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Peace of Westphalia (International Relations)

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  1. Introduction
  2. The Peace of Westphalia, concluded in 1648 in Münster (Germany), ended the Thirty Years War, which started with an anti-Habsburg revolt in Bohemia in 1618 but became an entanglement of different conflicts concerning the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, religion, and the state system of Europe. This contest was a civil “German war,” but foreign powers played crucial a role. The Peace of Westphalia ended with the signing of two treaties between the empire and the new great powers, Sweden and France, and settled the conflicts inside the empire with their guarantees. A new electorate was established for the exiled son of the revolt’s leader, the elector Palatine. Bavaria kept the electorate that it had been given for its support of the emperor Ferdinand II during the revolt. This compromise in 1648 meant a change of the empire’s fundamental Golden Bull of 1356 and was a symbol that all conflicts occurring since 1618 were resolved and that those who made peace did not avoid radical cuts and invented fresh ideas in order to make peace. Catholics and Protestants (now including Calvinists as well as Lutherans) accepted each other. Several regulations guaranteed their balance: 1624 was declared the “normal year” of any territory’s denomination, minorities were tolerated or had a right to emigrate, and no one could be forced to convert any longer. The Peace of Westphalia is regarded as a milestone in the development toward tolerance and secularization. This settlement also strengthened the imperial Estates: they could go into foreign alliances and decide important matters, such as peace and war, along with the emperor. Habsburg’s suspected ambition for a “universal monarchy” was thereby controlled, in particular because the Franco-Spanish negotiations in Münster did not bring peace between France and Spain and left open conflict areas, such as Lorraine. Moreover, France and Sweden got territorial “satisfaction,” especially in Alsace and Pomerania. The Peace of Westphalia also confirmed the legal independence of the Swiss Confederation, whereas by a separate peace with Spain, in Münster, the United Provinces of the Netherlands officially became a sovereign state after eighty years of war. The Peace of Westphalia was crucial in German and international history. Its precise role in the European state system and international law is, however, subject to controversy, such as the debate over the “Westphalian System” in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Controversies about the Peace of Westphalia are not new. The history of its reception and interpretation is as long as the history of its emergence. Unquestionably, though, the negotiations were a milestone in diplomacy and peacemaking. Sources on the peace are most valuable for always changing methods and perspectives of history. Research on the Peace of Westphalia increased enormously with its 350th anniversary in 1998 and its several conferences and exhibitions.
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  4. General Overviews
  5. The most recent scholarly monograph on the Westphalian negotiations and peace is Croxton 2013. Dickmann 1998 (originally published in 1959) is still valuable due to the author’s long-term archive research, although it lacks many current aspects. The sometimes still-quoted Kopp and Schulte 1940 is an unacceptable work of Nazi propaganda. Repgen 1999 covers the main problems of the negotiations and how they were solved in the peace. Tischer 2006 gives a short overview of the major conflicts that broke out and developed, until their settlement in 1648. Some monographs on the Thirty Years War also offer information on the peace (Asch 1997, Parker 1997, Wilson 2009, Asbach and Schröder 2014), but they are more focused on the wider political or military frame, or both. Croxton and Tischer 2002, a reference work, includes the variety of new research being done in the late 1990s and provides short explanations of terms, persons, topics, and so on that concern the Peace of Westphalia.
  6.  
  7. Asbach, Olaf, and Peter Schröder, eds. The Ashgate Research Companion to the Thirty Years’ War. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2014.
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  10.  
  11. Impressive presentation of the war and its several aspects, including the Peace of Westphalia, by various international scholars. A perfect introduction into the current state of research on the Thirty Years War.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
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  15.  
  16. Asch, Ronald G. The Thirty Years War: The Holy Roman Empire and Europe, 1618–48. European History in Perspective. New York: St. Martin’s, 1997.
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  20. Short overview of the main line of the war, with a focus on politics. Asch asks if the Peace of Westphalia created a new order and concept of security for Europe. He provides no deep insight into the conflicts. German affairs are treated briefly, but with an emphasis on development after 1648.
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  25. Croxton, Derek. Westphalia: The Last Christian Peace. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
  26.  
  27. DOI: 10.1057/9781137333339Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  28.  
  29. Thorough monograph on the Congress and Peace of Westphalia by a recognized expert on the subject. Essential for everyone who is looking for a comprehensive overview in English.
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  34. Croxton, Derek, and Anuschka Tischer. The Peace of Westphalia: A Historical Dictionary. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2002.
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  37.  
  38. Reference work that offers short explanations and related literature on terms, persons, places, and so on relative to the Peace of Westphalia. Useful selected bibliography.
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  40. Find this resource:
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  42.  
  43. Dickmann, Fritz. Der Westfälische Frieden. 7th ed. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1998.
  44.  
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  46.  
  47. Originally published in 1959, this is the only scholarly monograph on the Peace of Westphalia. Although it lacks more than half a century of research and is obsolete in many details, it is an unsurpassed overview. Dickmann even refers to topics that only later became the subject of research (e.g., public media, ceremony).
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  51.  
  52. Kopp, Friedrich, and Eduard Schulte. Der Westfälische Frieden: Vorgeschichte, Verhandlungen, Folgen. Munich: Hoheneichen-Verlag, 1940.
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  55.  
  56. What at the first glance might look just like an old-fashioned but rare overview of the Peace of Westphalia is actually anti-French Nazi propaganda. Because of its high circulation, the book is still widespread but should definitely not be used as research literature.
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  60.  
  61. Parker, Geoffrey, ed. The Thirty Years’ War. 2d ed. London and New York: Routledge, 1997.
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  64.  
  65. Even though important research has been done since its publication, this instructive book, written by several experts, is still a standard for the history of the Thirty Years War and includes valuable chapters as well on the Peace of Westphalia and the history of its reception.
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  67. Find this resource:
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  70. Repgen, Konrad. “Die Hauptprobleme der Westfälischen Friedensverhandlungen von 1648 und ihre Lösungen.” Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte 62 (1999): 399–438.
  71.  
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  73.  
  74. Concise and instructive article on all important problems of the negotiations and their outcome in the Peace of Westphalia. A similar but shorter English article by Repgen can be found in Volume 1 of Bussmann and Schilling 1998 (cited under Collections of Articles).
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  76. Find this resource:
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  78.  
  79. Tischer, Anuschka. “Vom Kriegsgrund hin zum Friedensschluss: Der Einfluss unterschiedlicher Faktoren auf die Formulierung von Friedensverträgen am Beispiel des Westfälischen Friedens.” Kalkül–Transfer–Symbol 1 (2006): 99–108.
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  82.  
  83. Analyzes the development of problems, from the outbreak of the war in 1618 until the peace treaty in 1648.
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  85. Find this resource:
  86.  
  87.  
