seen as requiring a very different system—as discussed in Kelly and Kelly 1973 and Marquis 1993. Here, the distances and the need for the British Empire to find a means of “holding the ground” dictated that administrators would draw more on the Irish Constabulary model than the Metropolitan Police model, according to Marquis 2003. However, as several studies have shown, the origins of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) were as much military as policing, both in tactics and in organization. Shearing, et al. 1977 provides a useful bibliography that covers key works.
  813.  
  814. Kelly, N., and W. Kelly. 1973. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police: A century of history, 1873–1973. Edmonton, Canada: Hurtig.
  815.  
  816. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  817.  
  818. The official centennial history of the RCMP provides a good narrative history of the creation and development of the RCMP.
  819.  
  820. Find this resource:
  821.  
  822.  
  823. Marquis, G. 1993. Policing Canada’s century: A history of the Canadian Association of Chiefs of Police. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.
  824.  
  825. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  826.  
  827. The book aims to dispel the notion that Canadian police history is synonymous with that of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Using CACP convention records, official publications, speeches by members, briefs to Parliament, and correspondence and committee files, the author has identified four primary themes: technological change; politics and law enforcement; governance and accountability; and professionalization of policing.
  828.  
  829. Find this resource:
  830.  
  831.  
  832. Marquis, G. 2003. The “Irish model” and the nineteenth-century Canadian policing. Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 25:193–218.
  833.  
  834. DOI: 10.1080/03086539708582998Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  835.  
  836. Marquis documents the Irish and military influences on the development of police forces in Canada, notably the North West Mounted Police (which became the RCMP).
  837.  
  838. Find this resource:
  839.  
  840.  
  841. Sewell, J. 1985. Police: Urban policing in Canada. Toronto: Lorimer.
  842.  
  843. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  844.  
  845. Sewell provides an overview of the development of policing in urban Canada, documenting how policing spread west as the railroad spread urban development.
  846.  
  847. Find this resource:
  848.  
  849.  
  850. Shearing, C. D., F. J. Lynch, C. J. Matthews, L. Bryant, and M. Chandler. 1979. Policing in Canada: A bibliography. Ottawa: Solicitor General Canada, Research Division.
  851.  
  852. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  853.  
  854. A wide-ranging and comprehensive bibliography of material on the history of Canadian policing up to 1975.
  855.  
  856. Find this resource:
  857.  
  858.  
  859. Latin America
  860. As Bretas 2009 comments, “the history of policing in Latin America remains to be written” (p. 148). The early history of Latin American police forces parallels developments in other colonial settings but with a strong tendency to a military as opposed to civilian model. As Chevigny 1997 documents, the military tendency, including high levels of violence in enforcement, was accentuated during a 20th century that saw most Latin American regimes becoming military dictatorships. As Salvatore 1998 points out, the study of policing in South America is at an early stage.
  861.  
  862. Bretas, M. L. 2009. Latin America. In The SAGE dictionary of policing. Edited by A. Wakefield and J. Fleming. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
  863.  
  864. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  865.  
  866. A good, short overview of the current state of knowledge on Latin American policing.
  867.  
  868. Find this resource:
  869.  
  870.  
  871. Chevigny, P. 1997. Edge of the knife: Police violence in the Americas. New York: New Press.
  872.  
  873. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  874.  
  875. Chevigny sets out the history of extreme state violence perpetrated by police organizations in Latin America.
  876.  
  877. Find this resource:
  878.  
  879.  
  880. Salvatore, R. D. 1998. Criminal justice history in South America: Promising notes. Crime, History, and Societies 2.2: 5–14.
  881.  
  882. DOI: 10.4000/chs.960Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  883.  
  884. Salvatore surveys the state of knowledge about criminal justice history in South America, including the work available on policing. He observes that while there is very little on policing, some important new work has recently been published, which he sets out and for which he provides bibliographic guidance.
  885.  
  886. Find this resource:
  887.  
  888.  
  889. Africa
  890. The primary history of policing in Africa is the history of colonial policing, some of which parallels developments in Latin America in both its tendency toward a military model and its reputation for high levels of violence and repression of dissent. In the postcolonial era, as Cole 1999 and Rotimi 2001 show, the new nations adopted more of a state civilian model at least partly as a symbol of national unity. Ahire 1991 shows the Irish influence on the continent. There has been a lot of interest internationally in the reforms in South Africa following the fall of apartheid, and Brewer 1994 provides a good overview of this important topic.
