API tools faq
paste
jonstond2

Hegel: Philosophy of History

jonstond2
Dec 15th, 2015
247
0
Never
Add comment
Not a member of Pastebin yet? Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!
text 79.64 KB | None | 0 0
raw download clone embed print report diff
  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Hegel’s philosophy of history emphasizes the development of freedom and the consciousness of freedom over the course of world history. For Hegel, this development is marked by conflict and struggle, rather than smooth uninterrupted progress, and is manifested for the most part in political developments construed broadly, including world-historical events such as the French Revolution, in the significant actions of world-historical “heroes” such as Alexander the Great and Napoleon Bonaparte, and in the achievements of peoples and nations. According to Hegel, the end or goal of history is the actualization of freedom in the life of the modern nation-state. He claimed that history was a rational process of development and that it could be understood and made intelligible for anyone willing to look at it rationally, which means looking at it holistically and as an endeavor of the World Spirit with a discernible purpose. Moreover, he attempted to show that history exhibited real progress toward the ultimate goal of freedom and that the modern period, the time in which he lived up until his death in 1831, brought this development to fruition and, in a way, a culmination. This theory of history has been both highly influential and controversial—it is essential to any overall study of the philosophy of history.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. The works listed here are by prominent scholars, and each contains some material on Hegel’s philosophy of history. The overviews that deal specifically with Hegel’s philosophy of history, written by recognized Hegel scholars, are considered important in the literature on Hegel. Some of these works are general introductions to Hegel’s thought overall, such as Beiser 2005, Houlgate 2005, Findlay 1976, Plant 1972, Rosen 1974, Singer 1983, and Speight 2008. Of these, the works by Beiser, Houlgate, Singer, and Speight are the most accessible. Croce 1969, Inwood 1983, Kaufmann 1966, and Taylor 1975, although not introductions per se, are quite comprehensive in their coverage of a wide range of topics in Hegel. Findlay 1976, Houlgate 2005, Kaufmann 1966, Plant 1972, and Speight 2008 tend to be more sympathetic in their approaches, whereas Croce 1969, Rosen 1974, and Taylor 1975 lean toward a more critical assessment. Beiser 2005, Inwood 1983, and Singer 1983 are particularly well-balanced treatments.
  8.  
  9. Beiser, Frederick. Hegel. New York and London: Routledge, 2005.
  10. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. A comprehensive introduction that covers nearly every major aspect of Hegel’s philosophy. This overview is written for the reader coming to Hegel for the first time and thus provides a thematic rather than textual approach. Contains one chapter (chapter 11, pp. 261–281) on the philosophy of history. A clear and accessible book on Hegel.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Croce, Benedetto. What Is Living and What Is Dead of the Philosophy of Hegel. Translated by Douglas Ainslie. New York: Russell & Russell, 1969.
  14. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. A classic work on Hegel that is largely critical of his dialectical approach. In his section “The Metamorphosis of Particular Concepts into Philosophical Errors,” Croce argues that Hegel’s “history of a second degree” is incoherent and does violence to actual history. Croce’s claim that Hegel’s philosophy of history is an a priori construction has been challenged by recent interpreters (see especially Thanassas 2009, cited under Hegel’s Conception of the End of History).
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Findlay, John. Hegel: A Re-examination. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976.
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19. Considered a classic and reliable general introduction to Hegel, it contains a substantial section on Hegel’s notion of Spirit and a section on his philosophy of objective spirit, with a subsection on the philosophy of history.
  20. Find this resource:
  21. Houlgate, Stephen. An Introduction to Hegel: Freedom, Truth, and History. 2d ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2005.
  22. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  23. An accessible approach on a range of topics. Relates Hegel’s ideas to those of other thinkers and also offers a distinctive interpretation of Hegel’s thought, emphasizing its Christian character. Includes a chapter on history.
  24. Find this resource:
  25. Inwood, Michael J. Hegel. London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983.
  26. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27. A second edition with a new preface was published in 2002. A substantial survey and interpretation of Hegel’s philosophy using a topical approach, as distinct from one that focuses on Hegel’s major works. Section 11, “Freedom, Morality, and the End of History,” has several chapters relating to Hegel’s philosophy of history, with the last one discussing the idea of the end of history.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Kaufmann, Walter. Hegel: A Reinterpretation. Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1966.
  30. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  31. Kaufmann, a major scholar of Hegel and 19th-century German philosophy, has a lengthy chapter 6, “Hegel on History,” that runs about fifty pages.
  32. Find this resource:
  33. Plant, Raymond. Hegel: An Introduction. London: Allen & Unwin, 1972.
  34. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35. Basil Blackwell republished this book in 1983. Chapter 3, “Toward a Perspective on History,” provides biographical background that focuses on the influences on Hegel’s thinking about history.
  36. Find this resource:
  37. Rosen, Stanley. G. W. F. Hegel: An Introduction to the Science of Wisdom. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1974.
  38. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  39. The first two chapters focus on Hegel on history. The basic theme is that for Hegel history manifests a logical pattern, by means of which the eternal and the temporal are coincident.
  40. Find this resource:
  41. Singer, Peter. Hegel: A Very Short Introduction. Past Masters Series. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
  42. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  43. A good, brief, and reliable introductory overview to Hegel’s thought. Chapter 2, “History with a Purpose,” summarizes Hegel’s philosophy of history.
  44. Find this resource:
  45. Speight, Allen. The Philosophy of Hegel. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2008.
  46. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  47. An introduction to Hegel that focuses on salient ideas and issues in Hegelian philosophy, along with Hegel’s reconceptualization of the nature of modernity. Surveys the major topics in the philosophy of objective spirit and confronts various inadequate interpretations of Hegel’s philosophy of history.
  48. Find this resource:
  49. Taylor, Charles. Hegel. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1975.
  50. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139171465Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  51. A substantial exposition of Hegel’s Phenomenology and his Logic, along with chapters on various aspects of Hegel’s conception of speculative reason. Part 4, “History and Politics,” has three chapters relating to Hegel’s philosophy of history.
  52. Find this resource:
  53. Hegel’s Philosophy of History
  54.  
  55. The works listed here deal either entirely or in good part with Hegel’s philosophy of history. Abalo Cea 2013, Cesa 2011, Lendvai 2010, Bautz 1988, Hyppolite 1948, McCarney 2000, O’Brien 1975, Pompa 1990, Siebert 1979, and Wilkins 1974 focus specifically and methodically on Hegel’s lectures on the philosophy of history; whereas Amengual Coll 2011, Kelly 1969, Marcuse 1960, and Pagès 2013 are more tangential and yet valuable for the various issues that they highlight.
  56.  
  57. Abalo Cea, F. “Acerca de cierta experiencia de lo histórico en Hegel.” Trans/Form/Acao: Revista de Filosofi 36.2 (2013): 85–103.
  58. DOI: 10.1590/S0101-31732013000200006Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  59. This article discusses the limits of Hegel’s conception of history, focusing on the idea of the historical that Hegel presents in his introduction to the Philosophy of the History as well as his justification of the philosophy of history as outlined in this text. In view of his interpretation, the author discusses some problematic aspects of the Hegelian position on history. Translated as “On the particular experience of the historical in Hegel.”
  60. Find this resource:
  61. Amengual Coll, G. “Filosofia de la història com a teodicea.” Anuari de la Societat Catalana de Filosofia: Revista de Filosofia 22 (2011): 27–52.
  62. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  63. The author’s critique is that despite Hegel’s expressed intention of carrying out a theodicy in concrete history this is never fully realized because the philosophy of history only conceptualizes this theodicy and does not situate human action within a frame of experience. Rather, the theodicy is found ultimately in the Absolute Spirit and in Hegel’s reference to Christianity, in particular in the Incarnation and in Christ’s death. Translated as “Philosophy of history as theodicy.”
  64. Find this resource:
  65. Bautz, Timo. Hegels Lehre von der Weltgeschichte: Zur logischen und systematischen Grundlegung der Hegelschen Geschichtsphilosophie. Munich: Fink, 1988.
