The Legal History of State & Church in 18th C.New Spain

Introduction

The existing literature on the legal history of 18th-century New Spain focuses mainly on the Bourbon Reforms carried out by Carlos III. Two aspects of the reforms have attracted most of the attention; the intendant system, discussed by Pietschamann 1996 (cited under Bourbon Reforms), and the reforms to the Royal Treasury. In virtue of the fact that the reforms were designed to retake control of the Indies, and to increase the centralization of government, there was an increase in the number of protests carried out and, in effect, united all the different sectors of New Spain’s society. Given that the reforms directly affected the colonial economy, the literature covering the reforms has also tended to concentrate on the economic impacts of the changes. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, there was a proliferation of studies relating to the colonial economy. Thereafter, there was debate on whether or not the colonial economy grew as a result of Carlos III’s reforms or whether the Bourbon Reforms simply resulted in increased tax revenue through increased efficiency. Also of interest in these discussions was the impact of the sustained increase in the population throughout the 18th century and its relationship to the increase in production, the conclusion being that there was no real increase in agricultural production, but rather a proportional increase in line with the population growth. With respect to the church, there is ample literature on both the secular church and the regular church, as both churches were affected by the Bourbon Reforms. In fact, a Fourth Mexican Provincial Council was held, though not approved by the Holy See, as a result of the excessive intervention on the part of the Crown. There is also an ample body of literature on the foundation of new academic institutions; in particular, on the Academy of San Carlos, the Botanical Gardens, and the Colegio de Minería. The institutional and social history of the Royal University of Mexico has also been the subject of a large amount of literature since the mid-1990s. Many other institutions were created that have not yet been properly studied. For example, the Supremo Consejo de Indias was disrupted by the founding of the Secretaría de Estado y de Despacho Universal de Indias, in 1717, thus absorbing many of the functions of the former. In the economic sphere, the founding of the Contaduría General de Propios y Arbitrios, in 1766, was designed to reorganize the municipal finances of both the Indian towns and the villas and cities of the Spanish.

The Bourbon Reforms

The Bourbon Reforms were basically political-administrative reforms that introduced a new form of government for America. These reforms were, to a large extent, as Pietschamann 1996 shows, carried out in line with suggestions made by José de Gálvez on New Spain between 1765 and 1771. Priestly 1980 offers a complete survey of the visita of Galvez in New Spain. There is a large body of literature on this theme. On the one hand, there are general works, such as Arcila Farías 1976 and Burkholder and Chandler 1984; on the other hand, there are works that analyze the introduction of the said reforms in the different regions of New Spain, such as Hamnett 1971 (cited under Commerce, Free Trade, and the Consulados de Comerciantes), on Oaxaca.

Arcila Farías, Eduardo. Reformas Económicas del siglo XVIII Nueva España. 2 vols. Mexico City: Sep Setentas, 1976.
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This is a pioneering work that provides a consistent vision on the collection of the reforms that were introduced. The first volume focuses on the ideas of the 18th century that led to the introduction of the “free trade” system. The second volume is dedicated to an analysis of the application of these ideas in America.
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Borah, Woodrow, ed. El gobierno provincial en la Nueva España, 1570–1787. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2002.
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This publication contains several articles on the history of the government of New Spain, looking at the functions and attributes of the provincial governor, and covering the administration of justice through the magistrates and mayors; the relationship between the priests and the mayors; and, in particular, the government of the Marqués del Valle.
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Burkholder, Mark A., and D. S. Chandler. De la impotencia a la autoridad: La Corona española y las audiencias en América, 1687–1808. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1984.
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This book quantifies the changes undergone in the American audiencias as a result of the rise of the Bourbons to the Spanish Crown. It shows how preference was given for peninsular officials, who were given priority over the local Creoles, to the detriment of the latter.
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Calderón Quijano, José Antonio. Los virreyes de Nueva España en el Reinado de Carlos III. 2 vols. Seville, Spain: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, 1967–1968.
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This work provides an account of the management of all the viceroys covering the period 1759–1787, offering detailed accounts of the administrative attributes of the government of the viceroys.
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Pietschamann, Horst. Las reformas borbónicas y el sistema de intendencias en Nueva España: Un estudio político administrativo. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1996.
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This work examines the introduction of the intendente system in New Spain, proposing that it was not the result of a simple transference of an institution from the French tradition, but rather that documentation has been found in Castile which served as the basis for the introduction of this administrative-territorial reform.
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Priestly, Herbert Ingram. José de Gálvez, Visitor-General of New Spain 1765–1771. Philadelphia: Porcupine, 1980.
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This is a study on the institution of the visita and the visit made by Gálvez. There is a special emphasis on the proposals for the reform of the Royal Treasury, tobacco monopoly, the reforms made to the Customs House (Aduana) of the Port of Veracruz, as well as the expedition to the north of the kingdom, which passed through Sonora to the Californias. First published in 1916.
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Legislation