  88. Wilson, Peter H. The Thirty Years War: Europe’s Tragedy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
  89.  
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  91.  
  92. This huge and solid monograph on the Thirty Years War includes chapters on the Westphalian peace congress and the aftermath. The focus is strictly on the great political decisions and military development, so the book does not offer a thorough inside view of the negotiations or the peace.
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  95.  
  96.  
  97. Primary Sources
  98. The Peace of Westphalia is split into two Latin charters, the Treaty of Osnabrück (empire and Sweden) and the Treaty of Münster (empire and France). The Acta Pacis Westphalicae, a longtime series on the Congress of Westphalia, offers a printed edition of the treaties. On the series website you can find the Latin text, with several translations; English translations can be found in the sourcebooks on the Thirty Years War, Helfferich 2009 and Wilson 2010. The Peace of Westphalia has to be understood from its roughly four-year-long negotiations, which are well documented by the Acta Pacis Westphalicae. The research center for this series also publishes a research series, Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte, in which collaborators who prepare the volumes of sources regularly publish studies on related topics. There is a wide range of further editions as well; for example, reports from the congress (Guericke 1867, Ogier 1893, Wettstein 1962). Because Spain did not sign the Peace of Westphalia, Spanish documents are not systematically included in the Acta Pacis Westphalicae, but some Spanish correspondence was published in an older series of Spanish sources (Saavedra Fajardo 1966) from 1884 to 1885. For a documentary overview, there are sourcebooks for the entire Thirty Years War, including the Peace of Westphalia and its aftermath (Helfferich 2009, Reese 1988, Wilson 2010).
  99.  
  100. Acta Pacis Westphalicae. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1962–.
  101.  
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  103.  
  104. Major continuing series of German, French, Swedish, Latin, and Italian sources on the Westphalian negotiations. Divided into three volumes: (1) instructions for the diplomats, (2) correspondence among the emperor, France, and Sweden and their diplomats, and (3) “protocols, records, journals, and other sources.” Volume 3 B 1.1 (1998) contains edited versions of the peace treaties. The website offers valuable information on the edition (e.g., a list of all series and subseries and all published volumes) and also the full text of both treaties, with translations from different epochs, including English translations from 1710 to 1713.
  105.  
  106. Find this resource:
  107.  
  108.  
  109. Guericke, Otto von. “Otto von Guericke’s Bericht an den Magistrat von Magdeburg über seine Sendung nach Osnabrück und Münster, 1646/47.” Neue Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiet historisch-antiquarischer Forschungen 11 (1867): 23–94.
  110.  
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  112.  
  113. Better known as a scientist, Guericke was also a politician and diplomat for the city of Magdeburg, Germany. His report on his mission to the Congress of Westphalia gives no inside view on important negotiations, but it is nevertheless an intriguing document of diplomatic history.
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  116.  
  117.  
  118. Helfferich, Tryntje, ed. and trans. The Thirty Years War: A Documentary History. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2009.
  119.  
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  121.  
  122. Useful collection of translated documents. On the Peace of Westphalia, the text contains papers from Hesse-Kassel, the imperial instruction, a letter of Cardinal Mazarin (1646), an extract of the treaties, and further sources from the wider political and social environment. Wilson 2010, a sourcebook, has a yet-wider scope.
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  125.  
  126.  
  127. Ogier, François. Journal du congrès de Munster. Edited by Auguste Boppe. Paris: Plon, Nourrit et Cie, 1893.
  128.  
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  130.  
  131. The journal by the clergyman Ogier, who accompanied the French ambassador d’Avaux to Westphalia, gives no inside view on the negotiations, but it is a good source for the chronology and the cultural environment of the French embassy.
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  134.  
  135.  
  136. Reese, Armin, ed. Pax sit Christiana: Die Westfälischen Friedensverhandlungen als europäisches Ereignis. Historisches Seminar. Düsseldorf: Schwann, 1988.
  137.  
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  139.  
  140. Sourcebook that, despite its German-language title, offers the war texts in their original language, extending from the outbreak, in 1618, onward. The emphasis is, however, on the Congress of Westphalia, the peace treaties, and the aftermath, in the 1650s.
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  143.  
  144.  
  145. Saavedra Fajardo, Diego de. Correspondencia diplomática de los plenipotenciarios españoles en el Congreso de Munster, 1643 a 1648. 3 vols. Edited by the Marqués de la Fuensanta del Valle, José Sancho Rayón, and Francisco de Zabálburu. Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España 82–84. Vaduz, Liechtenstein: Kraus Reprint, 1966.
  146.  
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  148.  
  149. Originally published in 1884–1885. Because the Acta Pacis Westphalicae do not include Spanish documents, this publication of Spanish diplomatic correspondence during the Congress of Westphalia is indispensable.
  150.  
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  153.  
  154. Wettstein, Johann Rudolf. Diarium 1646/47. Edited by Julia Gauss. Quellen zur Schweizer Geschichte 8. Bern, Switzerland: Selbstverlag der Allgemeinen Geschichtsforschenden Gesellschaft der Schweiz, 1962.
  155.  
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  157.  
  158. Diary of the mayor of Basel, who represented the Swiss Confederation at the Congress of Westphalia. Wettstein was not involved in important negotiations, but his diary gives a vivid and colorful picture of the congress.
  159.  
  160. Find this resource:
  161.  
  162.  
  163. Wilson, Peter H., ed. The Thirty Years’ War: A Sourcebook. Basingstoke, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
  164.  
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  166.  
  167. A collection of translated sources. Offers more documents than Helfferich 2009 on the Peace of Westphalia and its aftermath (demobilization, implementation of the religious settlement, and celebration and commemoration). On the negotiations the focus is on the great powers. Perfect read together with Wilson 2009 (cited under General Overviews).
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  172. Bibliography
  173. The only complete bibliography of the Peace of Westphalia was published in 1996 (Duchhardt 1996), two years before the 350th anniversary of the event, in 1998. The anniversary, however, produced an abundance of new titles, and research on the Peace of Westphalia is increasing. Croxton and Tischer 2002 (cited under General Overviews) includes major titles from the anniversary. Some publications sum up the effects of the anniversary (see Long-Term Effects of the 1998 Anniversary), but there is no comprehensive, updated bibliography.
  174.  
  175. Duchhardt, Heinz, ed. Bibliographie zum Westfälischen Frieden. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 26. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1996.
  176.  
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  178.  
  179. Bibliography of 4,095 publications up to 1994 that deal with the Peace of Westphalia and related topics. Also includes major general-reference works on the history of that period. Not annotated, but well structured and with several indices. Although many titles were published afterward, it is still indispensable as a foundation.
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  182.  
  183.  
