South America
Map of South America
Map of South America

South America, the planet's 4th largest continent, includes twelve countries and three major territories.

The countries of South America ...

Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
The territories of South America ...

Galapagos Island (Ecuador)
Falkland Island (United Kingdom)
French Guiana (France)
South America is the southern continent of the Western Hemisphere. The continent of South America encompasses an area of approximately 6.8 million square miles. The most northern point of the continent is Punta Gallinas, Colombia, and the southern tip is Cape Horn, Chile. As we learned in the previous unit, South America is linked to North America by the Panama Canal. South America touches the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean as well as the Caribbean Sea.

South America embraces every climatic zone—tropical rainy, desert, high alpine—and vegetation varies accordingly. With the exception of Brazil and Ecuador, the population of most South American countries is concentrated around the capitals. As is the case with Central America, there is a lot of rural poverty. Although Brazil, Argentina, and Venezuela have made great strides toward industrialization, most countries in South America remain largely agrarian and are plagued by high inflation problems, social inequalities, and political instability.

South America is an incredibly geographically diverse continent. The Amazon River and the surrounding river basin is the largest tropical rain forest in the world. The Andes Mountains are some of the most interesting landforms on the planet and stretch the entire length of the western seaboard. The Amazon River brings the waters from the melting glaciers of the Andes across the continent to the Atlantic Ocean. The Andes region is seismically active and prone to earthquakes and although volcanoes are present, such as Cotopaxi located along “volcano boulevard”, they are mostly inactive.

South America is a continent of superlatives! As we have already learned, the Amazon River is the second longest river in the world and the Amazon rain forest is largest rain forest in the world. Lake Titicaca, on the Peru-Bolivia border, is the largest of the continent's lakes and the world’s highest navigable lake. The Atacama Desert has such limited moisture that it is considered the driest place on earth. Cerro Tololo, located high in the Andes Mountains, is the world’s second largest observatory in the world. Angel Falls in Venezuela is the world’s highest waterfall.

South America is also internationally renowned for some of the remnants of the Incan civilization. Machu Picchu, considered the lost city of the Incas, is visited by thousands of tourists from all over the world every year. In 2008, Machu Picchu was voted one of the 7 Wonders of the Modern World.


The political turmoil present in most of South America is directly linked to the mostly downtrodden economy of the region. Beginning in the 17th century, the exploitation of the continent's resources and the development of its industries were the result of foreign investment and initiative, especially that of Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. Since World War II the nations of South America have sought greater economic independence and there has been an increasingly strained relationship between many nations of South America and the United States.

An early obstacle to industrial growth in South America was the scarcity of coal. The continent therefore predominantly relied on its petroleum reserves, most notably in Venezuela and also in Argentina, Colombia, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador, as a source of fuel. Today, due to years of investment, hydropower is the primary source of most of the continent’s electricity.

Although 1/3 of the continent practices subsistence farming, most of the citizens of South America are concentrated around the capital cities of most countries, with the notable exception of Brazil. Although the capital of Brazil, Brasilia, has many inhabitants, Sao Paulo, Brazil is considered to be one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world. In every country in South America, many of the rural poor have flocked to urban areas in search of employment but high unemployment levels have resulted in large pockets of urban poor living in shanty towns.

The tumultuous economic situation in most of these countries has resulted in an equally tumultuous political situation. In recent years, many of the countries of South America have elected leaders with decidedly socialist leanings. Unfortunately, although these leaders are elected with the promise of reducing poverty, creating jobs, and improving the overall quality of life in their countries, this has rarely been the case.


Between 1200 and 1535 AD, the Inca population lived in the part of South America extending from the equator to the Pacific coast of Chile. Unlike the Mayan civilization of Central America, the Inca and their legacy is very much prevalent throughout many parts of South America. Watch the following brief Discovery Education video about a modern-day celebration with a traditional spirit.

The Inca Yesterday and Today

Inca Sun God
Inca Sun God
The Incas were a distinct people with a distinct language, Quechua, living in a highland center, Cuzco, in the country now known as Peru. They were an ancient people with a voracious appetite for conquest, and although they themselves were the victims of Spanish conquistadors in the 1400s, they managed to avoid extinction. Quechua, the language of the Inca, was imposed on every tribe the Inca conquered so there were some remote villages that were able to escape the reach of the Spanish conquistadors and managed to survive and thrive. In fact, the legacy of the Inca is still felt throughout many parts of South America today.

The Inca legacy can be seen today in arts, religion, farming, and even language. Many Peruvian children, for example, are raised with Quechua as their primary language and later learn Spanish when they are old enough to attend school. The Incas were very successful at turning steep mountainsides into terraced farms and these terraced farmlands can still be seen throughout the mountainous countryside. Although most modern Inca families practice Catholicism, they still hold a reverence for nature and natural formations as did their Inca ancestors. People call the tall mountains Apus (pronounced Aah poos) and consider the snow-covered mountains as holy. Most of the modern lives of the Inca are strongly influenced by their Inca heritage.