  66. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  67. Poses problems that arise from Hegel’s philosophy of world history, in particular the problems of the “thesis of secularization” and the “thesis of historiography.” The author argues that a lack of clarity on the logical shape and function of mediation in Hegel’s philosophy of history causes difficulty in addressing these problems. Translated as “Hegel’s teachings on world history: On the logical and systematic basis of Hegelian philosophy of history.”
  68. Find this resource:
  69. Cesa, C. “La filosofia della storia di Hegel: Problemi di interpretazione.” Rivista di Filosofia 102.3 (2011): 405–426.
  70. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  71. In view of the discovery of Hegel’s Nachschriften (postscript notes) to the lecture courses he gave in different years, scholars have questioned whether his Berlin period (1818–1831) was really characterized by a definitive arrangement of ideas rather than by an ongoing intellectual elaboration. This article suggests that a diachronic analysis of the Nachschriften illuminates Hegel’s swings on the very role of the philosophy of history within his overall system of philosophy. Translated as “The philosophy of history in Hegel: the problem of interpretation.”
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Hyppolite, Jean. Introduction à la philosophie de l’histoire de Hegel. Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1948.
  74. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75. A major thinker, scholar, and translator of Hegel in modern France, Hyppolite explicates Hegel’s conception of history in a concise book of five chapters (seventy-two pages without the endnotes). Available in English: Jean Hyppolite, Introduction to Hegel’s Philosophy of History, translated by Bond Harris and Jacqueline Bouchard Spurlock (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996).
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Kelly, George Armstrong. Idealism, Politics, and History: Sources of Hegelian Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1969.
  78. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  79. An interesting survey of the historical context of Hegel’s thought and of the issues of logic and history, and time and history. Makes repeated connections between history and politics.
  80. Find this resource:
  81. Lendvai, Ferenc L. “‘Objektiver Geist’: Begründung der Philosophie der Geschichte in der ‘Phänomenologie des Geistes’ Geist? Erster Teil.” In Hegel-Jahrbuch 12. 158–162. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2010.
  82. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  83. The purpose of the article is to show the continuity between the earlier and the later philosophy of history of Hegel, specifically how the fundamental concept in the later “Lectures on Philosophy of History” is also a characteristic feature in the earlier Phenomenology of Spirit. Moreover, the conceptual basis of the rather abstract logic of Hegel’s Phenomenology are to be found in the political and philosophical analyses of his previous “Jena Drafts of the System.” Translated as: “‘Objective spirit’: Foundations of the philosophy of history in the ‘phenomenology of spirit’: Spirit? Part 1.”
  84. Find this resource:
  85. Marcuse, Herbert. Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory. Boston: Beacon, 1960.
  86. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  87. A classic study of the foundations of Hegel’s philosophy and its influence on social theory in the 19th and 20th centuries by a notable social theorist. Contains a provocative chapter on Hegel’s philosophy of history.
  88. Find this resource:
  89. McCarney, Joseph. Hegel on History. Routledge Philosophy Guidebooks Series. London and New York: Routledge, 2000.
  90. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  91. A comprehensive survey and analysis of the major themes in Hegel’s philosophy of history. The author focuses on the introduction to Hegel’s Philosophy of History, examining the ideas and arguments, explaining key concepts of Hegel’s philosophical system, and considering the ongoing relevance of Hegel’s work to contemporary discussion about the nature of history; probing, articulate, and reasonably accessible.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. O’Brien, George Dennis. Hegel on Reason and History: A Contemporary Interpretation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975.
  94. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  95. An attempt to elucidate the text entitled Die Vernunft in der Geschichte, edited by Johannes Hoffmeister and published in 1955. The thematic focus is the centrality of reason in history for Hegel, and specifically “that reason is power, substance, content, and the end of history” (p. 6). Also, O’Brien argues that there is a dialectical progression of methods of history in Hegel in the discussion of the varieties of historical writing, from the first draft of his lectures of 1822 and 1828.
  96. Find this resource:
  97. Pagès, C. “De Hegel à Herder: Le principe d’historicité: Réflexions sur les relations entre les philosophies herdérienne et hégélienne de l’histoire.” Revue Philosophique de Louvain 111.4 (2013): 631–660.
  98. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. This article argues that, to a large extent, Hegel drew his inspiration from Johan Gottfried Herder (b. 1744–d. 1803) in conceiving the relationship between spirit and history and in forging his conception of historicity. The retrieval of Herder as a source of Hegel’s thought on history contributes to correcting the various misrepresentations of Hegel as well as giving Herder his due. Translated as “From Hegel to Herder: The principle of historicity: Reflections on Herderian and Hegelian history.”
  100. Find this resource:
  101. Pompa, Leon. Human Nature and Historical Knowledge: Hume, Hegel, and Vico. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
  102. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511597930Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103. This work aims at an account of the minimal presuppositions of historical knowledge with an emphasis on assumptions about human nature, in particular with regard to whether human nature can change. A critical interpretation of the theories of Hume, Hegel, and Vico affords clarity on this issue. The section on Hegel entitled “Hegel: The Self-Development of Reason” is substantial, comprising sixty-three pages, and gives close scrutiny to Hegel’s introductory lectures. Articulate, accessible, and insightful.
  104. Find this resource:
  105. Siebert, Rudolf J. Hegel’s Philosophy of History: Theological, Humanistic and Scientific Elements. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979.
  106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107. A comprehensive examination. Each of the chapters is broken down into many thematic subheadings. Very methodical in approach.
  108. Find this resource:
  109. Wilkins, Burleigh Taylor. Hegel’s Philosophy of History. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974.
  110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  111. Attempts to clarify the basic features of Hegel’s philosophy of history. Argues against the popular view of Hegel as having an a priori and nonempirical approach. Discusses Hegel’s views on mechanism and teleology and on contingency and necessity, and makes comparisons with contemporary philosophies of history. The only other book—in addition to O’Brien 1975—that surveys Hegel’s presentation of the methods of historical writing.
  112. Find this resource:
  113. The Philosophy of History
  114.  
  115. These works are by notable authors on the general topic of the philosophy of history. The books have sections or chapters on Hegel, except for Kant 1963, written by an important precursor of Hegel. Löwith 1957 and Collingwood 1946 tend to deal with the continental traditions, whereas Atkinson 1978, Walsh 1967, White 1973, and Dray 1964 focus more on Anglo-American “analytic” approaches. Gardiner 1959, an anthology, includes essays by the major thinkers of both the continental and Anglo-American orientations. Sweet 2004 (cited under Anthologies), an anthology, is wide ranging in covering movements from the beginning of the 20th century. Beiser 2011 and Bernasconi 2011 are from A Companion to Hegel and each situates Hegel’s philosophy of history in the context of a particular issue or in its topics and themes. Houlgate 1990 provides an explication and defense of Hegel’s approach to the philosophy of history.
  116.  
  117. Atkinson, R. F. Knowledge and Explanation in History: An Introduction to the Philosophy of History. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978.
  118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. The six chapters in this book address central topics in the philosophy of history, such as the relationship of philosophy and history, the concepts of historical knowledge, objectivity, and explanation, as well as the role of moral judgment. Although there is minimal discussion of Hegel or of the “speculative” approach to history, the author addresses important issues relevant to any philosophy of history and makes connections to major thinkers on the subject, such as R. G. Collingwood, William Dray, W. H. Walsh, and Morton White. A nontechnical but sophisticated work.
  120. Find this resource:
  121. Beiser, Frederick C. “Hegel and Ranke: A Re-examination.” In A Companion to Hegel. Edited by Stephen Houlgate and Michel Bauer, 332–350. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
  122. DOI: 10.1002/9781444397161Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123. Examines Leopold von Ranke’s critique of Hegel’s philosophy of history, which condemned it altogether, claiming that it could not be a science. The author argues that Ranke’s criticisms were inaccurate, in particular as relates to Hegel’s methodology, and that there the two thinkers held more in common on the philosophy of history than has been acknowledged.