  184. Collections of Articles
  185. Around the time of the 350th anniversary, there was a series of international exhibitions and conferences that produced important collections of multilingual articles on various aspects of the Peace and the Congress of Westphalia (Bussmann and Schilling 1998, Duchhardt 1998, García García and Villaverde 1999, Ministère des affaires étrangères 1998). Konrad Repgen, who has done research on these subjects since the 1950s, also published a collection of articles (Repgen 1998). These different collections cannot fill the gap of an updated general overview, but they give an idea of the scale of topics that are related to the peace and offer fresh research overviews for every topic.
  186.  
  187. Bussmann, Klaus, and Heinz Schilling, eds. 1648: War and Peace in Europe. Vol. 3. Münster, Germany: Westfälisches Landesmuseum, 1998.
  188.  
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  190.  
  191. Catalogue of a comprehensive exhibition in Münster and Osnabrück. More than a hundred articles written by international scholars and structured into three volumes, cover all aspects of the Peace of Westphalia. In German and English, this text is key to a modern perspective on the abundance of topics related to the peace.
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  193. Find this resource:
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  195.  
  196. Duchhardt, Heinz, ed. Der Westfälische Friede: Diplomatie, politische Zäsur, kulturelles Umfeld, Rezeptionsgeschichte. Historische Zeitschrift, Beihefte 26. Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 1998.
  197.  
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  199.  
  200. With Bussmann and Schilling 1998, this collection of thirty-nine articles (some in English and French) opened the new research discussion on the Peace of Westphalia. Special emphasis on the European states system and on celebration and reception of the peace. There are articles as well on the imperial actors and military aspects. Indispensable addition to Dickmann 1998 (cited under General Overviews).
  201.  
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  204.  
  205. García García, Bernardo José, and Fernando Villaverde, eds. 350 años de la Paz de Westfalia, 1648–1998: Del antagonismo a la integración en Europa; Ciclo de conferencias celebrado en la Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, 9 de marzo a 30 de noviembre de 1998. Madrid: Biblioteca Nacional, 1999.
  206.  
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  208.  
  209. Twenty-one contributions with a wide scope of topics centering on the Peace of Westphalia, presented by eminent international scholars at a conference in Madrid in 1998. The contributions in English, French, Polish, Italian, German, Czech, and Greek are published both in the original language and Spanish translation.
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  213.  
  214. Ministère des affaires étrangères, ed. 1648, La Paix de Westphalie: Vers l’Europe moderne. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale Éditions, 1998.
  215.  
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  217.  
  218. Catalogue of an exhibition closely connected with the conference papers in Bély 2000 (cited under History of Diplomacy and Peace). The catalogue articles are centered on international politics from French and general European perspectives. Because the exhibition took place in the Hôtel de la Monnaie, there is some focus on commemorative medals.
  219.  
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  222.  
  223. Repgen, Konrad. Dreissigjähriger Krieg und Westfälischer Friede: Studien und Quellen. Edited by Franz Bosbach and Christoph Kampmann. Rechts- und staatswissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen der Görres-Gesellschaft 81. Paderborn, Germany: Schöningh, 1998.
  224.  
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  226.  
  227. Articles by Repgen, from four decades, on various aspects of the Thirty Years War and the Peace of Westphalia. Stresses the role of the pope and his nuncio, Fabio Chigi, who acted as a mediator but who lodged a formal protest against the peace after it was concluded.
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  230.  
  231.  
  232. The Holy Roman Empire
  233. By its form, the Peace of Westphalia was a peace between the Holy Roman Empire and foreign powers, but at the same time it ended a civil war in Germany. The peace therefore included regulations for a religious balance (Fuchs 2010) and for the empire’s constitution (Böckenförde 1969, Moorman van Kappen and Wyduckel 1998). The empire consisted of more than 300 Estates, all of which had their own interests in this war and in peace, and it is impossible to present them all in an overview. Important Estates were, for example, Bavaria (Immler 1992), Hesse-Kassel (Weiand 2009, Helfferich 2013), and the elector of Trier (Abmeier 1986). At imperial diets and also at the Congress of Westphalia, the Estates were organized into special colleges, the College of the Electors and the College of the Free Cities, and these have been analyzed in the context of the congress (Becker 1973 and Buchstab 1976, respectively). The peace also modified this procedure, and additional deliberations by faith became accepted (Wolff 1966).
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  235. Abmeier, Karlies. Der Trierer Kurfürst Philipp Christoph von Sötern und der Westfälische Friede. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 15. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1986.
  236.  
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  238.  
  239. The capture of the elector of Trier was the formal reason for the French declaration of war on Spain in 1635. Released in 1645, he again became a factor between France and Habsburg. This study describes his role in the Peace of Westphalia, which was, however, less important than at the outbreak of the war.
  240.  
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  243.  
  244. Becker, Winfried. Der Kurfürstenrat: Grundzüge seiner Entwicklung in der Reichsverfassung und seine Stellung auf dem Westfälischen Friedenskongress. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 5. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1973.
  245.  
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  247.  
  248. Comprehensive study on the Electors’ College, which was the most influential opposition to the Holy Roman emperor. Becker takes a look at the wider development of this college but stresses its role at the Congress of Westphalia.
  249.  
  250. Find this resource:
  251.  
  252.  
  253. Böckenförde, Ernst-Wolfgang. “Der Westfälische Frieden und das Bündnisrecht der Reichsstände.” Der Staat 8 (1969): 449–478.
  254.  
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  256.  
  257. Important article on the imperial Estates’ right to conclude alliances with foreign powers—a right that was established in the Peace of Westphalia and that is sometimes misinterpreted as sovereignty of the Estates.
  258.  
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  261.  
  262. Buchstab, Günter. Reichsstädte, Städtekurie und Westfälischer Friedenskongress: Zusammenhänge von Sozialstruktur, Rechtsstatus und Wirtschaftskraft. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 7. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1976.
  263.  
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  265.  
  266. Even if the College of the Free Cities of the Holy Roman Empire was politically the weakest in the diet, the cities played some role, in the economy in particular, and they had specific interests, all of which are analyzed here, in the Peace of Westphalia.
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  269.  
  270.  
  271. Fuchs, Ralf-Peter. Ein “Medium zum Frieden”: Die Normaljahrsregel und die Beendigung des Dreissigjährigen Krieges. Bibliothek altes Reich 4. Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2010.
  272.  
  273. DOI: 10.1524/9783486719277Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  274.  
  275. Profound study on the “normal year” 1624, which, by the Peace of Westphalia, was (save a few exceptions) set as the standard for the distribution of denominations in the Holy Roman Empire. Fuchs presents the complexity of this arrangement as a case study for conflict and peace in early modern society.
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  279.  
  280. Helfferich, Tryntje. The Iron Princess: Amalia Elisabeth and the Thirty Years War. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 2013.
  281.  
  282. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674074668Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283.  