Manco, Incan king, made the following statement to his people when faced with domination by the Spanish conquistadors:

“I know that some day by force or deceit, they will make you worship what they worship. When that time comes, when you can no longer resist, do it in front of them, but on the other hand do not forget our ceremonies. And if they tell you to break your shrines, and force you to do so, reveal only what you have to, and keep the rest hidden, close to your hearts.”

The Inca Legacy

A Panoramic Image of Cuzco, Peru
A Panoramic Image of Cuzco, Peru
The Inca Empire was the largest nation on Earth and remains the largest native state to have existed in the Western Hemisphere. Cuzco, Peru, which emerged as the richest city in the New World, was the center of Inca life and the home of its leaders. The Spanish sought to conquer the Inca because they had heard of their riches and gold. In the Inca civilization, silver and gold were used mainly for aesthetic purposes (mainly decoration). Silver and gold were not used as currency or to pay workers. In fact, most workers were paid for their labor in food and clothes.

The Inca were hugely successful at farming the difficult terrain of the Andes Mountains. In fact, it is believed that the Inca had more cultivated land than is currently being farmed. The Inca were also a nation that loved to conquer other nations. They imposed their language on every tribe they conquered. This continuous quest for domination and the continuous spread of their language, Quechua, is most likely why the Inca culture has survived to this day.

The towns that made up the Inca Empire were protected by fortifications and served by ingenious water supply and drainage systems achieved by the skilled Inca builders who modified mountains, built agricultural hill terraces that stabilized slopes and controlled erosion, and channeled rivers. In addition, the last of the great Inca emperors established splendid stone homes and sanctuaries, including the sacred sanctuary of Machu Picchu, as part of their royal estates where they rested, observed stars, meditated and rejoiced.

These unique heritage sites have become exposed and vulnerable to a broadening array of damaging pressures such as the growth of urbanized settlements and commercialization, inadequate preservation management systems, and natural disasters including massive mud slides and intermittent significant seismic quakes. To address these pressing issues, the government of Peru requested the World Bank’s assistance in 2004 towards the development of an initiative which has been designated the “Vilcanota Valley Rehabilitation and Management Project.”

Pale, Hairy People on Animals
—A Secondary Source Reading
In the book Before Columbus: The Americas of 1491, Charles C. Mann includes a chapter that describes how the Incas met the Spanish conquistadors.

“…Atawallpa (Incan Emperor) learned a strange piece of news. Pale, hairy people who sat on enormous animals had landed on the coast. These strangers were 168 Spanish men, led by a conquistador named Francisco Pizarro. After they reached Cajamarca (Incan town), they persuaded Atawallpa to visit them in the central square of the town. Atawallpa approached the square with 5,000 to 6,000 of his soldiers.

“The Incan solders, approaching in friendship, carried only ceremonial weapons. Still, there were so many of them that the waiting Spanish wet themselves with terror, according to Pedro Pizarro, the conquistador’s younger brother, who was there. Francisco Pizarro, however, had cleverly hidden Spanish guns and horses just inside the buildings surrounding the square. A priest handed Atawallpa a prayer book. Atawallpa threw the book aside. It meant nothing to him. The Inca had insulted a Christian book, though, which gave the Spanish the excuse they needed to attack.

“Guns roared, and horses charged out of the buildings. The smoke and fire and giant, plunging animals—like nothing the Inca had ever seen—threw Atawallpa’s army into confusion and panic. Hundreds were trampled to death as they tried to flee the square. The Spanish seized the advantage and killed most of the others. Pizarro himself, it was said, captured Atawallpa.”

Mann, Charles C. (2009) Before Columbus: The Americas of 1491. (pp. 37-38). New York: Atheneum.


Geographical Terminology of South America

Torres del paine
Torres del paine
"Chile was invented by a poet."
Pablo Neruda
Some people might argue that not only was beautiful Chile invented by a poet, but all of South America! Let’s take a closer look at some of the countries of South America and their fascinating geographical features.

Venezuela ... South of the mountains is the Orinoco River basin, a vast plain of savanna grasses known as the Llanos (YAH-nohs). The world’s largest waterfall, Angel Falls, is located south of the Orinoco.

Argentina ... Very grassy plains, known as pampas, cover much of northern Argentina. The unrelentingly flat Pampas is Argentina's agricultural heartland and the home of that symbol of romantic nationalism, the gaucho.

Chile ... The Andes, running north to south along the west coast, form the world's longest exposed mountain range. Torres del Paine National Park is a Chilean National Park comprising mountains, glaciers, lakes and rivers. The best-known and most spectacular summits in the country are the three Towers of Paine - gigantic granite monoliths shaped by the forces of glacial ice with an estimated elevation of over 8000 feet.

Colombia ... Colombia is the only South American country with coastlines on both the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea. Three cordilleras - An extensive chain of mountains or mountain ranges - separate the western coastal lowlands from the eastern jungles.

Ecuador ... Ecuador’s name comes from the equator, which divides the country unequally. Ecuador is the smallest Andean country with four distinct regions – the Costa, or coastal plain, the Sierra, or Andean uplands, the Oriente, jungles, and the Galapagos Islands.


The Andes Mountains are one of the most distinguishing characteristics of South America. They form the longest and one of the highest mountain ranges in the world. Watch the following tutorial to learn more about this majestic mountain range and its significance to South America.