Throughout the 18th century, the Recopilación de Leyes de Indias, introduced in 1690, remained in force, unlike in Spain, where, in 1808, a New Compilation (Novísima Recopilación) was elaborated. The legislation pertinent to New Spain is collected, in part, in Muro Orejón 1954–1969, together with the Real Ordenanza de Intendentes of 1786.

Muro Orejón, Antonio, ed. Cedulario americano del siglo XVIII: Colección de disposiciones legales indianas desde 1680 a 1800, contenidas en los cedularios del Archivo General de Indias. 3 vols. Seville, Spain: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos de Sevilla, 1954–1969.
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This work continues to be the most important general legislative collection regarding matters on the 18th century.
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The Intendente System

In 1768, Gálvez wrote a report and plan to be introduced in the provinces of the Kingdom of New Spain. In this report, Gálvez recommended the creation of eleven intendencias. Each, intendencia in turn, would name a series of assistants to be known as sub-delegates, aimed at improving government in each jurisdiction. The intendentes were to be charged with overseeing war, justice, the treasury, and the police, in line with the royal ordinances of 1718 and 1749. Rees Jones 1979 and Navarro García 1959 offer students a general survey of this institution and how it was introduced in New Spain. The majority of the literature on this theme concentrates on the removal of the alcaldes, mayores, and corregidores, and the impact such actions had, along with the introduction of the figure of the sub-delegate.

Navarro García, Luis. Intendencias en Indias. Seville, Spain: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, 1959.
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This is a pioneering work on the establishment of the intendente system in America, from the perspective of institutional history.
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Real Ordenanza para el establecimiento e instrucción de intendentes de ejército y provincia en el reino de Nueva España. Madrid, 1786.
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This is a highly important document that addresses the changes in the administration of New Spain.
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Rees Jones, Ricardo. El despotismo ilustrado y los intendentes de la Nueva España. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1979.
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The author provides an analysis on the French intendente system, its introduction in America, and the functions of the intendente and the sub-delegates. The publication contains a valuable documentary appendix, along with the publication of the anonymous document known as the Justa Repulsa del Reglamento de Intendentes, written in 1787.
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The Royal Treasury

The Royal Treasury underwent some profound changes during the 18th century. Some of these can be found in Gómez 1979. The branches of the Royal Treasury that the Crown had placed in the hands of the Americans, in exchange for rent, were retaken and placed under the direct control of the Crown. One example of this, studied by Smith 1948, was the alcabala leased to the Merchant Consulate in Mexico City. These modifications resulted in growing unease among the Americans, which in turn gave rise to a body of literature focused on the modifications carried out at the different branches of the Royal Treasury. The latter is addressed in Jáuregui 1999. A much broader perspective can be found in Marichal 1999, which focuses on the meager outcomes of the reform. Many of the most important historical sources of this period have been published. Fonseca and Urrutia 1845, a history of the Royal Treasury, is an invaluable source; Maniau 1995 is an important complementary source.