  284. The biography of the Calvinist landgravine of Hesse-Kassel is well based on research but problematic in form and content. As a rare view on this leading political figure of the Peace of Westphalia it is nevertheless valuable.
  285.  
  286. Find this resource:
  287.  
  288.  
  289. Immler, Gerhard. Kurfürst Maximilian I. und der Westfälische Friedenskongress: Die bayerische auswärtige Politik von 1644 bis zum Ulmer Waffenstillstand. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 20. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1992.
  290.  
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  292.  
  293. The only monograph on the role of the elector of Bavaria in the Westphalian negotiations. Unfortunately, the work ends in 1647 and is strictly pro-Bavarian. Should be read together with Croxton 1999 (cited under the Emperor, France, and Sweden), which takes into account Franco-Bavarian relations.
  294.  
  295. Find this resource:
  296.  
  297.  
  298. Moorman van Kappen, Olav, and Dieter Wyduckel, eds. Der Westfälische Frieden in rechts- und staatstheoretischer Perspektive. Rechtstheorie 29. Berlin: Duncker and Humblot, 1998.
  299.  
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  301.  
  302. Five articles on aspects of legal and political theory relative to the Peace of Westphalia, and an extract of the Latin treaties, with German translation. The articles deal partly with very particular topics but show interesting perspectives on the development of the German constitution and the state system based on the peace.
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  306.  
  307. Weiand, Kerstin. Hessen-Kassel und die Reichsverfassung: Ziele und Prioritäten landgräflicher Politik im Dreissigjährigen Krieg. Untersuchungen und Materialien zur Verfassungs- und Landesgeschichte 24. Marburg, Germany: Hessisches Landesamt für Geschichtliche Landeskunde, 2009.
  308.  
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  310.  
  311. Based on a systematic analysis of archived sources, this study calls into question Hesse-Kassel’s position as a leader for changes of the imperial constitution at the Congress of Westphalia, the prevailing view since Dickmann’s work (see Dickmann 1998, cited under General Overviews).
  312.  
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  314.  
  315.  
  316. Wolff, Fritz. Corpus Evangelicorum und Corpus Catholicorum auf dem Westfälischen Friedenskongress: Die Einfügung der konfessionellen Ständeverbindungen in die Reichsverfassung. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 2. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1966.
  317.  
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  319.  
  320. Basic work on the split of the imperial Estates into two denominational chambers, Protestant and Catholic, which became an accepted procedure with the Peace of Westphalia.
  321.  
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  323.  
  324.  
  325. The Great Powers
  326. The Thirty Years War was a European conflict not only in the sense that great powers, such as France and Sweden, interfered in the war in Germany, but also in the sense that other European conflicts intermingled with this war. The central goal of the Peace of Westphalia was to end the French and Swedish war in Germany. The peace congress was at the same time, however, a platform for further negotiations and further agreements.
  327.  
  328. The Emperor, France, and Sweden
  329. The Peace of Westphalia was a European peace in form, a treaty of the Holy Roman Empire with France and Sweden and all their allies. Naturally, the emperor was pivotal in creating the problems in the European system as well as inside the empire (Ruppert 1979, Hengerer 2012). On the French role in the Peace of Westphalia, there are several studies (e.g., Croxton 1999, Sonnino 2008, Tischer 1999). Sweden lacks a similar systematic analysis since the outdated overview in Odhner 1973 (originally published in 1877). Lundgren 1945, Goetze 1971, and Wernicke and Hacker 2001 complete the research on Swedish policy and diplomacy, but they cannot fill the gap of a modern overview.
  330.  
  331. Croxton, Derek. Peacemaking in Early Modern Europe: Cardinal Mazarin and the Congress of Westphalia, 1643–1648. Selinsgrove, PA: Susquehanna University Press, 1999.
  332.  
  333. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  334.  
  335. Analyzes French politics during the Congress of Westphalia, with a special focus on the connection between political and military action.
  336.  
  337. Find this resource:
  338.  
  339.  
  340. Goetze, Sigmund. Die Politik des schwedischen Reichskanzlers Axel Oxenstierna gegenüber Kaiser und Reich. Beiträge zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 3. Kiel, Germany: Kommissionsverlag Mühlau, 1971.
  341.  
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343.  
  344. Deals with Swedish politics in the Thirty Years War. The analysis puts front and center Chancellor Oxenstierna, the leading politician after the death of King Gustavus II Adolphus in 1632, but keeps a broad perspective.
  345.  
  346. Find this resource:
  347.  
  348.  
  349. Hengerer, Mark. Kaiser Ferdinand III. (1608–1657): Eine Biographie. Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für Neuere Geschichte Österreichs 107. Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 2012.
  350.  
  351. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  352.  
  353. An important biography on the emperor of the Peace of Westphalia. Its focus is, however, clearly more on cultural than political aspects.
  354.  
  355. Find this resource:
  356.  
  357.  
  358. Lundgren, Sune. Johan Adler Salvius: Problem kring freden, kriegsekonomien och maktkampen. Lund, Sweden: A.-B. Ph. Lindstedts University-Bokhandel, 1945.
  359.  
  360. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  361.  
  362. Because of the lack of a suitable study on the Swedish diplomacy at the Congress of Westphalia, this biography of one of the ambassadors should still be taken into consideration on the subject.
  363.  
  364. Find this resource:
  365.  
  366.  
  367. Odhner, Clas Theodor. Die Politik Schwedens im Westphälischen Friedenscongress und die Gründung der schwedischen Herrschaft in Deutschland. Hannover-Döhren, Germany: Verlag Hirschheydt, 1973.
  368.  
  369. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370.  
  371. Originally published in 1877. Despite its age, this sole monograph on the role of Sweden in the Peace of Westphalia is still useful as an overview but should be read together with more-recent research, particularly Wernicke and Hacker 2001.
  372.  
  373. Find this resource:
  374.  
  375.  
  376. Ruppert, Karsten. Die kaiserliche Politik auf dem Westfälischen Friedenskongress, 1643–1648. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 10. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1979.
  377.  
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379.  
  380. Still one of the most important books on the Westphalian negotiations, because it analyzes the position of the emperor, the central figure in the conflicts both inside the empire and with the foreign powers.
  381.  
  382. Find this resource:
  383.  
  384.  
  385. Sonnino, Paul. Mazarin’s Quest: The Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. This book, which deals with Mazarin’s role in the congress, is based on an impressive stock of archived sources and a good choice of literature. Nevertheless, Sonnino does not seriously take into account late-20th- and early-21st-century research; he explains policy mainly by personal character and passions. Croxton 1999 is a more suitable analysis of the subject.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393.  
  394. Tischer, Anuschka. Französische Diplomatie und Diplomaten auf dem Westfälischen Friedenskongress: Aussenpolitik unter Richelieu und Mazarin. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 29. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1999.