Select the play button to begin the tutorial, and then use the navigation buttons to pause/stop, continue, or reset the tutorial. View the presentation as often as you would like, and take notes as you follow along. Be sure to set your volume at a reasonable level before you begin.

The Rainforests of South America

The Amazon region of South America contains one of the world’s largest rain forests. Different plants and animals live in different parts of the rain forest. Rain forests are considered the most important, yet most threatened ecosystem on the planet. Scientists organize rainforests into four different strata – or levels – based on the living environment.

EMERGENTS: In the emergent strata, one can find giant trees that reach far higher than the average canopy height. This zone is home to many birds and insects.
CANOPY: The canopy strata contain the upper parts of the trees - about 65 to 130 feet tall. This leafy environment is full of life in a tropical rainforest and includes insects, birds, reptiles, mammals, and more.
UNDERSTORY: The understory level is a dark, cool environment under the leaves but over the ground. There are short, leafy, mostly non-flowering shrubs, small trees, ferns, and vines (lianas) that have adapted to filtered light and poor soil.
FOREST FLOOR: The forest floor is teeming with animal life, especially insects. The largest animals in the rainforest generally live in this zone – anacondas and jaguars, for example.
Tropical rainforests are home to over half the world's species, as well as millions of people. The average annual rainfall is between 80 and 400 inches and temperatures hover consistently around 72 degrees Fahrenheit during the day. Nearly half of the Earth’s original forest cover has already been lost, and each year more than thirty million tropical forest acres are destroyed. Later in this unit, we will explore the repercussions of this massive problem and what can be done to help preserve these intricate and important ecosystems.


Natural Resources of South America
Oil platform, Brazil
Oil platform, Brazil
As in North America, the conquest of South America by Europeans took a heavy toll on the native population. Today, South America has a relatively small population but an incredible wealth of natural resources. In spite of this bounty, much of the continent continues to find itself struggling with economic, social, and environmental problems. The array of natural resources found all over the continent of South America is incredible. In recent years there has been a trend toward “resource nationalization” by the governments of some of the countries. Resource nationalization is the term given to government control of country’s natural resources. International experts have expressed concern over this trend because they believe that it often leads to slower and less productive use of a country’s natural resources. Countries such as Venezuela and Brazil have nationalized oil and natural gas because of its lucrative potential.

Venezuela has the largest proven oil reserves in the western hemisphere and is one of the founding members of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries). Brazil’s recent oil and natural gas discoveries could possibly surpass Venezuela’s, and since Brazil worked hard to make their country energy independent – meaning they don’t need to import natural energy resources – they could stand to make a lot of money from exporting any excess. However, when international prices are high the country does well, but when they are low, the entire country suffers.

When most people think of natural resources and the economy of South America, many people might think about coffee and bananas. Although it is true that Ecuador is the world’s largest exporter of bananas, and coffee is a very important Andean export, they are really only the start to this regions resource laden area. In the Andes region, natural attractions fuel a growing ecotourism economy. Although the country of Bolivia is quite poor, it receives a steady stream of international tourists because of its incredible natural beauty.

The Brazilian city of Sao Paulo is the leading industrial producer of South America as well as a major financial center. The country of Chile is known for its copper supplies. In fact, no other place in the world has copper in a greater quantity. As you have already learned, Colombia is the only South American country who touches both the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Due to its expansive coastlines, fishing is an important natural resource in the region. Unfortunately, Colombia also has a wealth of natural resources including coffee, emeralds, and coal, but due to drug cartels and guerrilla groups, many parts of the country are out of government control.


Physical Systems and Processes ... Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Biosphere
The biosphere is a global ecosystem that can be broken down into regional or local ecosystems, or biomes. Organisms in the biosphere are classified into trophic levels and communities. Rainforests are considered the most important and also the most threatened ecosystem on the planet. The Amazon jungle is the largest remaining expanse of tropical rainforest on Earth, most of which is located in Brazil.

Changes in ecosystem functioning and the structure of vegetation – such as massive deforestation – impact atmospheric conditions not only in South America but all over the globe. Interactions and feedbacks between the biosphere and atmosphere constitute an important component of the climate system.

The hydrosphere includes all liquid and frozen surface waters, groundwater held in soil and rock, and atmospheric water vapor. All of these waters are in constant motion through the water cycle – or hydrologic cycle. As we learned previously, although the components of the hydrosphere are continually changing, the total water budget balance remains the same. The delicate balance of all of Earth’s spheres is critical in all regions of the world.

carbon cycle
Carbon Cycle

Abnormal and Hazardous Conditions in South America
View of el Chachani in Peru
View of el Chachani in Peru
Over one million earthquakes happen worldwide every year. Some are so slight they are unfelt; others last for minutes that seem like forever and can cause major changes in the landscape. Many of these earthquakes happen in South America, due to the Nazca and South American plates of the circum-Pacific belt. The location of South America on these tectonic plates is also the source of many volcanoes. Volcanic eruptions, in turn, can cause additional hazardous conditions such as debris flows, earthquakes, floods, landslides, and wild fires.