Fonseca, Fabián, and Carlos Urrutia. Historia General de la Real Hacienda. 6 vols. Mexico City: Secretaria de Hacienda y Crédito Público, 1845.
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This work dates back to 1790–1791 and contains the most important information on the theme. Among other important documents pertaining to the study of the period, it contains the ordinances on the tobacco estanco.
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Gómez, Amalia. Visitas de la Real Hacienda novohispana en el reinado de Felipe V (1710–1733). Seville, Spain: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, 1979.
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This book has the virtue of studying, by way of the institution of the visita, the attempts to reform the Royal Treasury, prior to the reforms carried out by Carlos III. The period covered by this publication has drawn little attention in other works.
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González Gutiérrez, Pilar. Creación de casas de moneda en Nueva España. Alcalá de Heneras, Spain: Universidad de Alcalá, 1997.
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The Mint was once again controlled directly by the management of the Royal Treasury in 1732. Of particular importance is chapter 3, which analyzes the additional provisions included in the 1497 legislation, and those issued after the founding of the Mint of Mexico, in 1535, during the governments of the viceroys Don Antonio de Mendoza and Don Luis de Velasco. The institution was substantially modified as of the Ordinances of the Mint of Mexico of 1728 and 1730; as well as the particular ordinances of 1750 and 1771.
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Jáuregui, Luis. La Real Hacienda de Nueva España, su administración en época de los intendentes, 1786, 1821. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1999.
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The author provides an institutional history on the Royal Treasury of New Spain at the end of the colonial period, analyzing the impact that the introduction of the intendente system had on the institution. Among the conclusions drawn by the author is an improvement in the tax collection, as of 1786, as a direct result of the intendente system.
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Maniau, Joaquín. Compendio de la historia de la Real Hacienda de Nueva España. With notes and commentaries from Alberto María Carreño, and a preliminary study by Marta Morineau. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1995.
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This publication contains a description of the administration and government of the Royal Treasury, along with an analysis of the different branches that formed the institution. It was written in 1794.
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Marichal, Carlos. La Bancarrota del virreinato 1780–1810: La Nueva España y las finanzas del Imperio español. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1999.
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The author provides an analysis on the Royal Treasury of New Spain in a global, European context. He highlights the importance of the cyclical factors rather than those of the structured nature that led to the bankruptcy of New Spain at the end of the colonial period.
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Smith, Robert S. “Sales and Taxes in New Spain, 1575–1770.” Hispanic American Historical Review 28.1 (February 1948): 2–38.
DOI: 10.2307/2508188Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Here we have an overview of the history of the alcabala in New Spain. The author analyzes how the region was managed in different periods as well as what the economic results were for the Crown. He concludes that, from 1761 to 1766, the alcabala from Mexico City represented no less than 50 percent of the total monies collected for the Crown, which in turn represented one-fifth of the total royal income.
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Tax Reforms

In recent years, this theme has attracted the attention of many historians interested in economic history. Lira Gonzáles 1968 offers a comprehensive summary of this complex theme. Other publications have attempted to measure the impact of the said reforms with regard to the growth experimented in the colonial economy during the second half of the 18th century. The debate on this theme was initiated as of the publication of the data of Royal Treasury in TePaske and Klein 1986. More recent literature focuses on the tax reforms from an institutional point of view, as is the case in Garavaglia and Grosso 1987. On the other hand, Menegus Bornemann 1998 presents a new perspective, including the Indian population, on the debate over the tax reforms.

Garavaglia, Juan Carlos, and Juan Carlos Grosso. Las alcabalas novohispanas (1776–1821). Mexico City: Archivo General de la Nación, 1987.
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This is a study on the reincorporation of the branch of the alcabalas under direct management by the Crown, together with its economic repercussions.
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Lira Gonzáles, Andrés. “Aspecto fiscal de la Nueva España en la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII.” Historia Mexicana 17.3 (January–March 1968): 361–394.
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This is a complete study on the Royal Treasury in the 18th century, its different branches, and the changes introduced by the House of Bourbon.
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Menegus Bornemann, Margarita. “Alcabala o tributo: Los indios y el fisco (siglos XVI al XIX). Una encrucijada fiscal.” In Las finanzas públicas en los siglos XVIII–XIX. Edited by Luis Jauregui and José Antonio Serrano Ortega, 110–130. Mexico City: Instituto José María Luis Mora, 1998.
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The article analyzes an exercise carried out by the Crown, in 1792, aiming to quantify the amount of indigenous trade there was in the 18th century, commerce that had been exempt from alcabala payments since the 16th century, in effect covering the whole period that the indigenous people were trading in local agricultural products. The measure was intended to weigh up the economic convenience of eliminating the tribute and introducing the alcabala.
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TePaske, John J., and Herbert Klein. Ingresos y egresos de la Real Hacienda de Nueva España. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 1986.
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A quantitative date on the fiscal structure of New Spain.
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Estancos and Monopolies

The first estanco was established by Alfonso X, the King of Castile and León, on salt. Over time, these establishments multiplied and were transferred to America. The most important of them was that of the pulque asiento; Hernández Palomo 1979 analyzes its importance from the perspective of the Royal Treasury. On the other hand, gunpowder and salt were equally important by the 18th century. With regard to the tobacco estanco, there are numerous studies; nevertheless, the most important one is Deans-Smith 1992. The situation regarding salt is a little more complicated, given that the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica controlled all the trade in salt, which is why some salt mines stayed under their control, though by the 18th century the Crown attempted to recover them (Machuca Gallegos 2007). This was the case regarding the caciques of Tehuantepec, whose cacicazgo was founded from the exploitation of salt. Heredia Herrera 1980 approaches the topic of the estanco of mercury (azogue), a vital ingredient for the mining industry.