  395.  
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397.  
  398. Study on French diplomacy at the Congress of Westphalia, with an emphasis on the extent to which French policy was influenced by individual politicians and diplomats and their personal networks.
  399.  
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402.  
  403. Wernicke, Horst, and Hans-Joachim Hacker, eds. Der Westfälische Frieden von 1648: Wende in der Geschichte des Ostseeraums: Für Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Herbert Ewe zum 80. Geburtstag. Greifswalder historische Studien 3. Hamburg, Germany: Verlag Kovač, 2001.
  404.  
  405. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  406.  
  407. Collection of articles that deal with the role of Sweden in the Peace of Westphalia and with its effect on the Baltic Sea area.
  408.  
  409. Find this resource:
  410.  
  411.  
  412. Other Foreign Powers
  413. The Peace of Westphalia should have included a Franco-Spanish peace. The pope and Venice (Andretta 1975–1976) were mediators for these negotiations, just as they were for those between the emperor and France. In the context of a new, European perspective on the Congress of Westphalia, the Franco-Spanish War and its negotiations have, in the early 21st century, become the subject of research interest (Rohrschneider 2007, Séré 2007, Tischer 2007). For the Swedish position and for the situation in the Baltic Sea area, Denmark should be considered (Lockhart 1996). The Peace of Westphalia also confirmed that the Swiss Confederation was not subject to the empire’s law and jurisdiction. Traditionally, this has been regarded as the formal beginning of Swiss sovereignty, although the relevance of the Peace of Westphalia to the history of the Swiss state was questioned with the 350th anniversary (Jorio 1999). Also in Münster, but separate from the empire’s peace with France and Sweden, the Spanish-Dutch peace, which ended the Eighty Years War, concluded in 1648 and was the formal beginning of the sovereign state of the Netherlands (Poelhekke 1948).
  414.  
  415. Andretta, Stefano. “La diplomazia Veneziana e la pace di Vestfalia (1643–1648).” Annuario dell’istituto storico italiano per l’età moderna e contemporanea 27–28 (1975–1976): 3–128.
  416.  
  417. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  418.  
  419. Still the most thorough presentation of the diplomacy of Venice, which, along with the pope, was a mediator in the Westphalian negotiations.
  420.  
  421. Find this resource:
  422.  
  423.  
  424. Jorio, Marco, ed. 1648: Die Schweiz und Europa: Aussenpolitik zur Zeit des Westfälischen Friedens. Zürich, Switzerland: Chronos, 1999.
  425.  
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427.  
  428. These essays commemorate the Peace of Westphalia as an important event in the development of the Swiss state. This collection makes clear that 1648 was not the crucial event for Swiss sovereignty, and opens a field of research that remains to be explored.
  429.  
  430. Find this resource:
  431.  
  432.  
  433. Lockhart, Paul Douglas. Denmark in the Thirty Years’ War, 1618–1648: King Christian IV and the Decline of the Oldenburg State. Selinsgrove, PA: Susquehanna University Press, 1996.
  434.  
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436.  
  437. Denmark could not take its intended role as mediator between the empire and Sweden after war broke out between Denmark and Sweden in 1643. Denmark was, however, a constant factor as a Protestant power and rival of Sweden. This makes Lockhart’s book a standard work on the Thirty Years War.
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441.  
  442. Poelhekke, Jan Josef. De vrede van Munster. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1948.
  443.  
  444. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-015-0583-3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. The only monograph on the Spanish-Dutch peace, which confirmed Dutch sovereignty and concluded in Münster in 1648, separately from the Holy Roman Empire’s peace with France and Sweden.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450.  
  451. Rohrschneider, Michael. Der gescheiterte Frieden von Münster: Spaniens Ringen mit Frankreich auf dem Westfälischen Friedenskongress, 1643–1649. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 30. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 2007.
  452.  
  453. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  454.  
  455. The failed Franco-Spanish negotiations in Westphalia as a case study on early modern peace negotiations. This profound and innovative study explains the role of historical values, such as reputation, in negotiations. Valuable for the specific negotiations as well as for understanding early modern peace negotiations and their obstacles in general.
  456.  
  457. Find this resource:
  458.  
  459.  
  460. Séré, Daniel. La Paix des Pyrénées: Vingt-quatre ans de négociations entre la France et l’Espagne, 1635–1659. Bibliothèque d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 24. Paris: Champion, 2007.
  461.  
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463.  
  464. Monograph on the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), which was crucial for the international system as well as the Peace of Westphalia. Despite the title, the focus is 1656–1659, and the text is weak in respect to modern research methods. Nevertheless, as the first study on the subject, it is valuable for a change of perspective.
  465.  
  466. Find this resource:
  467.  
  468.  
  469. Tischer, Anuschka. “Von Westfalen in die Pyrenäen: Französisch-spanische Friedensverhandlungen zwischen 1648 und 1659.” Paper presented at a symposium at Philipps-Universität Marburg, 4 December 2004. In Französisch-deutsche Beziehungen in der neueren Geschichte: Festschrift für Jean Laurent Meyer zum 80. Geburtstag. Edited by Klaus Malettke and Christoph Kampmann, 83–96. Forschungen zur Geschichte der Neuzeit: Marburger Beiträge 10. Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2007.
  470.  
  471. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472.  
  473. Short overview of how the problems of the Franco-Spanish negotiations changed from an elaborated peace project in Münster to the final Peace of the Pyrenees.
  474.  
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477.  
  478. History of Diplomacy and Peace
  479. The Congress of Westphalia has a firm place in the history of diplomacy (Bosbach 1984) and peace studies (Asch, et al. 2001; Cahn, et al. 2008). It has been particularly productive for innovations in diplomatic history in the early 21st century (Babel 2005, Bély 2000); new aspects of diplomacy have been analyzed, such as the reception of others (Rohrschneider 2002, Rohrschneider and Strohmeyer 2007) and the role of ceremony and titles (May 2010, Rohrschneider 2008).
  480.  
  481. Asch, Ronald G., Wulf Eckart Voss, and Martin Wrede, eds. Der Frieden: Rekonstruktion einer europäischen Vision. Vol. 2, Frieden und Krieg in der Frühen Neuzeit: Die europäische Staatenordnung und die aussereuropäische Welt. Munich: Fink, 2001.
  482.  
  483. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  484.  
  485. Collection of German and English articles that deal with the problems and the idea of war and peace in the early modern world in general and thus often put the focus on the Peace of Westphalia.
  486.  
  487. Find this resource:
  488.  
  489.  
  490. Babel, Rainer, ed. Le diplomate au travail: Entscheidungsprozesse, Information und Kommunikation im Umkreis des Westfälischen Friedenskongresses. Papers presented at a conference of the Deutsches Historisches Institut, Paris, October 1998. Pariser historische Studien 65. Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2005.