  891.  
  892. Ahire, P. 1991. Imperial policing in colonial Nigeria, 1860–1960. Milton Keynes, UK: Open Univ. Press.
  893.  
  894. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  895.  
  896. Ahire provides an important discussion of the development of policing in Nigeria and the influence of the Royal Irish Constabulary model.
  897.  
  898. Find this resource:
  899.  
  900.  
  901. Brewer, J. D. 1994. Black and blue: Policing in South Africa. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  902.  
  903. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  904.  
  905. Brewer covers the colonial, postcolonial, and post-apartheid developments in South Africa. He argues that the inability of the police to reform long-established traditions of colonial-style policing threatens the state’s wider reform process, since the police represent the state to many black citizens.
  906.  
  907. Find this resource:
  908.  
  909.  
  910. Cole, B. A. 1999. Post-colonial systems. In Policing across the world: Issues for the twenty-first century. Edited by R. I. Mawby, 88–108. London: UCL Press.
  911.  
  912. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  913.  
  914. Cole shows how the new nations of Africa reformed from the inherited colonial model and created national, state civilian police forces in their place.
  915.  
  916. Find this resource:
  917.  
  918.  
  919. Rotimi, K. 2001. The police in a federal state: The Nigerian experience. Ibadan, Nigeria: College Press.
  920.  
  921. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  922.  
  923. One of very few books to describe the modern history of African police forces.
  924.  
  925. Find this resource:
  926.  
  927.  
  928. Australia and New Zealand
  929. The policing histories of New Zealand and Australia provide some strong similarities with the histories of Canada and other colonies within the British Empire and some very clear distinctions, as seen in Anderson and Killingray 1991 and Finnane 1987. Australia was, at least partly, a penal colony within the empire and started with a strong state military model of policing in many areas. Yet, South Australia, which was never a penal colony, was able to adopt a distinctively different and fundamentally English state civilian model. Like Canada, Australia shared the challenge of policing vast areas and a large indigenous population—the challenges are well set out in Finnane 1994 and Enders and Dupont 2001. The Northern Territories state police force remains more like the RCMP in Canada, with stronger elements of the distinctive state military model than other Australian police forces. New Zealand’s policing has been carefully documented in an immense four-volume history—Hill 1986, Hill 1989, Hill 1995, and Dunstall 1999—and it shows a clear point of transition in the 1880s from the original, colonial model toward a state civilian model which bore strong comparisons to the policing of large county areas in the United Kingdom.
  930.  
  931. Anderson, D. M., and D. Killingray, eds. 1991. Policing the empire: Government, authority, and control, 1830–1940. Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press.
  932.  
  933. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  934.  
  935. A collection of essays that explore the balance in policing between “consent, coercion, and control” within the British Empire. Articles cover Australia, New Zealand, India, Canada, and the West Indies.
  936.  
  937. Find this resource:
  938.  
  939.  
  940. Dunstall, G. 1999. A policeman’s paradise? Policing a stable society 1918–1945. Wellington, New Zealand: Dunmore.
  941.  
  942. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  943.  
  944. This final volume in the immense four-volume work provides a comprehensive history of the New Zealand police force from World War I to 1945. The gradual development of a “modern professional police force” is a core theme.
  945.  
  946. Find this resource:
  947.  
  948.  
  949. Enders, M., and B. Dupont, eds. 2001. Policing the lucky country. Leichhardt, Australia: Hawkins.
  950.  
  951. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  952.  
  953. A collection of papers covering the formation of the Australian police, the challenges of policing indigenous peoples, and the policing of industrial disputes.
  954.  
  955. Find this resource:
  956.  
  957.  
  958. Finnane, M., ed. 1987. Policing in Australia: Historical perspectives. Kensington, Australia: New South Wales Univ. Press.
  959.  
  960. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  961.  
  962. An important collection of essays edited by Finnane, who, like Emsley for English police history, has been a key scholar of Australian law-and-order history.
  963.  
  964. Find this resource:
  965.  
  966.  
  967. Finnane, M. 1994. Police and government: Histories of policing in Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford Univ. Press.
  968.  
  969. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  970.  
  971. Finnane provides the most important overview of Australian police history. He deals with key controversial aspects of Australian policing such as the policing of the indigenous peoples by Special Forces of white officers, often acting with high levels of violence and creating a highly problematic historical relationship between police and indigenous peoples.