Cuella Martinelli, María Ángeles. La renta de los naipes en la Nueva España. Seville, Spain: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1966.
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This publication provides an overview from the perspective of institutional history.
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Deans-Smith, Susan. Bureaucrats, Planters, and Workers: The Making of the Tobacco Monopoly in Bourbon Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992.
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The tobacco estanco was established in 1766, a measure permitting the Crown to monopolize its production and commercialization. In fiscal terms, tobacco revenues were second only to the silver tithe. This publication provides insight into the organization and management of the estanco, including the suppliers and the many attempts to break up the monopoly.
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Heredia Herrera, Antonio. La renta del azogue en Nueva España, 1709–1751. Seville, Spain: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1980.
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This is a study on the policies implemented by the Crown with regard to the supply of quicksilver to New Spain in the 18th century. Moreover, it analyzes the problems of price, and looks at the people who managed this sector. For information regarding earlier periods, the author recommends consulting the work of M. F. Lang regarding the mercury monopoly.
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Hernández Palomo, José Jesús. La renta del pulque en Nueva España, 1663–1810. Seville, Spain: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1979.
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This is a classic, comprehensive book on the “pulque” sector and its growth in the 18th century. It analyzes the treaty and the ordinances of Luis de Velasco, in the 16th century, and their evolution up until the end of the 18th century. Furthermore, it recounts the incorporation of the income from pulque to the Crown, in 1761, along with the fiscal taxation system imposed on this sector.
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Machuca Gallegos, Laura. Comercio de la sal y redes de poder en Tehuantepec durante la época colonial. Mexico City: CIESAS, 2007.
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This work analyzes the economic and political networks among the caciques, the Spanish merchants and the royal functionaries with regard to the commerce in salt between Tehuantepec and Guatemala. Moreover, it covers the effect of the policies of the Crown, in 1781, to regain control over the exploitation of the salt mines.
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The Consolidation of Vales Reales (Government Debt)

In 1804, the Consolidación de Vales Reales was issued by the Spanish Crown. The objective of this move was to obtain economic resources so as to cover the debts owed by the Crown. An order was given to confiscate all the farms and goods belonging to pious works. To carry out this process, the Junta Superior de Consolidación was founded. There are several articles that touch on this theme, such as Chowing 1989, on the bishop of Michoacán, and Lavrin 1973.

Chowing, Margaret. “The Consolidación de Vales Reales in the Bishopric of Michoacán.” Hispanic American Historical Review 69.3 (August 1989): 451–478.
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The author covers the economic effect that the Real Decreto had on Michoacán.
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Lavrin, Asunción. “The Execution of the Law of Consolidation in New Spain: Economic Aims and Results.” Hispanic American Historical Review 53.1 (1973): 27–49.
DOI: 10.2307/2512521Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Lavrin provides a general overview of the effect this Real Decreto had on the economy.
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Wobeser, Gisela von. Dominación colonial: La Consolidación de Vales Reales en Nueva España, 1804–1812. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2003.
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This is the definitive work on the theme, given that the whole work is dedicated to the topic. There are a few articles that touch on the implementation of this measure; however, this book covers the whole history from the conception of the decree, all the goods confiscated from 1805 to 1809, and the general accounts of the Consolidation, as well as the resulting social effects.
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Commerce, Free Trade, and the Consulados de Comerciantes

By 1778 the Crown had eliminated the monopoly held by Cádiz on the transatlantic trade. Furthermore, the creation of new consulates, namely those of Guadalajara and Veracruz, in 1795 (the latter is examined in Ortiz de la Tabla 1978), reduced the importance of the one in Mexico City. Nevertheless, Borchart de Moreno 1984 produced interest in the Consulado, though its focus was more on a social perspective. Kicza 1986 studies a few very powerful merchant families. Smith 1940 offers a complete history of this institution from its origins in Spain. Campillo y Cosío 1789 offers a theoretical perspective of the changes introduced by the Bourbon Reforms. The Ordenanzas del Consulado are the norms by which the institution governed itself. Pérez Herrero 1986 is a published version of the existing legislation on commerce.