  491.  
  492. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  493.  
  494. Six German and French articles that analyze cases of diplomatic practice at the Congress of Westphalia.
  495.  
  496. Find this resource:
  497.  
  498.  
  499. Bély, Lucien, ed. L’Europe des traités de Westphalie: Esprit de la diplomatie et diplomatie de l’esprit. Papers presented at a conference in Paris, 24–26 September 1998, organized by the Ministère des affaires étrangères. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2000.
  500.  
  501. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  502.  
  503. Papers from a conference in Paris connected with an exhibition on the Peace of Westphalia (see Ministère des affaires étrangères 1998, cited under Collections of Articles). The papers (all in French) follow the concept of a renewed diplomatic history. They analyze this peace as a crucial case study in diplomacy and peace negotiations (notion of peace, methods and problems of negotiating). The contributors, from Europe and North America, show the variety of methods and topics in diplomatic history.
  504.  
  505. Find this resource:
  506.  
  507.  
  508. Bosbach, Franz. Die Kosten des Westfälischen Friedenskongresses: Eine strukturgeschichtliche Untersuchung. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 13. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1984.
  509.  
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511.  
  512. Unconventional study on the Peace of Westphalia as a cost factor. The analysis of expenses gives an idea of ordinary life at the congress.
  513.  
  514. Find this resource:
  515.  
  516.  
  517. Braun, Guido, and Arno Strohmeyer, eds. Frieden und Friedenssicherung in der Frühen Neuzeit: Das Heilige Römische Reich und Europa. Festschrift für Maximilian Lanzinner. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte e. Vol. 36. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 2013.
  518.  
  519. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  520.  
  521. The collection of German articles focuses on peace and security in the early modern period. It includes contributions on the negotiations in Westphalia, among them, e.g., an article on the leading imperial diplomat and politician Trauttmansdorff by Konrad Repgen.
  522.  
  523. Find this resource:
  524.  
  525.  
  526. Cahn, Jean-Paul, Françoise Knopper, and Anne-Marie Saint-Gille, eds. De la guerre juste à la paix juste: Aspects confessionnels de la construction de la paix dans l’espace franco-allemand, XVIe–XXe siècles. Histoire et civilisations. Villeneuve d’Ascq, France: Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, 2008.
  527.  
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529.  
  530. Collection of articles that deal with the idea of peace and its realization in France and Germany since the 16th century. Three articles analyze this subject especially in regard to the Peace of Westphalia and its historical legacy.
  531.  
  532. Find this resource:
  533.  
  534.  
  535. May, Niels F. “Auseinandersetzungen um den Majestätstitel für Frankreich während der Westfälischen Friedensverhandlungen, 1643–1648.” In Bourbon und Wittelsbach: Neuere Forschungen zur Dynastiegeschichte. Edited by Rainer Babel, Guido Braun, and Thomas Nicklas, 427–445. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 33. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 2010.
  536.  
  537. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  538.  
  539. Interesting survey of the French demand that the emperor should address their king as “Majesty.” The essay demonstrates how the quarrel for political power paralleled a quarrel for the symbols of power.
  540.  
  541. Find this resource:
  542.  
  543.  
  544. Rohrschneider, Michael. “Tradition und Perzeption als Faktoren in den internationalen Beziehungen: Das Beispiel der wechselseitigen Wahrnehmung der französischen und spanischen Politik auf dem Westfälischen Friedenskongress.” Zeitschrift für historische Forschung 29 (2002): 257–282.
  545.  
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. This innovative approach to the failed Franco-Spanish peace negotiations in Westphalia asks to what extent traditional views and personal perceptions played a role in early modern diplomacy.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552.  
  553. Rohrschneider, Michael. “Friedenskongress und Präzedenzstreit: Frankreich, Spanien und das Streben nach zeremoniellem Vorrang in Münster, Nijmegen und Rijswijk (1643/44–1697).” Paper presented at a conference in Marburg, Germany, 2006. In Bourbon, Habsburg, Oranien: Konkurrierende Modelle im dynastischen Europa um 1700. Edited by Christoph Kampmann, Katharina Krause, Eva-Bettina Krems, and Anuschka Tischer, 228–240. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2008.
  554.  
  555. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  556.  
  557. The Franco-Spanish antagonism mirrored by conflicts on ceremony and precedence in 17th-century peace congresses.
  558.  
  559. Find this resource:
  560.  
  561.  
  562. Rohrschneider, Michael, and Arno Strohmeyer, eds. Wahrnehmungen des Fremden: Differenzerfahrungen von Diplomaten im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert. Papers presented at a symposium in Bonn/Königswinter, 2005. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 31. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 2007.
  563.  
  564. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  565.  
  566. These essays ask how early modern diplomats perceived foreigners and foreign countries. Three deal with the Congress of Westphalia in particular, examining French and Spanish diplomacy and the problem of foreign languages in diplomacy.
  567.  
  568. Find this resource:
  569.  
  570.  
  571. Long-Term Effects of the 1998 Anniversary
  572. Special conferences and collections of articles organized a decade after the 350th anniversary of the Peace of Westphalia, in 1998, point out that this commemorative event was unusually stimulating for further research (Brunert and Lanzinner 2010; Kampmann, et al. 2011; Schmidt-Voges, et al. 2010).
  573.  
  574. Brunert, Maria-Elisabeth, and Maximilian Lanzinner, eds. Diplomatie, Medien, Rezeption: Aus der editorischen Arbeit an den Acta Pacis Westphalicae. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 32. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 2010.
  575.  
  576. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577.  
  578. Scholars from the Acta Pacis Westphalicae give examples of how the sources of the Westphalian negotiations can be used for innovative research in the history of diplomacy, public media, and reception. With English abstracts of every article.
  579.  
  580. Find this resource:
  581.  
  582.  
  583. Kampmann, Christoph, Maximilian Lanzinner, Guido Braun, and Michael Rohrschneider, eds. L’art de la paix: Kongresswesen und Friedensstiftung im Zeitalter des Westfälischen Friedens. Papers presented at a conference in Bonn, 26–28 March 2009. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 34. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 2011.
  584.  
  585. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  586.  
  587. Papers (in German, French, English) from a large conference that demonstrate the enormous progress that the anniversary of the Peace of Westphalia, in 1998, caused for the history of diplomacy and peace. The peace is analyzed in respect to the political actors and their general principles, communication, religion, arts, and so on.
  588.  
  589. Find this resource:
  590.  
  591.  
  592. Schmidt-Voges, Inken, Siegrid Westphal, Volker Arnke, and Tobias Bartke, eds. Pax Perpetua: Neuere Forschungen zum Frieden in der Frühen Neuzeit. Bibliothek altes Reich 8. Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2010.
  593.  