  124. Find this resource:
  125. Bernasconi, Robert. “The Ruling Categories of the World: The Trinity in Hegel’s Philosophy of History and the Rise and Fall of Peoples.” In A Companion to Hegel. Edited by Stephen Houlgate and Michel Bauer, 315–331. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
  126. DOI: 10.1002/9781444397161Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127. The author argues that in contrast to a too common approach to Hegel’s philosophy of history that relies almost solely on the separately published introduction, the Philosophy of History must be read and studied in its entirety and that doing so reveals the organizing structure of Hegel’s lectures on this topic. Hegel’s concept of the Trinity provides this structure, but Hegel also provides “a history of the emergence of the Trinity within history” (p. 315).
  128. Find this resource:
  129. Collingwood, R. G. The Idea of History. Oxford: Clarendon, 1946.
  130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131. A revised edition was published in 1994. Includes a very accessible account of Hegel’s philosophy of history, the influence of Hegel’s predecessors, the reaction of Hegel’s critics, and the impact on later thought, especially that of Karl Marx.
  132. Find this resource:
  133. Dray, William H. Philosophy of History. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1964.
  134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. Chapter 6 discusses the “metaphysical approach” in Hegel’s speculative philosophy of history, noting difficulties in several of his main ideas, such as rationality, freedom, world-historical individuals, and dialectic and necessity.
  136. Find this resource:
  137. Gardiner, Patrick L. Theories of History. Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1959.
  138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139. An anthology of readings in the philosophy of history that is divided into two parts: Part 1 covers thinkers, mostly European, in the tradition of “speculative” philosophy of history, whereas Part 2 includes only English and American philosophers in the “analytic” movement of the 20th century. The virtue of this collection is that it includes all of the major traditional and contemporary thinkers.
  140. Find this resource:
  141. Houlgate, Stephen. “World History as the Progress of Consciousness: An Interpretation of Hegel’s Philosophy of History.” Owl of Minerva 22.1 (1990): 69–80.
  142. DOI: 10.5840/owl199022127Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. Considers Hegel’s claim that world history is the necessary progress of the consciousness of freedom and argues, contrary to what critics assert, that Hegel’s view of history does not ignore the material and economic side of human life or downplay the significance of human agency. The author also addresses the meaning of Hegel’s conception of the “end of history” and its implications.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Kant, Immanuel. On History. Edited and translated by Lewis White Beck, Robert E. Anchor, and Emil L. Fackenheim. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963.
  146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147. This volume is a collection of seven essays by Kant that are his reflections on “universal history” or the philosophy of the history of humankind. Kant’s writings on history proved influential to Hegel, especially with regard to the idea of historical development. However, Hegel rejected Kant’s conception of world government as presented in the essay “Perpetual Peace.”
  148. Find this resource:
  149. Löwith, Karl. Meaning in History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957.
  150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151. This interesting work traces the theological implications of the philosophy of history in thirteen authors, from the 18th and 19th centuries, and in the Bible. Included is a chapter on Hegel’s lectures on the philosophy of history.
  152. Find this resource:
  153. Walsh, W. H. Philosophy of History: An Introduction. London: Harper & Row, 1967.
  154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. Chapter 7 addresses Hegel’s speculative philosophy of history with a focus on his dialectical approach, the distinction between a science of Spirit versus a science of Nature, and the conceptions of reason, freedom, historical progress, and the role of the passions in the “cunning” of history. Also considers at some length criticisms of Hegel’s theories. A sophisticated treatment by a notable scholar.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. White, Hayden. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.
  158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. A study of the main forms of historical thinking in 19th-century Europe. Proposes a theory of the poetic nature of historical narrative. Includes a substantial chapter on Hegel entitled “Hegel: The Poetics of History and the Way beyond Irony.”
  160. Find this resource:
  161. Primary Sources
  162.  
  163. The text that comprises The Philosophy of History was not published until after Hegel’s death and is based on his lecture notes, supplemented by notes from students in his classes. Hegel delivered lectures on the philosophy of history for five winter semesters at the University of Berlin, beginning with the 1822–1823 term and then every other year, giving his last in the 1830–1831 semester. The first German edition of Hegel’s lectures appeared in 1837, edited by Eduard Gans, and a revised and enlarged edition was published by Hegel’s son, the historian Karl Hegel, in 1840. The three subsequent German editions are the critical edition by Georg Lasson in 1917–1930, the edition by Johannes Hoffmeister in 1955, and the edition published as Volume 12 of Hegel’s Werke in 1970. There has been some controversy as to which of the editions is the most authoritative, but Karl Hegel’s is the only one that contains the complete material of the course lectures and is the basis of the 1857 English translation by J. Sibree, the first (and still the only) full English text of all the lectures. This was reprinted by Dover Press in 1956 and recently republished in 2004 by Barnes and Noble. There are two more recent German editions that focus on the compiled notes (Nachschriften) of students in Hegel’s Berlin lecture courses: Brehmer, et al. 1996 for the 1822–1823 lectures and Vieweg 2005 for the 1830–1831 lectures. Other works by Hegel directly relevant to his views on history are Philosophy of Right (Knox 1967), the final section of which is on world history, and Phenomenology of Spirit (Miller 1977), which articulates the concept of Spirit (Geist) in his philosophy.
  164.  
  165. German Texts
  166.  
  167. These works by Hegel are those most relevant to his philosophy of history and the most current or most recognized editions. In addition to the texts on the philosophy of history proper (Hoffmeister 1955; Moldenhauer and Markus 1970; Brehmer, et al. 1996; and Vieweg 2005), works that treat Hegel’s social and political work (Lasson 1921) and his Phänomenologie (Hoffmeister 1952) that also addresses in particular ways the topic of history are included.
  168.  
  169. Brehmer, Karl, Karl-Heinz Ilting, and Hoo Nam Seelmann, eds. Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Weltgeschichte: Berlin 1822/23. G. W. F. Hegel Vorlesungen—Ausgewahlte Nachschriften und Manuscripte 12. Hamburg, Germany: Meiner, 1996.
  170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  171. This edition contains the course transcripts (Nachschriften) of Karl Gustav Julius von Griesheim, Heinrich Gustav Hotho, and Friedrich Carl Hermann Victor von Kehler from Hegel’s Berlin lectures of the 1822–1823 winter semester (his first self-contained lectures on the topic). Translated as “Lectures on the philosophy of world history: Berlin 1822–1823.”
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Hoffmeister, Johannes, ed. Phänomenologie des Geistes. Hamburg, Germany: Meiner, 1952.
  174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175. This was Hegel’s first major scholarly work, initially published in 1801. It articulates the nature of consciousness and rationality of Spirit from a phenomenological perspective, utilizing the history of ideas from Western thought in various places. Translated as “Phenomenology of spirit.”
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Hoffmeister, Johannes, ed. Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Weltgeschichte. Vol. 1, Die Vernunft in der Geschichte. Hamburg, Germany: Meiner, 1955.
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. This is the fourth edition of Hegel’s lectures on the philosophy of world history given in Berlin from 1822 to 1830; the previous editions were compiled by Eduard Gans (1837), Karl Hegel (1840), and Georg Lasson (1917, 1921, and 1930). In his 1930 edition, Lasson added additional manuscript material by Hegel as well as lecture notes from students, which are preserved in Hoffmeister’s edition. Translated as: “Lectures on the philosophy of world history. Volume 1, Reason in history.”
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Lasson, Georg, ed. Hegels Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts. 2d ed. Leipzig: Meiner, 1921.
  182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. This is Hegel’s major published work on social and political philosophy, focusing on the fundamentals of the nation-state as a rationally integrated set of institutions that provides a fulfilling and meaningful ethical life of freedom. Lasson’s is the latest edition referred to in T. M. Knox’s 1952 translation. Translated as: “Hegel’s elements of the philosophy of right.”
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Lasson, Georg, ed. Philosophie der Weltgeschichte. 3d ed. Philosophische Bibliothek 9. Leipzig: Meiner, 1930.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. This text is part of the “Critical Edition” (Kritische Ausgabe) of Hegel’s works in the Philosophical Library (Philosophische Bibliothek) series. A significant expansion of previous editions as a result of the discovery of additional manuscripts and lecture notes. Translated as: “Philosophy of world history.”