The greatest earthquake ever recorded in the world occurred in Chile in 1960 with a recorded magnitude of 9.5. Great foreshocks sent people out of their homes and into the streets before the actual earthquake occurred which ultimately mitigated the loss of life. This earthquake even caused a devastating tsunami felt thousands of miles away. A tsunami is like an earthquake under water. When the sea floor shifts due to movement of tectonic plates a tsunami can result.



Question Number 1	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
What were the main uses for silver and gold?
Your Answer
A. Mainly for aesthetics.
Question Number 2	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
What is the primary source of fuel in South America?
Your Answer
B. petroleum
Question Number 3	Points: 2.00/2.00
Question Text
Vast, grassy plains known as pampas cover much of northern Venezuela.
Your Answer
False
Question Number 4	Points: 0.00/5.00
Question Text
Which of the following cities is considered one of the fastest growing cities in the world?
Your Answer
B. Brasilia, Brazil
Question Number 5	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
On the following map, country #8 is ___.

Your Answer
D. Paraguay
Question Number 6	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
Which of the following was an early obstacle to industrialization in South America?
Your Answer
C. A lack of coal.
Question Number 7	Points: 0.00/2.00
Question Text
The Andes region of South America contains one of the world's largest rain forests.
Your Answer
True
Question Number 8	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
Which of the following countries was the founding member of OPEC?
Your Answer
C. Venezuela
Question Number 9	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
Which of the following cities is the leading industrial producer and financial center in South America?
Your Answer
C. Sao Paolo, Brazil
Question Number 10	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
Inca citizens labored for the ruler on the myriad roads, crop terraces, irrigation canals, temples, or fortresses. How were they paid for their work?
Your Answer
C. clothing and food
Question Number 11	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
Why did the Spaniards seek to conquer the Inca?
Your Answer
C. They heard the Inca had a lot of gold.
Question Number 12	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
On the following map, country #1 is ___.

Your Answer
A. Brazil
Question Number 13	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
On the following map, country #6 is ___.

Your Answer
C. Venezuela
Question Number 14	Points: 2.00/2.00
Question Text
The Inca Empire was the largest nation on Earth and remains the largest native state to have existed in the western hemisphere.
Your Answer
True

Introduction
Knitter from the Island of Taquile
People and Culture of South America
The existing culture of South America is the result of the intermingling of centuries of varied experiences and people. The culture of the indigenous people, such as the Inca, mixes with the history of the European conquerors and the African slaves to create a rich cultural compilation that draws on all of these pieces and parts to influence the language, the religion, and the people of the unique cultures of South America.

Religion is a dominant aspect in societies all over the world. On every continent religion is a highly stressed element of culture. People on both the North and South American continents agree that religion plays an important role in their lives. Many components of the native religion practiced by the Inca around the 15th century continue to be practiced today. In South America 90% of the population practices Christianity, predominantly Roman Catholicism.

There are more Christians in South America than in North America. There are still significant traces of Quechua throughout the belief systems of many South Americans. When the Spanish conquered the Andean nations, they were accompanied by Roman Catholic missionaries who were intent on converting the native people. (Today, the largest number of Roman Catholics can be found in the country of Brazil.) To aid them in this mission, the missionaries used the language of Quechua to preach Christianity to the indigenous people.

The main object of worship in the Quechua religion is the sun. The following list identifies some of the most important gods and goddesses worshiped by the ancient Inca civilization.

Inti, the Incan Sun God
Inti, the Incan Sun God
INTI - Sun god. Inti's image is a golden disk with a human face surrounded by bright rays. Every day Inti soars across the sky to the western horizon, plunges into the sea, and swims under the earth back to the east. Inti's sons are Wirakocha, Pachacomac, and Manco Capac.


Manco Capac
Manco Capac
MAMA QUILLA - Goddess of the moon. Protector of married women. Her image is a silver disc with a human face.

MANCO CAPAC - The son of Inti, also a solar god. The youngest of four brothers, Manco Capac defied the eldest brother who greedily demanded all of creation for himself. Sealing the eldest brother forever in a cave, Manco Capac murdered another and frightened the third into fleeing, never to be seen again. Thus gaining power over all the world, Manco Capac founded the city of Cuzco and was worshipped as the Son of the Sun.


KONIRA WIRAKOCHA - The great god Wirakocha diguised as a traveler in rags. A trickster, a prankster. No one knew who he was, and the people he passed called him names. Yet as he walked, he created. With a word he made the fields and terraced hillsides. Dropping a reed blossom, he made water flow.

Viracocha
Viracocha

VIRACOCHA - Literally, Sea-Foam. The Creator. The teacher of the world. After the Great Flood, which covered even the highest mountains and destroyed all life, Virococha molded new people out of clay at Tia Huanaco.


IMAHMANA VIRACOCHA and TOCAPO VIRACOCHA - Son of the creator Viracocha. After the Great Flood and the Creation, Viracocha sent his son Imaymana Viracocha together with his brother Tocapo Viracocha to visit the tribes and see if they still followed the commandments they had been given. As they went, Imaymana and Tocapo gave names to all the trees, flowers, fruits and herbs, and taught the people which of these could be eaten, which could cure, and which could kill.