  594. DOI: 10.1524/9783486719284Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595.  
  596. Inspiring collection of eighteen articles that show the ways in which the anniversary of the Peace in Westphalia stimulated research on diplomatic history and peace studies. The role of the anniversary is the subject of five articles.
  597.  
  598. Find this resource:
  599.  
  600.  
  601. In Practice
  602. The Peace of Westphalia has a history not only of its genesis, but also its aftermath: first, its arrangements had to be put into force and filled with life. Then, it developed its own life once the treaties were applied, and also later, when contemporaries and future generations commemorated the Peace of Westphalia and passed judgment on it.
  603.  
  604. Implementation
  605. The signing of the peace treaties in 1648 and the ratifications in 1649 were followed by a longer process that put the peace into force. Crucial were an “execution diet” held in Nuremberg in 1649–1650, where practical problems were solved (Oschmann 1991), and an imperial diet held in Regensburg in 1653–1654 (Müller 1992) for the integration of the peace treaties into the empire’s constitution. In addition, the structure of the imperial diet was severely affected by the Peace of Westphalia (Schindling 1991). For the people, the peace remained uncertain even after 1648 (Gantet 1999). For some clauses of the peace, it was several decades before they were filled with life: the peace tied many of the rights of the imperial Estates to those of the emperor, but the procedure still had to be developed in practice (Kampmann 1993).
  606.  
  607. Gantet, Claire. “Die ambivalente Wahrnehmung des Friedens: Erwartung, Furcht und Spannungen in Augsburg um 1648.” Paper presented at a conference in Göttingen, Germany, 27–29 November 1997. In Zwischen Alltag und Katastrophe: Der Dreissigjährige Krieg aus der Nähe. Edited by Benigna von Krusenstjern and Hans Medick, 357–373. Veröffentlichungen des Max-Planck-Instituts für Geschichte 148. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999.
  608.  
  609. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  610.  
  611. The date 24 October 1648 was not the immediate moment of peace for the people, owing not only to a more transcendental understanding of peace, but also to practical problems. Gantet analyzes how, in the imperial city of Augsburg, peace was brought to the civic society, and what this peace meant for ordinary people.
  612.  
  613. Find this resource:
  614.  
  615.  
  616. Kampmann, Christoph. “Reichstag und Reichskriegserklärung im Zeitalter Ludwigs XIV.” Historisches Jahrbuch 113 (1993): 41–59.
  617.  
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619.  
  620. With the Peace of Westphalia, imperial matters, and war and peace in particular, had to be decided by the emperor and the imperial Estates together. Kampmann shows how the procedure for this coaction, which remained unclear with the peace treaty, developed during the wars against Louis XIV.
  621.  
  622. Find this resource:
  623.  
  624.  
  625. Müller, Andreas. Der Regensburger Reichstag von 1653/54: Eine Studie zur Entwicklung des Alten Reiches nach dem Westfälischen Frieden. Europäische Hochschulschriften: Geschichte und ihre Hilfswissenschaften 511. Frankfurt and New York: Lang, 1992.
  626.  
  627. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  628.  
  629. Monograph on the first imperial diet after the Peace of Westphalia. The text demonstrates how the peace was made into imperial law and incorporated into the constitution and how the empire acted as a political body based on this peace.
  630.  
  631. Find this resource:
  632.  
  633.  
  634. Oschmann, Antje. Der Nürnberger Exekutionstag 1649–1650: Das Ende des Dreissigjährigen Krieges in Deutschland. Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 17. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 1991.
  635.  
  636. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  637.  
  638. Profound and very detailed study on the execution diet at Nuremberg, which answered the many practical questions of the Peace of Westphalia.
  639.  
  640. Find this resource:
  641.  
  642.  
  643. Schindling, Anton. Die Anfänge des Immerwährenden Reichstags zu Regensburg: Ständevertretung und Staatskunst nach dem Westfälischen Frieden. Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Europäische Geschichte Mainz, Abteilung Universalgeschichte 143. Mainz, Germany: Zabern, 1991.
  644.  
  645. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  646.  
  647. As a consequence of the Peace of Westphalia, beginning in 1663 the imperial diet was no longer able to conclude its session with a formal recess. Schindling analyzes thoroughly how the peace thus unintentionally produced a new body: the “Eternal Diet.” Also published in Beiträge zur Sozial- und Verfassungsgeschichte des Alten Reiches 11 (1991).
  648.  
  649. Find this resource:
  650.  
  651.  
  652. Interpretations and Receptions
  653. With the peace, there also began a history of its reception and interpretation. Essentially, this started with its translation (Braun 1996) and public reports (Braun 1999). Over the centuries, the Peace of Westphalia caused very different reactions and judgments: first, it was part of the empire’s constitution and thus was the basis for the empire’s development (Gantet 2001, Jalabert 2009). Later, in the 19th and 20th centuries, German politicians and historians, from a decidedly national perspective, blamed this peace for supposed political weakness on the part of Germany and concurrent French domination (Becker 1999). With Dickmann’s 1959 text (Dickmann 1998, cited under General Overviews), a revision of the Peace of Westphalia began. Intensive research (in particular based on the Acta Pacis Westphalicae) started with the 350th anniversary, in 1998. The changing views of the Peace of Westphalia make it a perfect case study on historical legacy and the evolution of collective memory (Duchhardt 1997).
  654.  
  655. Becker, Winfried. “Der Westfälische Friede im historisch-politischen Urteil der Nachwelt.” Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte 62 (1999): 439–466.
  656.  
  657. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  658.  
  659. Concise overview of the varying historical and political judgments on the Peace of Westphalia over the centuries.
  660.  
  661. Find this resource:
  662.  
  663.  
  664. Braun, Guido. “Les traductions françaises des traités de Westphalie (de 1648 à la fin de l’Ancien Régime).” XVIIe siècle 190 (1996): 131–155.
  665.  
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667.  
  668. Deals with the problems of translating the Latin peace treaty into French, making it clear that there was a precise account of the content of the treaty available among French political elites.
  669.  
  670. Find this resource:
  671.  
  672.  
  673. Braun, Guido. “Die Gazette de France als Quelle zur Rezeptionsgeschichte des Westfälischen Friedens und des Reichsstaatsrechts in Frankreich.” Historisches Jahrbuch 119 (1999): 283–294.
  674.  
  675. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  676.  
  677. Shows how the Peace of Westphalia was presented in France’s only official newspaper, Gazette de France, and how it was thus adopted by the French public.
  678.  
  679. Find this resource:
  680.  
  681.  
  682. Duchhardt, Heinz. Das Feiern des Friedens: Der Westfälische Friede im kollektiven Gedächtnis der Friedensstadt Münster. Kleine Schriften aus dem Stadtarchiv Münster 1. Münster, Germany: Regensberg, 1997.
  683.  
  684. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  685.  