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Moldenhauer, Eva, and Karl Markus, eds. Hegels Werke in zwanzig Bänden. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1970.
  190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. This is the most recent and comprehensive collection of Hegel’s works. The writings on history are contained in Volume 12 (Band XII). Translated as “Hegel’s works in twenty volumes.”
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Vieweg, Klaus, ed. Die Philosophie der Geschichte: Vorlesungsmitschrift Heimann, Winter 1830/1831. Munich: Fink, 2005.
  194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. Contains a number of lecture notes, essentially transcripts by the student Heimann from the last series of lectures on Hegel’s Philosophy of History (1830–1831). Originally used by Eduard Gans for his first edition of Hegel’s lectures (1837). Translated as “The philosophy of history: Heimann lecture notes, winter 1830/1831.”
  196. Find this resource:
  197. English Translations
  198.  
  199. All these translations of Hegel’s texts are consulted by Hegel scholars, with some differing views as to which are superior or more authoritative. For a time Knox 1967 was the only English translation of Philosophy of Right until the arrival of Wood 1991 and the more recent White 2002. Similarly, Baillie 1967 was the only English translation of Phenomenology of Mind (Spirit) until Miller 1977 appeared. Although many scholars consider this translation to supersede Baillie’s, others believe that Baillie conveys a better philosophical sense of Hegel’s text. The Hartman 1953, Nisbet 1975, and Rauch 1988 translations of Hegel’s Philosophy of History contain only the introductory lectures, sometimes entitled “Reason in History.” The Sibree 1956 translation is the only one that includes, in addition to the introduction, the entirety of Hegel’s lectures that cover in detail the four world-historical epochs. The Barnes and Noble reprint of 2004 preserves this text, but leaves out the prefaces by Eduard Gans and Charles Hegel that appear in the German edition. The translation by Robert F. Brown and Peter C. Hodgson (Brown and Hodgson 2011) is based on the most recent 1992 German edition of Hegel’s Lectures on the Philosophy of History, including Hegel’s Introduction.
  200.  
  201. Baillie, J. B., trans. The Phenomenology of Mind. Introduction by George Lichtheim. New York: Harper & Row, 1967.
  202. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203. The original Baillie translation was published by the Macmillan Company, London, in 1910, with a second revised edition in 1931, of which this Torchbook edition is a reprint.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Brown, Robert F., and Peter C. Hodgson, eds. G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of World History. Vol. 1, Manuscripts of the Introduction and the Lectures of 1822–23. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. This is an English translation of the 1992 German edition by Karl Brehmer, et al. (see Brehmer, et al. 1996, cited under German Texts), thus bringing the English version up to date with the most recent German text.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Hartman, R. S., trans. Reason in History: A General Introduction to the Philosophy of History. New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1953.
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Contains the introduction to Hegel’s Lectures on the Philosophy of World History. This translation follows the second German edition by Karl Hegel (1840), with interpolations from the first edition indicated in the text with footnotes. The translator attempts to steer a “middle road” between a literal and a liberal approach to translation. Has a very good and substantial explanatory introduction to Hegel’s main ideas.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Knox, T. M., trans. Hegel’s Philosophy of Right. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967.
  214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. This was the primary English translation until recently. Moreover, a reissue of Knox appeared in 2008, edited by Stephen Houlgate, as part of the Oxford World’s Classics series. This newly revised edition reflects a number of changes, mostly organizational and to improve accuracy but with little alteration of the original English translation. Originally published in 1952.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Miller, A. V., trans. Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit. Oxford: Clarendon, 1977.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. This is the most recent English translation of Hegel’s Phänomenologie, although several others are currently under preparation.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Nisbet, H. B., trans. Lectures on the Philosophy of World History: Introduction: Reason in History. With an introduction by Duncan Forbes. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1975.
  222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. Based on the 1955 German edition by Johannes Hoffmeister (see Hoffmeister 1955, cited under German Texts), this work includes both Hegel’s marginal notes to his lectures as well as student notes from his course. Nisbet attempts to follow as closely as possible the style and substance of the German original.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Rauch, Leo, trans. Introduction to the Philosophy of History. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1988.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. This translation follows the second German edition by Karl Hegel (1840) and is the most recent of the English translations of Hegel’s introduction to his lectures on the philosophy of history. The translator indicates that he has avoided many of the weaknesses and errors of the previous translations and made the text “clearer, more readable, and truer to Hegel” (p. xi). This edition also contains as an appendix paragraphs 341–360 of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, the section on world history.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Sibree, J. B., trans. The Philosophy of History. New York: Dover, 1956.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. This is a reprint of the 1899 translation (the first appeared in 1857) of Hegel’s Lectures on the Philosophy of History, published by Colonial House Press. The Dover edition contains a general introduction by Carl J. Friedrich. It was reprinted by Barnes and Noble in 2004, with a new general introduction by David A. Duquette.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. White, Alan, trans. Hegel’s The Philosophy of Right. Newburyport, MA: Focus, 2002.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. This edition attempts to render Hegel’s technical terms with “ruthless consistency” while at the same time breaking down and rearranging the sentences for readability and increased clarity. Contains a helpful glossary of terms in the back of the text.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Wood, Allen W., ed. Elements of the Philosophy of Right. Translated by H. B. Nisbet. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. This English edition is based on the text of the first edition of the Rechtsphilosophie 1820, reproduced in Hegels Werke, Volume 7 (Band VII, Frankfurt, Germany: Surkamp Verlag, 1970). This translation attempts to be less formal and stilted than the T. M. Knox translation of 1952, but also more accurate and precise with respect to Hegel’s treatment of concepts.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Anthologies
  242.  
  243. These collections of essays overall are valuable in researching and studying the secondary literature on Hegel’s thought. Gallagher 1997, Lamb 1998, Houlgate and Bauer 2011, Stewart 1996, Beiser 1993, and Hegel-Jahrbuch 1996 are generic, covering a wide variety of topics in Hegel. Perkins 1984 and Weisser-Lohmann 1998 are dedicated specifically to Hegel’s philosophy of history (similar works may be found in Hegel’s Philosophy of History), whereas Melzer 1995 includes but is not restricted to essays on Hegel. Sweet 2004 is most tangential to Hegel’s thought per se but includes important contributions, some of which deal with relevant issues.
  244.  
  245. Beiser, Frederick C., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Hegel. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
  246. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL0521382742Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Contains fourteen essays by prominent Hegel scholars on a variety of topics in Hegel’s philosophy. Includes a piece by the volume editor, “Hegel’s Historicism.”
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Gallagher, Shaun, ed. Hegel, History and Interpretation. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1997.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. A collection of twelve essays that explore various themes connecting Hegelian philosophy to philosophical hermeneutics. Part 2, “History and Critical Reason,” is relevant to Hegel’s philosophy of history.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Hegel-Jahrbuch. Vernunft in der Geschichte. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1996.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. This collection of essays on Hegel’s philosophy of history is from the proceedings of the 20th annual meeting of the International Hegel Congress, held in 1996 at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. Translated as “Reason in history.”
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Houlgate, Stephen, and Michael Bauer, eds. A Companion to Hegel. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
  258. DOI: 10.1002/9781444397161Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. An extensive anthology containing thirty contributions on eleven major topics in Hegel. Part 7 has two essays on Hegel’s philosophy of history.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Lamb, David, ed. Hegel. 2 vols. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Extensive anthology of important articles previously published in various journals. Volume 1 has twenty-five articles and Volume 2 has thirty on a wide range of topics on Hegel. Most relevant is Part 2 in Volume 2, “Logic, Dialectic, and History.”