  972.  
  973. Find this resource:
  974.  
  975.  
  976. Hill, R. S. 1986. Policing the colonial frontier: The theory and practice of coercive social and racial control in New Zealand, 1767–1867. Wellington, New Zealand: Dunmore.
  977.  
  978. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  979.  
  980. The first volume of the History of Policing in New Zealand series deals with the early phases of colonization and the policing of the indigenous population.
  981.  
  982. Find this resource:
  983.  
  984.  
  985. Hill, R. S. 1989. The colonial frontier tamed: New Zealand policing in transition, 1867–1886. Wellington, New Zealand: Dunmore.
  986.  
  987. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  988.  
  989. The second volume of the History of Policing in New Zealand series covers a critical phase as New Zealand transitioned from a colony into a nation of the British Empire.
  990.  
  991. Find this resource:
  992.  
  993.  
  994. Hill, R. S. 1995. The iron hand in the velvet glove: The modernization of policing in New Zealand, 1886–1917. Wellington, New Zealand: Dunmore.
  995.  
  996. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  997.  
  998. The third volume in the series covers the period up to World War I. It covers the development of New Zealand as a modern nation and the major reforms of its police service.
  999.  
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001.  
  1002.  
  1003. China, Japan, and India
  1004. The Chinese have a long history of policing institutions, which predates the arrival of Western ideas of policing in the late 19th century. These ideas arrived as part of the Western trading posts on China’s seaboard and were developed into “public security bureaus” in the early 20th century, as Wong 2009 describes. By contrast, the Japanese quite deliberately went looking for European models in the late 19th century and were heavily influenced by the German Prussian model, which formed the template for the Tokyo Metropolitan Police force in the 1870s. Japan established a mixed model with a National Agency and municipal forces, based around the Koban or neighborhood police posts system, which is discussed in Leishman 2007. In India the policing system was fundamentally colonial. The Indian Police Service was established in the 19th century, very much influenced by the Royal Irish Constabulary, to provide a (white) officer class for local police forces. Griffiths 1971 provides an “official” history treatment of these developments. However, the scale and complexity of India mean that generalization is rarely sufficient to describe it. Even at the height of the British Raj in the early 20th century, independent princely states, whose responsibilities included most aspects of local policing, made up huge parts of India. Some of those princely states, like Hyderabad, covered an area the size of Italy. Kidambi 2003, a study of policing in Bombay, is a good illustration of the complexity.
  1005.  
  1006. Griffiths, P. 1971. To guard my people: History of the Indian police. London: Benn.
  1007.  
  1008. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1009.  
  1010. An official history of the Indian Police Service written by an insider.
  1011.  
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013.  
  1014.  
  1015. Kidambi, Prashant. 2003. “The ultimate masters of the city”: Police, public order and the poor in colonial Bombay, c. 1893–1914. Crime, History, and Society 8.1: 27–47.
  1016.  
  1017. DOI: 10.4000/chs.513Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1018.  
  1019. This article was the Herman Diederiks Prize essay for 2003. It provides an important insight into the operation of the police service in handling public disorder at a key moment in the development of British rule in India, during the years that saw the rise of the Congress movement running up to World War I.
  1020.  
  1021. Find this resource:
  1022.  
  1023.  
  1024. Leishman, F. 2007. Koban: Neighbourhood policing in contemporary Japan. Policing 1.2: 196–202.
  1025.  
  1026. DOI: 10.1093/police/pam025Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027.  
  1028. Although the article is primarily about modern Japan, Leishman narrates the history of the development of the Koban approach which is so central to Japanese policing.
  1029.  
  1030. Find this resource:
  1031.  
  1032.  
  1033. Wong, K. C. 2009. Chinese policing: History and reform. New York: Peter Lang.
  1034.  
  1035. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1036.  
  1037. Wong provides an overview of the history of police ideas in China and the way in which Western ideas of policing have influenced Chinese.
  1038.  
  1039. Find this resource:
Advertisement
Add Comment
Please, Sign In to add comment
Advertisement
Public Pastes
Advertisement
We use cookies for various purposes including analytics. By continuing to use Pastebin, you agree to our use of cookies as described in the Cookies Policy.  OK, I Understand
Not a member of Pastebin yet?
Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!