PACHAMAC - God of the earth, creator god. Prior to the Incan conquest, the Peruvians worshipped Pachamac as the supreme being. For political purposes, the Incas were forced to adopt Pachamac into their own pantheon, but his position was never very secure. The great Inca Atahualpa treated Pachamac's priests with cold indifference, explaining to the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro that the god's oracle had made three ruinously inaccurate prophecies. The Great Sun King even incited the Spaniards to defile and loot the god's temple. They accepted the invitation enthusiastically.

SUPAI - God of death. A god of insatiable greed. The Incas sacrificed over a hundred children a year to Supai and still he would not leave them alone.


Few women have had as dramatic an impact on an entire nation as did Eva Perón. Eva Perón worked tirelessly for the poor of Argentina and did whatever she could to help their plight. Watch the following tutorial to learn more about the life and contributions of Eva Perón.

Modern culture in South America is primarily influenced by native cultures of the people, European culture brought by conquistadors, and the United States culture on television. Culture includes both formal and informal expressions of people and includes things such as literature and art as well as music, dance, religion, and other customs. Modern- day cowboys, such as the gaucho pictured above, are examples of modern culture strongly influenced by the history of the region. These men, also known as vaqueiros, huasos, and llaneros, are still an integral part of the ranching areas of Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil.

South America has a diverse population with many ethnic groups and different ancestries. Only in two countries do the Amerindians make up the majority of the population: Peru and Bolivia. In the rest of the continent, most of the Native American descendants are of mixed race ancestry. Some countries, such as Argentina, have an incredible European immigrant population. Argentina, much like the United States, is often referred to as a melting pot.

This diverse population throughout South America has had quite an influence on music, art, and literature throughout the continent. Modern immigration has also impacted the current culture of the continent. Nueva Cancion is a modern style of music in South America that combined traditional Latin American folk music with modern rhythm and politicized lyrics.

Use the key words "la Nueva Cancion" to find an article on the Internet to read more about and hear this type of music.

Pablo Neruda, known as the “people’s poet,” wrote extensively about South America. He was a poet, writer, diplomat, political activist, and Nobel Prize winner. He wrote about the people, places, and important features of his native Chile as well as poems about love and beauty. He was a prolific writer and is still revered by all of South America.

Literature connection
Sonnet IX: There Where the Waves Shatter
By Pablo Neruda

There where the waves shatter on the restless rocks
the clear light bursts and enacts its rose,
and the sea-circle shrinks to a cluster of buds,
to one drop of blue salt, falling.

O bright magnolia bursting in the foam,
magnetic transient whose death blooms
and vanishes--being, nothingness--forever:
broken salt, dazzling lurch of the sea.

You and I, Love, together we ratify the silence,
while the sea destroys its perpetual statues,
collapses its towers of wild speed and whiteness:

because in the weavings of those invisible fabrics,
galloping water, incessant sand,
we make the only permanent tenderness.


Compare and Contrast the Americas ... North, South, and Central
North, South, and Central America have similarities and differences in the areas of social and economic characteristics. Social characteristics such as traditions, religion, movies, and leisure activities and economic characteristics such as natural resources, employment, and goods and services, are good areas for comparison.

Use this Venn diagram to compare characteristics of North, South, and Central America. The part of the diagram that overlaps in the middle represents the characteristics shared by both North and South America or shared by South and Central America or characteristics shared by all.

Here are a few characteristics that you can enter into the Venn diagram where you believe they are most appropriate. Can you think of any other characteristics to add regarding the similarities and differences between these three regions of the world?

High literacy rates
Low birth rates
Corrupt governments
Aztec
Rural poverty
Quechua
Indigenous population decimated
Christianity
Ecotourism
European immigrants
Urban shanty towns
Industrialized
Multiple climates
Socialist leaders
Government subsidized farms
Capitalism
Inca
Nationalized resources
Border issues
Agrarian
Subsistence farming
Maya

Feel free to print out this diagram after you have completed it for future reference.

Click here to download a text version of the presentation below.



Video: Paraguay
Carreta Carreta
Now that you have read the transcript and commented on the discussion board, watch the video below.

To view the video below, click the Play button. To download the transcript for the video, click the green Download Transcript button to the right of the video.

Duration - 2:14

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Introduction
Blue and yellow macaws, Brazil
Human Impact on the Environment
Many parrots you commonly see being kept as pets originate in South America. But how did they get to the United States? It is estimated that over 50,000 parrots, including beautiful macaws, are illegally smuggled over the border into the U.S. every year. This is an example of poaching – just one of the ways humans are negatively impacting the environment of South America. In this section, we will explore poaching as well as other ways people impact the environment – both negatively and positively.


Words to Know ...
Caribbean Monk Seal in captivity in 1910, now extinct
Caribbean Monk Seal in captivity in 1910, now extinct
When you think about human impact on the environment, what words come to mind? Do you think of pollution or global warming? What about positive impacts like harnessing wind or solar energy? In South America, when you think about human impact on the environment, it is important to think about the land as well as the animals impacted by human activity. Human activity is the number one cause of the current rapid loss of biodiversity in South America. Poaching and deforestation have led to an increase in endangered species as well as an inability to sustain agricultural development in the region.