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Melzer, Arthur M., Jerry Weinberger, and M. Richard Zinman, eds. History and the Idea of Progress. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. This volume is divided into two parts with two essays in each. Part 1 is entitled “The Revival of the Idea of History as a Rational Process,” with essays by Francis Fukuyama and Terry Pinkard.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Perkins, Robert L., ed. History and System: Hegel’s Philosophy of History. Proceedings of the 1982 sessions of the Hegel Society of America. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. This volume comprises the proceedings of the 1982 meeting of the Hegel Society of America. Includes important essays by top-notch Hegel scholars.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Stewart, Jon, ed. The Hegel Myths and Legends. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1996.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. As the title suggests, this volume contains essays (organized into six sections) that explore and deflate misconceptions about Hegel’s views on a variety of topics. Part 4 has three essays on the myth of the end of history. All the contributions have appeared previously in various journals.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Sweet, William, ed. The Philosophy of History: A Re-examination. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2004.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. The essays in this volume cover some of the major movements in the philosophy of history since the beginning of the 20th century. Includes a wide range of perspectives from different schools in philosophy by international scholars.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Weisser-Lohmann, Elisabeth, and Dietmar Köhler, eds. Hegels Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Weltgeschichte. Bonn, Germany: Bouvier Verlag, 1998.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. This collection of essays, all in German by contemporary scholars, is divided into three parts. The two essays in the first part examine Hegel’s conception of history from his early Jenaer period; the essays in the second part focus on his Berlin period and treat his introductory lectures on world history; and the third part deals with the reception of and critical response to Hegel’s conception of world history. The essays cover a variety of salient topics on the subject and include several internationally known Hegel scholars. This publication is Vol. 38 of the journal Hegel-Studien. Translated as: “Hegel’s introduction to the philosophy of history.”
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Bibliographies
  286.  
  287. No current bibliographies are dedicated specifically to Hegel’s philosophy of history (with the exception of this Oxford Bibliographies compilation). There are several general bibliographies on Hegel, most of them online. The only comprehensive Hegel bibliography available in print is the two-volume Steinhauer 1980–1998; the others are online bibliographies with various formats and orientations. Jaeschke 2003 stands out as unique in being an encyclopedic compilation that combines intellectual biography, history, and bibliographic information. Hegel’s Science of Philosophy Bibliography focuses entirely on Hegel’s own works, whereas A Hegel Bibliography is a quite comprehensive compilation that includes works by precursors to Hegel. The Hegel Bookstore allows one to find Hegel titles alphabetically, while the Hegel Bibliography from the Philosophy Department at Wright State University is an annotated list of works in the university’s Dunbar Library. A Bibliography of Recent Works on Hegel is a brief compilation of fifty-five secondary sources. The Steinhauer and Chitty bibliographies will be most useful to serious scholars, whereas the others are good for someone beginning to immerse themselves in Hegel studies.
  288.  
  289. Chitty, Andrew. A Hegel Bibliography. University of Sussex.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. This is an elaborate bibliography of mainly English-language works organized by categories and subheadings. After the list of contents, it is divided into eight main sections, each with up to twenty headings. Useful for those interested in discussions and treatments of Hegel on particular topics. It has sections entitled “History (Philosophy of): Commentaries and Collections” and “End of History in Hegel.”
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Hegel Bibliography.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Provides a list of primary and secondary English-language sources about fifteen pages long.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. The Hegel Bookstore.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Compiled in association with Amazon.com and containing over 650 titles published through 2000. Provides a useful alphabetized search engine.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Hegel’s Science of Philosophy Bibliography.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Provides online only Hegel’s own works: the texts for ten of his major works as well as about a dozen other works. Moreover, the homepage for this site is a multipurpose source of information, indicating that its main purpose is to promote and present Hegel’s philosophy.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Jaeschke, Walter. Hegel-Handbuch: Leben-Werke-Schule. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler Verlag, 2003.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Although identified as a bibliography under the auspices of Der Deutschen Bibliothek, this is essentially a Hegel encyclopedia. The first part contains an academic biography organized according to Hegel’s places of residence; the second covers Hegel’s writings, both published and unpublished, over the course of his career; and the third surveys the philosophical context within Hegel’s work, focusing on the salient issues and controversies. Also includes an appendix (Anhang) with various bibliographical information (mostly German sources). An exceptional volume. Translated as “Hegel handbook: Life, works, school of thought.”
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Knoblock, John. A Bibliography of Recent Works on Hegel. University of Miami.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. Contains fifty-five secondary sources of the more well-known philosophers and Hegel scholars. Dates mostly to the 1980s and 1990s, with several earlier works. Most appropriate for someone beginning a study or survey of Hegel’s thought.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Steinhauer, Kurt, ed. Bibliographie: Materialien zur Geschichte der internationalen Hegel-Rezeption und zur Philosophie-Geschichte. 2 vols. Munich: K. G. Sauer, 1980–1998.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. This is the most comprehensive international bibliography in print form. Essential for Hegel scholars and researchers. Translated as: “Bibliography: Background material on the international reception of Hegel within the context of the history of philosophy.”
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Reference Works
  318.  
  319. A variety of resources providing different kinds of information and/or materials related to Hegel are included in this section. Carl Mickelsen, Hegel by Hyper Text, and the McMaster University Archive make available in electronic form online several of Hegel’s texts in English; and Mickelsen also has a very helpful online Hegel glossary. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP) and the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP) provide lengthy encyclopedic entries by Redding (Redding 2010) and G. W. F. Hegel—Social and Political Thought, respectively. Also in the Stanford Encyclopedia is a piece by Daniel Little (Little 2012) that focuses specifically on the topic of the philosophy of history. The Hegel Society of America (HSA) and the Hegel Society of Great Britain (HSGB), both philosophical associations dedicated to Hegel studies, provide information about their membership, conferences, and collaborations. The HSA also gives an extensive list of links to other philosophical and Hegel-related websites. Clarke’s Philweb entry (Clarke 2014) is an all-purpose source of information for philosophy and intellectual thought, organized historically, regionally, and topically. The Bloomsbury Companion to Hegel (De Laurentiis and Edwards 2013) is an encyclopedia type collection of entries that serves as a reference work for students and scholars of Hegel’s thought. Walker 2011 is a review of the most recent 2011 English translation of Hegel’s Introduction to and Lectures on the Philosophy of World History.
  320.  
  321. Blunden, Andy. Hegel by Hyper Text.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Contains Hegel’s introduction to the Philosophy of History based on Reason in History, translated by Robert S. Hartman in 1953. Parts 3 and 4 only are reproduced here. Also contains the complete lectures from the 1956 translation by J. Sibree.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Clarke, Richard L. W., ed. “G. W. F. Hegel (1770–1831).” In PhilWeb: Theoretical Resources Off- and On-Line. Philweb Bibliographical Archive, 2014.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. A very comprehensive source of information on Hegel-related matters: associations, conferences, courses, journals, and primary and secondary sources, and research centers.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. De Laurentiis, Allegra, and Jeffrey Edwards, eds. The Bloomsbury Companion to Hegel. London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. A wide-ranging collection of thirty-three entries by eighteen internationally recognized scholars in Hegel studies. The entries cover the gamut of Hegel’s philosophical system, including substantive and interpretive questions, accounts of Hegel’s forms of argument, and pieces on Hegel’s philosophical influence (with two chronologies at the very end). There are two entries explicitly on Hegel’s philosophy of history, one in Part 2, number 12 and another in Part 5, number 31.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Duquette, David A. “G. W. F. Hegel—Social and Political Thought.” In the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP).
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. This entry is a comprehensive overview of all of Hegel’s social and political writings, with a brief summary and comment on Hegel on world history at the end.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. The Hegel Society of America (HSA).
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. This is one of the principal professional associations of Hegel scholars in the United States. The “Hegel Links throughout the Internet” page provides much that is useful in researching Hegel studies. This association also publishes The Owl of Minerva, the official journal of the Hegel Society of America.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. The Hegel Society of Great Britain (HSGB).
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Provides an index for the contents of individual issues of the Bulletin of the Hegel Society of Great Britain, by volume number and by author. Features prominent Hegel scholars.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Hegel, G. W. F. The Philosophy of History. Translated by J. Sibree. Kitchener, ON: Batoche, 1956.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Offers the complete text of J. Sibree’s translation of Hegel’s Philosophy of History (1956) in PDF format (1.65 MB).