  686. This small study examines the evolution of collective memory of the Peace of Westphalia in the city of Münster over the centuries. This was the first work to demonstrate systematically that there are differing histories of the changing views and interpretations of the Peace of Westphalia that are particular to locale.
  687.  
  688. Find this resource:
  689.  
  690.  
  691. Gantet, Claire. La Paix de Westphalie, 1648: Une histoire sociale, XVIIe–XVIIIe siècles. Histoire et société. Paris: Éditions Belin, 2001.
  692.  
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  694.  
  695. Comprehensive monograph that considers the Peace of Westphalia in practice in 17th- and 18th-century Germany, in particular its remembrance and interpretation.
  696.  
  697. Find this resource:
  698.  
  699.  
  700. Jalabert, Laurent. Catholiques et protestants sur la rive gauche du Rhin: Droits, confessions et coexistence religieuse de 1648 à 1789. Brussels and New York: Lang, 2009.
  701.  
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  703.  
  704. In respect to politics and religion, the Peace of Westphalia dramatically restructured the lives of ordinary people on the Left Bank of the Rhine. This impressive microstudy analyzes how people’s stories developed under the new system. Not, however, an easy read, and it lacks an index.
  705.  
  706. Find this resource:
  707.  
  708.  
  709. The State System
  710. Visible and decisive change in the political system of the 17th century occurred only with the Franco-Spanish Peace of the Pyrenees, in 1659, and with the Polish-Swedish Peace of Oliva, in 1660. Nevertheless, the Peace of Westphalia is regarded as a crucial factor in the development of the modern state system (Luard 1992, Nexon 2009, Osiander 1994), but its exact role and position are subject to debate. The particular point of controversy is what the Peace of Westphalia meant for the enforcement of the principle of sovereignty (Beaulac 2004, Croxton 1999). Political scientists and politicians use terms such as “Westphalian system” or “Westphalian era” to describe the modern international system, with its principles of inviolable sovereignty and equality among states, as a result of the Peace of Westphalia (Blin 2006, Gross 1984). Historians refuse this idea, however, because even if meant only as working model, this interpretation incorrectly implies that with 1648 began the epoch of sovereign and equally balanced states (Duchhardt 2010, Teschke 2003).
  711.  
  712. Beaulac, Stéphane. The Power of Language in the Making of International Law: The Word “Sovereignty” in Bodin and Vattel and the Myth of Westphalia. Developments in International Law 46. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Nijhoff, 2004.
  713.  
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  715.  
  716. Unusual linguistic approach to sovereignty in the context of the Peace of Westphalia. Unfortunately, although heavily annotated, the text has no list of references.
  717.  
  718. Find this resource:
  719.  
  720.  
  721. Blin, Arnaud. 1648, La Paix de Westphalie, ou la naissance de l’Europe politique moderne. Brussels: Éditions Complexe, 2006.
  722.  
  723. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  724.  
  725. Supports the idea of a Westphalian system that survived until the 20th century. This inspired book offers fresh perspectives on the state system in the early 21st century, but it is not a serious approach to the history.
  726.  
  727. Find this resource:
  728.  
  729.  
  730. Croxton, Derek. “The Peace of Westphalia of 1648 and the Origins of Sovereignty.” International History Review 21.3 (1999): 569–591.
  731.  
  732. DOI: 10.1080/07075332.1999.9640869Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  733.  
  734. Analyzes the widespread view that the origin of sovereignty in the state system lies in the Peace of Westphalia. Croxton makes clear that neither the content of the treaties nor the historical context support this notion, but he admits that the negotiations and their consequences helped develop the idea of sovereignty.
  735.  
  736. Find this resource:
  737.  
  738.  
  739. Duchhardt, Heinz. “Das ‘Westfälische System’: Realität und Mythos.” Paper presented at a conference in Bern, Switzerland, 13–16 March 2008. In Akteure der Aussenbeziehungen: Netzwerke und Interkulturalität im historischen Wandel. Edited by Hillard von Thiessen and Christian Windler, 393–401. Externa: Geschichte der Aussenbeziehungen in neuen Perspektiven 1. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2010.
  740.  
  741. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  742.  
  743. This concise article gives an overview of the development of the concept of a Westphalian system and argues strictly against it from a historical viewpoint.
  744.  
  745. Find this resource:
  746.  
  747.  
  748. Gross, Leo. “The Peace of Westphalia, 1648–1948.” In Essays on International Law and Organization. 2 vols. By Leo Gross, 3–21. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Transnational, 1984.
  749.  
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751.  
  752. Originally published in 1948, this article is regarded as having first put forth the notion of a Westphalian system; that is, the idea that the modern state system was created through the Peace of Westphalia. Historians refute this (e.g., Duchhardt 2010, Teschke 2003), and the article is mostly of historical interest.
  753.  
  754. Find this resource:
  755.  
  756.  
  757. Luard, Evan. The Balance of Power: The System of International Relations, 1648–1815. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1992.
  758.  
  759. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  760.  
  761. Solid study on the development of the European state system, from the Peace of Westphalia to the Treaty of Vienna in 1815. Does not deal with the notion of a Westphalian system but is a good alternative reading of events, even if Luard overstresses the idea of sovereignty in the Peace of Westphalia.
  762.  
  763. Find this resource:
  764.  
  765.  
  766. Nexon, Daniel H. The Struggle for Power in Early Modern Europe: Religious Conflict, Dynastic Empires, and International Change. Princeton Studies in International History and Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.
  767.  
  768. DOI: 10.1515/9781400830800Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  769.  
  770. Interesting overview of the early modern states system, with a focus on dynasty and religion that explains the Peace of Westphalia better than do the categories “nation” and “state.” Nexon’s view is based on early-21st-century international research, but he mostly ignores non-English publications and misses important points. Sometimes too unidimensional and from a political-science viewpoint.
  771.  
  772. Find this resource:
  773.  
  774.  
  775. Osiander, Andreas. The States System of Europe, 1640–1990: Peacemaking and the Conditions of International Stability. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994.
  776.  
  777. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198278870.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  778.  
  779. Tries to explain the modern state system and peacemaking through four case studies, beginning with the Peace of Westphalia. This ambitious and simplifying concept is based on a limited but solid choice of research. Helps show the Peace of Westphalia’s place in the development of the international system and peacemaking process but is also suitable for getting a first look at the Peace of Westphalia.
  780.  
  781. Find this resource:
  782.  
  783.  
  784. Teschke, Benno. The Myth of 1648: Class, Geopolitics, and the Making of Modern International Relations. London and New York: Verso, 2003.
  785.  
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787.  
  788. The most comprehensive argument against the view that the Peace of Westphalia was a crucial turning point in international relations. The study is criticized, however, for its very theoretical approach and for replacing one problematic model with another.
  789.  
  790. Find this resource:
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