Poaching ... Poaching can apply to the illegal hunting, fishing, or eating of animals or plants. Poaching does not apply to domestic animals – only those found in the wild. A poacher is someone who illegally sells animals or animal parts or plants for a profit. Poaching applies to animals being hunted without a license, animals hunted without following proper hunting protocol, or animals or plants hunted on restricted or protected lands.

Endangered species ... An animal or plant is considered to be an endangered species if it is in danger of extinction in the immediate future. Extinction means that the plant or animal is gone forever from this world. A threatened species is one that is in danger of becoming endangered in the immediate future – it is currently on a path toward extinction. The giant otter, the gray whale, and the black rhino are all currently on the Endangered Species List for South America. The United States and South America have been working together to help protect threatened and endangered species on both continents. In 1973, President Nixon passed the U.S. Endangered Species Act to help protect plants and animals in this country. Part of the goal of protecting plants and animals is determining where these animals live and thrive. Critical habitats are areas of designated land that includes “all areas essential to the conservation” of the target endangered or threatened species. The hope is that by determining where these plants and animals thrive, these habitats can be protected and ultimately the animal and plants will not become extinct.

Deforestation ... As we have learned in previous units, deforestation is the process by which large areas of land are cleared for cattle grazing, mono-crops, roads, buildings, or other reasons. Deforestation is one of the main causes for the growing numbers of threatened, endangered, or extinct animals.

Sustainable Development ... Sustainable development is the catch phrase for the future of South America. Sustainable development is defined as using resources well so that human needs can be met while preserving the environment now and in the future.


Latifundias and Minifundias
Coffee plantation in Quimbaya, Quindío, Colombia
Coffee plantation in Quimbaya, Quindío, Colombia
First developed by the Romans, latifundias are large plantation-style estates. Latifundias took root in Spain and the practice was then transferred to the New World when Spain and Portugal established colonial rule. Latifundias continue to be an integral component of Latin American politics as well as the economy and social structure. Latifundias generally produce only one crop which, as we learned in the previous units, creates something known as green deserts. Latifundias also established a model for elite behavior and class structure. Over half of the total farm acreage in South America is held in the form of huge landed estates. Control of these estates means political power due to the importance of agriculture in terms of employment throughout South America. Many people see the continuing existence of the latifundia system as a major obstacle to development in South America because these large landed estates, in essence, deny many people access to land.

Minifundias, on the other hand, are small estates – usually less than 50 acres. Although minfundias constitute a large number of the farms in South America, they actually account for less than 4% of the land under cultivation. Minifundias are generally purely subsistence farms that support only the families farming the area and really produce no economic surplus. Some of the minifundias have come into existence due to inheritance laws breaking up large farming estates among heirs.


Oil in South America and the Paradox of Plenty
A Petrobras Gas Station in Bolivia
A Petrobras Gas Station in Bolivia
As we have learned earlier in this unit, Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina are three countries in South America hugely impacted by the presence of oil within their borders. Although Venezuela currently leads the trio in terms of oil reserves and is a founding member of OPEC, Brazil is poised to overtake Venezuela in terms of oil reserves by 2013 due to its aggressive offshore drilling exploration undertaken by Petrobras, the nation’s major oil company. While pursuing an aggressive offshore drilling strategy, the country of Brazil was also working hard to make its country energy independent and has become the world’s largest consumer of plant-based biofuels. Although Brazil has made large offshore oil discoveries in recent years, it generally takes about ten years for that oil to reach the market.

For many years, Venezuela has led the region in terms of oil. Venezuela is the fourth biggest supplier of oil to the United States and, in fact, has provided oil for free to poor people in the United States to booster the international perception of the country and its leader. Venezuela receives over 50% of its income from oil revenues due to the fact that all oil resources are state-owned. An important benefit to state-owned resources has been increased social programs instituted to help the poor as well as virtually free oil for the residents of the country. Unfortunately, when the cost of a barrel of oil is over $100 the nation does incredibly well, but when the cost of a barrel of oil plummets to $30 a barrel the entire nation suffers.

This overdependence on oil to support the economy is part of what is known as the paradox of plenty. Oil not only creates very few jobs, but it also destroys jobs in other sectors of the economy and eliminates other productive activity. Oil dependent countries tend to be surprisingly poor. Nationalization of resources tends to turn away multi-national corporations from investing in the region as well. This trend toward resource nationalization is indicative of the competing political alternatives vying for control across South America. Following the economic collapse in the United States and throughout “first-world” industrialized nations, leftist presidents in countries such as Venezuela and Bolivia are taking advantage of the popular discontent throughout their nations to challenge the authority of traditional ruling elites. Time will tell what this means for the oil industry and other natural resources throughout South America.

For additional information on leftist leaders of countries in Latin America, use the following key words to locate it with an online search engine: Latin America Politics interactive map.

What do you think this might mean for the future of these countries? Do you think more countries in South America will head in this direction?


Appropriate Use of Technology in Peru
Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication - Leonardo daVinci
Human impact on the environment doesn’t have to be negative! Look at Peru, for instance.

Use the following key words to locate an article in your online search engine: Popular Mechanics Peru Technology.