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Little, Daniel. “Philosophy of History.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edited by Edward N. Zalta. Stanford, CA: Stanford University, 2012.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. A good overview of the different theories on the philosophy of history. Includes a brief section on Hegel’s Philosophy of History.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Mickelsen, Carl. Hegel Glossary.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Provides definitions and brief explications of the main ideas and terminology in Hegel’s philosophy. Very helpful for those who want to familiarize themselves with the way Hegel uses language.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Redding, Paul. “Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edited by Edward N. Zalta. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. An overview of Hegel’s philosophy, with particular attention to his Phenomenology of Spirit, Science of Logic, and Philosophy of Right.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Walker, Nicholas. G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of World History. Vol. 1, Manuscripts of the Introduction and the Lectures of 1822–23. In Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews: An Electronic Journal. Edited by Robert F. Brown and Peter C. Hodgson. Oxford University Press, 2011.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. In addition to reviewing the 2011 English translation of Hegel’s writings on the philosophy of history, this piece provides an excellent editorial and textual history of both the German and English editions of Hegel’s work and discusses their strengths and weaknesses.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Hegel’s Conception of Spirit and World Spirit
  366.  
  367. The four articles given below are illustrative of quite different approaches to the topic of Spirit (Geist) in Hegel’s philosophy. Duquette 2007 has a somewhat meta-philosophical orientation in attempting to connect the speculative or metaphysical and the historical meanings of Spirit. Martin 1971 and Solomon 1968 are both concerned with understanding the nature of the individuality or personality of Spirit as a historical phenomenon, but they reach rather different conclusions as to what it is essentially. Nuzzo 2008 is more concerned with whether Hegel’s conception of Spirit is congruent between the relatively early work the Phenomenology of Spirit (1801) and the later lectures on world history. These entries all aim at providing intelligible and plausible explanations of Hegel’s notoriously controversial conception.
  368.  
  369. Duquette, David A. “The Unity and Difference of the Speculative and the Historical in Hegel’s Concept of Geist.” PhaenEx: Journal of Existential and Phenomenological Theory and Culture 2.1 (May 2007): 87–109.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. This piece explicates (1) the speculative and transcendental meaning of Geist, which involves the articulation of the principles of development that structure its essential features, and (2) the historical and existential meaning of Geist, which includes the nature of its action and embodiment.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Martin, Rex. “The World Spirit.” Southwestern Journal of Philosophy 2.1/2 (1971): 153–161.
  374. DOI: 10.5840/swjphil197121/216Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. According to Martin, insofar as human individuals exemplify or approximate a logical conception of individuality, it is not a mistake to conceive of Spirit (Geist) on the model of the human person, as long as we remember that the latter is nonetheless an imperfect expression of an ideal type that is most perfectly manifested in Geist.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Nuzzo, Angelica. “System and History.” In The Bloomsbury Companion to Hegel. Edited by Allegra de Laurentiis and Jeffrey Edwards, 209–213. London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2008.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. This essay examines the conceptual relations among spirit, world spirit, consciousness, and the history of consciousness. It considers the implications of the treatment of spirit in Hegel’s 1807 Phenomenology, the systematic centering of history in Hegel’s Nürnberg lectures, and lastly the distinction in Hegel between history as typically understood and the philosophical history of the world.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Solomon, Robert C. “Hegel’s Concept of ‘Geist.’” Journal of Philosophy 65.21 (1968): 657–661.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. The author attempts to provide clarity to Hegel’s conception of Geist (Spirit) by considering alternative interpretations, for example, that Geist is a superpersonal consciousness, or that it is a convenient abstraction for talking about the common properties of all peoples and their societies, and then arguing that it is best understood as a replacement for Kant’s transcendental ego. Reprinted in Robert Solomon, “Hegel’s Concept of Geist,” in From Hegel to Existentialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 3–17.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Hegel’s Conception of Reason in History
  386.  
  387. Hegel’s introductory lectures on the philosophy of world history are often published with the subtitle “Reason in History.” Indeed, Hegel emphasizes repeatedly in his introduction that world history is governed by an ultimate design and is thus a rational process. The central approaches to this topic in Hegel focus on the rational or logical structure that history presents in its series of epochs (O’Brien 1975 and Rosen 1977), the hidden “instrumentality” that reason employs to achieve historical ends (Avineri 1973, Drydyk 1985, Tucker 1956), and the way that history, understood rationally, is a type of theodicy (Hodgson 1989, Hüffer 2002, and von der Luft 1984).
  388.  
  389. Avineri, Shlomo. “The Instrumentality of Passion in the World of Reason: Hegel and Marx.” Political Theory 1.4 (November 1973): 388–398.
  390. DOI: 10.1177/009059177300100402Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Discusses the political significance of the “cunning of reason” and how in a world-historical perspective the human passions are not mere irrational drives but the “handmaids” of reason, and how individual aims and interests have a role in history’s rational scheme. This dynamic appears in Hegel’s concept of the state and in Marx’s conception of the proletariat.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Drydyk, J. J. “Who Is Fooled by the ‘Cunning of Reason’?” History and Theory 24 (1985): 147–169.
  394. DOI: 10.2307/2505279Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Confronts the issue of the legitimacy of invoking history in support of political progress and argues that Hegel does not deal with this consistently, as revealed by the metaphysics underlying the “cunning of reason.”
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Hodgson, Peter C. God in History: Shapes of Freedom. Nashville: Abingdon, 1989.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. A work inspired by Hegel that attempts to articulate how God and history are “correlative realities” and how God is “present in history in the many shapes of freedom.” The author, a well-known Hegel scholar, takes as a guiding idea Hegel’s view of history as the development of freedom. Hegel is discussed in some detail in chapters 2 and 3, in particular “Hegel’s contribution to Trinitarian speculation” and Hegel’s metahistorical claim that reason governs the world.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Hüffer, Wilm. Theodizee der Freiheit: Hegel’s Philosophie des geschichtlichen Denkens. Hegel-Studien Beiheft 46. Hamburg, Germany: Meiner, 2002.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. This book approaches the topic as a problem of the constitution of and connection between historical thought and practice. It also has a section on the end of world history. Translated as: “Theodicy of freedom: Hegel’s philosophy of historical thought.”
  404. Find this resource:
  405. O’Brien, George Dennis. Hegel on Reason and History: A Contemporary Interpretation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Elucidates the text entitled Die Vernunft in der Geschichte, edited by Johannes Hoffmeister (see Hoffmeister 1955, cited under German Texts). The thematic focus is the centrality of reason in history for Hegel and specifically “that reason is power, substance, content, and the end of history” (p. 6). Also, O’Brien argues that there is a dialectical progression of methods of history in Hegel in the discussion of the varieties of historical writing, from the first draft of his lectures of 1822 and 1828.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Rosen, Stanley. “Hegel and Historicism.” Clio 7.1 (1977): 33–51.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Explains the senses in which Hegel is, and is not, a historicist. Also follows up on themes from his book (1974) that for Hegel logic is the truth of history and that history is the manifestation of the Absolute in human time by means of a logical identity within difference of eternity and temporality. Also explains how for Hegel history is essentially complete in the modern period.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Tucker, Robert C. “The Cunning of Reason in Hegel and Marx.” The Review of Politics 18.3 (1956): 269–295.
  414. DOI: 10.1017/S0034670500009268Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Interesting comparison of Hegel and Marx, and other thinkers, on the “moral uses of evil” in history, captured in the idea of the “cunning of reason.” Argues that a “moral nihilism” results, especially in Marx.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. von der Luft, Eric. “The Theological Significance of Hegel’s Four Historical Realms.” Auslegung: A Journal of Philosophy 11.1 (1984): 340–357.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. This article argues that Hegel’s four historical realms are not primarily historical and that, for the sake of clarity, we should discard the geographical names of the four realms and rename (and understand) them in accordance with their philosophical and theological underpinnings.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Hegel’s Conception of World-Historical Individuals
  422.  
  423. These three articles focus on issues specific to the idea of the “cunning of reason” in Hegel: the role of world-historical actors or heroes, how they serve the purposes of historical reason, and the extent to which they are consciously aware of doing so. Avineri 1971 and Parkinson 1989 also include a comparative discussion of Marx. Cvek 1981 places more emphasis on how historical reason is to be understood in relation to Hegel’s science of logic.
  424.  
  425. Avineri, Shlomo. “Consciousness and History: List der Vernunft in Hegel and Marx.” In New Studies in Hegel’s Philosophy. Edited by Warren E. Steinkraus, 108–118. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Focuses on the problem of the relationship of historical understanding to transformational action. Addresses the question of the degree of awareness by historical actors of the development of freedom and reason, and the question as to the prospects for future change when the historical development has reached its apex in the Christian-Germanic world.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Cvek, Peter Paul. “The Cunning of Reason and the World-Historical Individual.” Auslegung: A Journal of Philosophy 8.3 (Winter 1981): 209–227.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. This article aims to explicate Hegel’s notion of the “cunning of reason” and the role of the world-historical individual in the process of historical development. Explores the relationship between human passion and the logical Idea as well as the dialectical mediation between the subjective intentions of the historical actor and the objective results of his actions.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Parkinson, G. H. R. “Hegel, Marx and the Cunning of Reason.” Philosophy 64 (1989): 287–302.
  434. DOI: 10.1017/S0031819100044673Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. Argues for the significant influence of Hegel on Marx on the conception of historical reason, for example, on the role of contradiction and its overcoming, the concept of historical necessity, development leading to freedom, and the idea that world-historical actors as instruments who are not fully aware of their tasks.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Hegel’s Conception of the End of History
  438.  
  439. The idea of the “end of history” in Hegel’s thought has an interesting double meaning. It can refer to the goal or purpose of history, which for Hegel is the development of freedom in the social and political institutions of nation-states, or it can refer to history coming to an end or completion. These two distinct meanings are nonetheless intrinsically connected in Hegel’s view that the goal of history is achieved in the modern Christian European world and hence historical development, at least along the lines it has previously occurred, comes to an end. The essays below vary in their emphasis in discussing the goal of history or its completion. De Berg 2007, Blättler 2013, Cooper 1984, Kojève 1947, and Roth 1985 focus on Alexandre Kojève’s interpretation of the completion of history in Hegel. Berthold-Bond 1989; Harris, et al. 1991; Plant 1983; Surber 2004; and Thanassas 2009 take a variety of approaches on the issue. Fukuyama 1992, whose author is influenced by Kojève, situates the issue of the completion of history in contemporary terms. De Berg 2007, Scholz 2010, and Zhang 2010 also place Fukuyama’s book at the center of their studies. Dun 2010 situates the issue of the end of history in Hegel in relation to the Marxist view of history.
  440.  
  441. Berthold-Bond, Daniel. “The Question of Completion: Hegel’s Philosophic Eschatology.” In Hegel’s Grand Synthesis: A Study of Being, Thought, and History. Edited by Daniel Berthold-Bond, 133–161. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Rejects the attribution to Hegel of the thesis of a final end to time and history, along with a final resolution to knowledge and truth, beyond which there can be no progress. However, acknowledges that a sort of dialectical completion exists in Hegel’s system that results in unresolved ambiguity and ambivalence on the issue of completion.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Blättler, C. “Die Wiederkehr der Geschichte nach ihrem proklamierten Ende: Geschichtsphilosophie und Dekonstruktion.” Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Philosophie 38.2 (2013): 169–189.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. This article considers Alexandre Kojève’s seminar on Hegel during the 1930s and analyzes his reading of Hegel, in particular Kojeve’s very selective rendering of Hegel that promises to go beyond Hegel. In moving beyond Hegel, the author also explicates Jacques Derrida’s attempts to conceive both the individual and the historical dynamic on the basis of the concept of the unconscious. Translated as: “The return to history after its problematic end: History of philosophy and deconstruction.”
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Cooper, Barry. The End of History: An Essay in Modern Hegelianism. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. An explication of Kojève’s Introduction à la lecture de Hegel in conjunction with Hegel’s Phenomenology. Explains how history has come to an end and how the idea of the end of history makes sense of contemporary social and political life.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. De Berg, Henk. Das End der Geschichte und der bürgerliche Rechtsstaat: Hegel-Kojève-Fukuyama. Tübingen, Germany: Franke Verlag, 2007.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. The author discusses the reception of Francis Fukuyama’s thesis on the end of history in his book The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Perennial, 1992), recapitulates the rejection of this thesis in the scientific and public discourse, and explains the divergence between the European and American points of view on the issue. Includes a chapter on Alexander Kojève’s interpretation of Hegel. Translated as: “The end of history and the civil state: Hegel, Kojève, Fukuyama.”
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Dun, Zang. “‘The End of History’ and the Fate of the Philosophy of History.” Frontiers of Philosophy in China 5.4 (2010): 631–651.
  458. DOI: 10.1007/s11466-010-0119-xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. The author argues that it is a misunderstanding of Hegel’s philosophy of history to view the Western system of freedom and democracy as marking the end of the development of human history. Rather, Marx provided a theoretical advance with his scientific analysis of the historical limitation of Western capitalism and the expectation, by way of a kind Hegelian-inspired revolutionary teleology, of true human liberation, the highest historical goal yet to be realized. Available online by purchase or subscription.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Fukuyama, Francis. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: Free Press, 1992.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Expands on Fukuyama’s essay in the National Interest entitled “The End of History?” (1989) arguing that the coming of liberal democracy as the final form of government, exported from the West, points to the end of historical development. A Hegelian-influenced thesis via Kojève 1947.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Harris, H. E., R. Bubner, L. Pompa, K. Hutchings, H. Williams, and A. Axiotis. “Hegel and the End of History.” Bulletin of the Hegel Society of Great Britain 23–24(1991): 1–78.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Includes five articles on the topic by prominent Hegel scholars.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Kojève, Alexandre. Introduction à la lecture de Hegel. Paris: Gallimard, 1947.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Consists of notes and transcripts of lectures that Kojève gave on Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit at the École des Haute Études in Paris, France, from 1933 to 1939. This work is relevant because of Kojève’s interpretation and defense of Hegel’s view that with the completion of history in the modern world nothing really new can happen in the future. Available as Introduction to the Reading of Hegel, edited by Allan Bloom and translated by James H. Nichols Jr. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell university Press, 1969).
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Plant, Raymond. “Is There a Future in the Philosophy of History?” In Hegel’s Philosophy of Action. Edited by L. S. Stepelevich and David Lamb, 93–102. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1983.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Examines the role of the future in Hegel and whether it is foreclosed by his idea of the end of history in the “German world.” Argues that Hegel did not hold the view that history has been realized in the modern period.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Roth, M. S. “A Problem of Recognition: Alexandre Kojève and the End of History.” History and Theory 24 (1985): 293–306.
  478. DOI: 10.2307/2505171Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Discusses the work of Alexander Kojève, a principal interpreter of Hegel in the 20th century, and confronts some of the major issues arising when historical thought confronts modernity. Surveys some of the criticisms of Kojevè’s interpretation of Hegel.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Scholz, L. “Nach der Geschichte: Zur Paradoxie eines globalen Liberalismus.” Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Philosophie 35.2 (2010): 161–182.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. This article argues that Francis Fukuyama, in opposition to the modern adaptations of Hegel’s philosophy of history by Joachim Ritter and Jürgen Habermas, maintains a postmodern position in reaction to the globalization of liberalism. Fukuyama arrives at his conclusions on the basis of his appropriation of contradictions in Alexandre Kojève’s interpretation of Hegel. Translated as: “After history: On the paradoxes of a globalized liberalism.”
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Surber, Jere Paul O’Neill. “The ‘End of History’ Revisited: Kantian Reason, Hegelian Spirit, and the History of Philosophy.” In Hegel’s History of Philosophy. Edited by David A. Duquette, 205–223. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Responds to longstanding disputes about the significance and extent of Hegel’s idea of an “end of history” and argues that Hegel’s thesis is Kantian in that history “ends” with Hegel’s completion of a system of reason first outlined by Kant. However, history also continues in that Spirit must still “mediate” its internal differences.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Thanassas, Panagiotis. “Hegel’s Hermeneutics of History.” Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie 91 (2009): 70–94.