Amy Smith, an MIT professor, has been working steadily with teams of students and researchers to help the people of Peru (and other developing nations) positively impact their environment. The overall mission of these scientists is to fight global poverty and improve living standards through low-cost, accessible inventions. This idea is part of a growing movement called appropriate technology. Small villages in developing nations don’t need and can’t use big inventions. The more complex the technology, the more potential problems it can have!


Human Impact on Endangered and Threatened Plants and Animals
Andes Bear, an endangered species of South America
Andes Bear, an endangered species of South America
The current endangered and threatened species crisis is unique mainly due to the rapid nature of the continuous loss of biodiversity. Human beings are the single biggest cause of species extinction. Some scientists believe that this rapid trend in reducing biodiversity began when the earliest people inhabited the earth, while others believe it is only since 1600 – when human population growth exploded and the levels of resource consumption began to skyrocket.

It is believed that for every species alive today, there are 1000 species that are no longer in existence on this planet. Fossils give anthropologists and historians most of their information about this diversity of species because most of these extinctions occurred before humans evolved. Although extinctions are a natural part of life and a process that has occurred repeatedly throughout history, the concern is that although extinctions are a natural occurrence, simultaneously biodiversity had been increasing. Only recently has the earth experienced a loss of biodiversity. In some instances, such as the Andean bear, the animal is an endangered species due to habitat loss in addition to the fact that they are being killed for their fur and meat. In other instances, the impact is simply habitat based. In the country of Peru, scientists predict that if carbon emissions stay at their current levels, the glaciers of the Andes Mountains might be gone within twenty years. The impact on plant and animal species would be incredible, in addition to the impact on agriculture and daily life of millions of people dependent on the runoff from these glaciers.

Loss of biodiversity is not only occurring on land. Ocean ecosystems have been negatively impacted by human actions as well. Excessive carbon in the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels over the last two centuries has caused increased acidity in our oceans, which is threatening ecosystems, sea creatures, and their food supplies.


Promoting Sustainable Development in the Region
Promoting sustainable development in South America is an incredibly important goal. Millions of people in the developing world face economic, educational, and health hurdles. Overpopulation is one of the many issues facing the region. High population growth generally coincides with low education levels and poor health care. Overpopulation diminishes resources in a country and increases poverty. Overpopulation in South America even impacts the United States due to the increased migration of citizens looking for a better life and a way out of the poverty of their home country.

Sustainable development in South America is also important due to the fact that we, as a nation, consume many products from the region. While it might be easy to look the other way as helicopters dump pesticides on banana plantations or coastal areas are undergoing severe overfishing, the fact is that these practices will impact our nation eventually. The United States will pay the costs with health related issues or higher prices due to lack of supply. If resources become depleted and other ecosystems are adversely affected, our nation has the potential to suffer as well. In this age of globalization, many people believe that we, as a worldwide community, have a responsibility to get involved and help promote sustainable development around the globe.

Countries need sustainable development. This is development that meets the needs of the present population without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. As this animation illustrates, unsustainable development leads down a descending spiral that negatively impacts the environment, human health, and future development.

Click here to download a text version of the presentation below.



Question Number 1	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
Inca citizens labored for the ruler on the myriad roads, crop terraces, irrigation canals, temples, or fortresses. How were they paid for their work?
Your Answer
C. clothing and food
Question Number 2	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
How did the Inca try to appease Supai, God of death?
Your Answer
A. The Inca sacrificed over 100 children a year to him.
Question Number 3	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
What were the main uses for silver and gold?
Your Answer
A. Mainly for aesthetics.
Question Number 4	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
Gaucho, vaqueiro, huaso and llanero are all another word for what?
Your Answer
B. cowboy
Question Number 5	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
What is the main object of worship in the Quechua religion?
Your Answer
B. the sun
Question Number 6	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
What is a “critical habitat?”
Your Answer
B. Land thought to be important to the survival of an endangered or threatened species.
Question Number 7	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
Why did the Spaniards seek to conquer the Inca?
Your Answer
C. They heard the Inca had a lot of gold.
Question Number 8	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
Which of the following is considered poaching?
Your Answer
D. All of the above.
Question Number 9	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
Which South American country has the most Catholics?
Your Answer
D. Brazil
Question Number 10	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
How did the language of Quechua spread throughout the Andes?
Your Answer
A. The Roman Catholic Church used Quechua to preach Christianity.
Question Number 11	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
How did the language of Quechua spread throughout the Andes?
Your Answer
A. The Roman Catholic Church used Quechua to preach Christianity.
Question Number 12	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
What is the main object of worship in the Quechua religion?
Your Answer
B. the sun
Question Number 13	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
These men are still are an integral part of the ranching areas of Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil.
Your Answer
D. Gauchos
Question Number 14	Points: 5.00/5.00
Question Text
Which United States President established the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973?
Your Answer
C. Nixon
Question Number 15	Points: 0.00/5.00
Question Text
Eva Peron was loved by her descamisados – a term meaning which of the following?
Your Answer
A. poor ones

Did you know that tropical rainforests, which cover 6-7% of the earth's surface, contain over half of all the plant and animal species in the world!
Did you know that 57% of all rainforests remaining are located in the Neotropics, with 30% located in Brazil?
Did you know that over 130 species a day are killed globally through deforestation!
Did you know that Brazil has the highest annual rate of deforestation today!
Did you know that the Atlantic coast of Brazil has lost 90-95% of its rainforest?