  490. DOI: 10.1515/AGPH.2009.04Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. This article argues that Hegel has a hermeneutic approach to history that is opposed to an a priori approach and, contrary to Hegel’s critics, takes seriously the need for empirical verification for apprehending history. Hegel’s conception of the end of history does not make an empirical claim but rather is an interpretive strategy for capturing true infinity in historical actualization.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Zhang, D., and L. Zhang. “The End of History and the Fate of the Philosophy of History.” Frontiers of Philosophy in China 5.4 (2010): 631–651.
  494. DOI: 10.1007/s11466-010-0119-xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. The author argues that Francis Fukuyama’s thesis that the “end of history” is found in the Western system of freedom and democracy, based mainly on Alexander Kojève’s idea of the “universal and homogeneous state,” is a misunderstanding of Hegel. Hegel’s “end of history” is a purely philosophical question that relates to the completion of “absolute knowledge.” Moreover, Fukuyama fails to realize the relevance of Marx’s scientific analysis of the historical limitation of Western capitalism.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Hegel’s Eurocentrism
  498.  
  499. One issue discussed in recent decades is the question of the extent to which Hegel’s philosophy of history provides a Eurocentic perspective that either underplays or distorts the historical role of non-European cultures. The overall context for this view of Hegel is his well-known claim that the history of world Spirit begins in the East, or Orient, and travels through ancient Greece and Rome to the medieval Christian period and culminating in the modern “Germanic” societies of Hegel’s time. The works identified below take a critical stance on the ethnocentric implications of Hegel’s conception of the course of history and of the cultures that most embody the progress of Spirit. Bernasconi is one of the most important contemporary commentators on Hegel’s ethnocentrism. Bernasconi 1998 argues, in effect, that Hegel provided a justification for slavery and colonialism and Bernasconi 2003, in discussing Hegel on Africa, provides an argument for Hegel’s racism. Buck-Morss 2009 also provides a critique of Hegel’s ethnocentrism, emphasizing how Hegel moved from an earlier enlightened perspective on Africa to his later dismissive viewpoint. Dale 2010 contrasts Hegel’s view of Chinese history with that of Karl Jaspers, which is viewed as more enlightening. Purtschert 2010 discusses the significance of Hegel’s views on Africa and suggests that Hegel gives expression to the racist orientations of modernity. Walsh 1971, while raising questions about the cultural presuppositions underlying Hegel’s conception of political development, provides a more sympathetic account of the nature of Hegel’s Eurocentrism.
  500.  
  501. Bernasconi, Robert. Hegel at the Court of the Ashanti. New York: Routledge, 1998.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. The author provides a thorough study of the sources of Hegel’s attack on Africa and Africans in his Lectures on the Philosophy of History and argues that Hegel systematically distorted those sources. Moreover, the author claims that these distortions were related to Hegel’s effort to cast the enslavement of Africans by Europeans in a positive light, such that chattel slavery brought freedom to the Africans. Hegel’s philosophy of history also is put in the context of European justifications of colonialism.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Bernasconi, Robert. “Hegel’s Racism: A Reply to McCarney.” Radical Philosophy 119 (2003): 35–37.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. In response to Joseph McCarney’s defense of Hegel, the author reviews some of the evidence for Hegel’s racism. He attempts to show that Hegel was not misguided by his sources on Africa, but rather that he seems to have distorted them willfully, and that McCarney’s claim that Hegel’s philosophy of history was not racist is wrong. This dispute with McCarney illustrates some of the author’s concerns about the way historians of philosophy today address the question of racism.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Buck-Morss, Susan. Hegel, Haiti, and Universal History. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2009.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. This book is divided into two parts. Part 1: “Hegel and Haiti” claims that despite the young Hegel’s enthusiasm regarding the Haitian Revolution of 1791–1804, the later Hegel in his Philosophy of History is not only dismissive of this event but reflects the European concession to slavery. Part 2: “Universal History,” not previously published, is an extended argument for an approach to universal history that takes account of the “unhistorical” cultures that Hegel dismissed.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Dale, Eric M. “Humanism and Despotism: Jaspers and Hegel on Chinese History and Religion.” Existenz: An International Journal in Philosophy, Religion, Politics and the Arts 5.1 (2010): 23–33.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. This essay explores the work of Hegel and Jaspers on Chinese religion and history. For Hegel, the historical development of Asian culture is actually prehistorical in that there is no progress to freedom but only “the repetition of the same majestic ruin.” Whereas Hegel understands China as the absolute beginning of the movement of Spirit from East to West, Jaspers sees China and Confucian humanism as one of the revolutionary origins of history.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Purtschert, Patricia. “On the Limit of Spirit: Hegel’s Racism Revisited.” Philosophy and Social Criticism 36.9 (2010): 1039–1051.
  518. DOI: 10.1177/0191453710379029Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. This article takes Hegel’s view of Africa as the continent that has not yet fully entered history as its starting point for examining the current significance of “Hegel’s Africa.” Through a close reading of The Philosophy of History and The Phenomenology of Spirit, it shows that Hegel’s remarks on Africa indicate a construction of Africa based on the limitations of modernity, a perspective that “remains haunted by the specters of racism.”
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Walsh, W. H. “Principle and Prejudice in Hegel’s Philosophy of History.” In Hegel’s Political Philosophy: Principles and Perspectives. Edited by Z. A. Pelczynski, 181–198. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1971.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Argues that Hegel’s Eurocentric approach to history involved an attempt to establish a rational standard of judgment of historical epochs, guided by the belief that history has a moral goal, which is achieved through the progressive realization of a European political ideal.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. History and Political Thought
  526.  
  527. These articles vary in their approach but they all connect Hegel’s conception of history to his political thought. Avineri 1991 is largely an explication and summary, whereas others are more highly interpretive or critical. Goldstein 1962 offers a defense against claims of Hegel’s “statism,” Kain 1988 focuses on the social and political context of the philosophy of history. Pinkard 1995 offers a vigorous defense of Hegel as a systematic thinker of the political. These articles represent a good range of issues and perspectives.
  528.  
  529. Avineri, Shlomo. “Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 1770–1831.” In The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Edited by David Miler, Janet Coleman, William Connelly, and Alan Ryan, 196–200. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 1991.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. A good summary of the main themes of Hegel’s political thought and his conception of world history. Fairly concise and yet quite thorough.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Goldstein, Leon J. “The Meaning of ‘State’ in Hegel’s Philosophy of History.” Philosophical Quarterly 12.46 (January 1962): 60–72.
  534. DOI: 10.2307/2216840Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. The author of this article aims to defend Hegel against the charge that his political thought provides a rationalization of statism and despotism by examining the meaning of “state” in Hegel’s thought, and specifically by distinguishing two different meanings of the idea of a state, namely, the state as a nation and the state as political organization. An important piece in providing clarification on this matter.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Kain, Philip J. “Hegel’s Political Theory and the Philosophy of History.” Clio 17.4 (1988): 345–368.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. A good, clear comparative study of Kant, Rousseau, and Hegel on the relation of morality to culture and custom, of the individual to society, and of the subjective and objective in historical Spirit (Geist).
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Pinkard, Terry. “Hegel on History, Self-Determination, and the Absolute.” In History and the Idea of Progress. Edited by Arthur M. Melzer, Jerry Weinberger, and M. Richard Zinman, 30–58. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. This essay defends Hegel against the view that any insights to be found in Hegel must be detached from his crazy metaphysics of God’s coming to self-awareness through human history. Pinkard argues that Hegel did not hold an outrageous metaphysics and that Hegel’s political thought must be understood in the context of his larger systematic philosophical endeavor. Moreover, Pinkard posits that Hegel is “the harbinger of a post-metaphysical mode of thought.” A forceful presentation by a prominent Hegel scholar.
  544. Find this resource:
Add Comment
Please, Sign In to add comment
Public Pastes
We use cookies for various purposes including analytics. By continuing to use Pastebin, you agree to our use of cookies as described in the Cookies Policy.  OK, I Understand
Not a member of Pastebin yet?
Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!