Deforestation in South America
Deforestation in the Amazon follows a fishbone pattern
Deforestation in the Amazon follows a fishbone pattern
As you have learned, deforestation is the removal of trees and forests, usually through cutting or burning. In South America, most deforestation takes place because of a need for agricultural land. There are three main types of deforestation that take place in these tropical regions.

Slash and Burn Agriculture: In countries with poor economies, such as those in South America, people turn to agriculture to meet the everyday needs of living. Poor farmers then migrate to agricultural settlement areas, and cut down several acres of land to use for farming. They then burn the stumps to release the nutrients into the soil needed to grow crops. This is essential because in rainforests nearly all of the nutrients required to sustain life are found within the plants and trees, and not in the soil. Farming like this is the only way for people to survive - they raise crops to feed themselves and to sell to make money to live by. However, with no trees, the nutrients are soon washed away by rain. This can happen in as little as three years, when the farmers are forced to move to new land, as the land they cleared becomes useless and unable to yield crops. The land is left to re grow, but as the soil is left barren, the forest will take a long time (up to 50 years) to grow back.
Intensive agriculture: Large companies clear vast amounts of land, often for cattle pastures to fill the world beef market. They also use the land for large plantations, and use pesticides and irrigation systems that are very damaging to the land. However, the chemicals they use to kill pests also kill other animals and cause a lot of damage to surrounding areas. The rain washes the chemicals into the water system killing the fish, another popular industry in South America, and the use of irrigation systems in Banana plantations affects the natural water balance of the land, which can have other damaging effects. Land used in these ways not only affects much of the surrounding area negatively, but also can take centuries to re-grow.
Commercial logging: Commercial loggers cut forests to sell as timber or pulp. This is done either selectively, taking only certain types of tree, or through clear cutting, whereby all trees in a certain area are removed. Selective felling is more damaging than expected, with studies showing that felling a small amount of trees in a forest can affect a great deal of trees in the surrounding area. However, when left to re-grow, the area recovers quite quickly. When clear cutting has taken place, it is very difficult for the forest to re-grow at all, because all the nutrients have been removed - trees are taken away not burnt, so their nutrients are not released into the soil.


Why does deforestation matter?
Rurrenabaque in the Amazon
Rurrenabaque in the Amazon
The following chart creates an easy way to see how different types of deforestation impact the environment.

Impact of Different Types of Deforestation on the Environment
Type of Deforestation	Environmental Impact
Burning Forests	Climate change: Trees are made of about 50% carbon, so when trees are burnt, carbon is released into the atmosphere. This joins with Oxygen to make CO2, which enhances the greenhouse effect, changing temperatures globally.
Clear cutting of forests	Desertification: Clearing large areas of forest at once makes it very difficult for the forest to re-grow at all; it is estimated that half the rain in tropical countries comes from evaporation of moisture in the canopy of the trees. Cutting them down reduces the amount of rain, raising temperatures and allowing the sun to heat up the land and dry it out.
Large plantations	Pollution: Pesticides and irrigation systems are very damaging to the land; chemicals they use to kill pests also kill other animals; rain washes the chemicals into the water system killing the fish as well.
Subsistence Farming	Soil erosion: Although smaller areas are cleared for agriculture, with no trees, the nutrients of the soil are soon washed away by rain. This can happen in as little as three years, when the farmers are forced to move to new land, as the land they cleared becomes useless and unable to yield crops.
Additional consequences of deforestation include habitat fragmentation, loss of biodiversity, extinctions, social conflicts, economic uncertainty, loss of culture, and displacement of people.

Many people think that deforestation simply means logging! It's not just the logging industry that poses a threat - agriculture also encourages deforestation. Crops like soya and palm oil which are in high demand on the international markets are often grown in areas of rainforest and tropical peatland that have been burnt and drained. European and United States corporations are making large profits exploiting these regions.


Finding a Solution

Environmentalism
The solutions to problems such as deforestation lie in addressing the root cause. In this case, finding a solution means considering the economic problems that lie at the heart of the situation. Destroying forests for profit or even subsistence farming might solve some short-term financial problems, but ultimately causes far more serious long-term problems.

What can we do to stop or at least lessen the amount of deforestation and conserve our own use of natural resources such as wood, oil and gas, electricity, minerals and elements, and water? Brainstorm ... here's a start:


Always use both sides of paper when writing, drawing, photo-copying, faxing, etc.
Recycle paper, cans, glass, and plastic.
Read the newspaper on-line.
Buy paper products made from recycled paper: notebook paper, paper towels, toilet paper, books, etc.
Encourage your parents, relatives, and friends to buy furniture and wood that is Certified. That means the wood was legally cut-down.
Trees get cut down for cattle to graze. Instead of eating meat, think of eating other sources of protein such as fish, soy, beans, whole-wheat, and nuts.
Buy organic fruits and vegetables. That means there are no insecticides or pesticides (poisonous chemicals) sprayed on the food. If these chemicals kill insects and pests that try and eat the vegetables, think about how harmful they can be to you and the environment.