Borchart de Moreno, Cristina. Los mercaderes y el capitalismo en México (1759–1778). Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1984.
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This is a pioneering work on the Merchant Consulate of Mexico City. It covers the history of this institution as of the Bourbon Reforms, and analyzes the members of the consulate and their businesses.
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Campillo y Cosío, José. Nuevo sistema de gobierno económico para la América. Madrid: B. Cano, 1789.
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In this work, Campillo establishes a new economic order, created to govern trade between the Spanish Peninsula and America. It raised the need to end the monopoly held by Cadiz, distribute land to the indigenous population, promote mining, and export the manufacturing produce elaborated in Spain to America. It was written in 1743 and circulated widely.
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Hamnett, Brian. Trade and Politics in Southern Mexico, 1750–1821. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1971.
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This book examines the trade carried out by the Merchant Consulate, along with the alcaldes, eliminate coma, it should say alcaldes mayores, and corregidores, in addition to the reforms introduced by the intendente system in the Oaxaca region. Also covered is the open opposition to the said measures on the part of the consulate.
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Kicza, John E. Empresarios coloniales: Familias y negocios en la ciudad de México durante los Borbones. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1986.
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A study on the merchants of the Consulate of Mexico City and their careers within the institution, described from a social perspective.
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“Ordenanzas del Consulado de la Universidad de Mercaderes de la Ciudad de México.” In Derecho Mercantil: Fundamentos e Historia. Edited by Fernando Arminio Vázquez. Mexico City: Porrúa, 1977.
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These ordenanzas explain how the Consulado functioned.
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Ortiz de la Tabla, Javier. Comercio exterior de Veracruz 1778–1821. Seville, Spain: CSIC, 1978.
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Of particular interest is chapter 3, which is dedicated to the Consulate of Veracruz, founded in 1795. Given its strategic geographic location, this consulate controlled all the trade between Cadiz and New Spain.
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Pérez Herrero, Pedro. “Actitudes del Consulado de México ante las reformas comerciales borbónicas (1718–1765).” Revista de Indias 44.174 (1984): 466–488.
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This work studies the effects of the Bourbon Reforms on the consulate, its strength, and how it managed to maintain control over the markets of New Spain.
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Pérez Herrero, Pedro. Guía de negociantes, Compendio de la legislación mercantil de España e Indias. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1986.
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This is a valuable document on the existing legislation of the time.
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Pérez Herrero, Pedro. Plata y Libranzas: La articulación comercial del México Borbónico. Mexico City: Colegio de México, 1988.
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A study on the impact of the reforms carried out by Carlos III on commerce, in particular, with regard to the Merchant Council of Mexico City. It also covers the existing regulations governing the use of bills of exchange in trade. In the appendices there are two regulations, one of Miguel José de Azanza, from 1798, the other having been elaborated by the royal court of the Consulate of Mexico City, which dates back to 1796.
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Smith, Robert S. The Spanish Merchant Guild: A History of the Consulado, 1250–1700. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1940.
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This is an essential publication for the study of the Merchant Consulate. The author examines the origin of this Spanish institution, which dates back to the Middle Ages, covering its evolution on the peninsula throughout the centuries. It analyzes Mediterranean trade, as well as the northern ports, closing with the incorporation of the American trade.
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Mining

The studies elaborated with regard to the mining sector during the 18th century, together with the founding of the Tribunal de Minería, and all the reforms that affected this vital sector of the colonial economy, are many. Once again, the vast majority of the literature is focused on the economic side of the changes, as in the case of Brading 1971. However, there is also a sufficient body of work dealing with both the institutional and legal history.

Brading, David. Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1971.
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This work examines the Mining Guild and its tribunals; it also covers the members of the guild.
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El Tribunal De Mineria

By way of the royal decree of 1776, the Mining Guild was created. This institution has been the object of many studies. Howe 1968 is a general survey of the guild and its general court, and is considered a classic work. For the study of the Mining Guild, there are two publications of crucial importance: González 1996 and Gamboa 1874, which comments on the same theme.

Gamboa, Francisco Javier. Comentarios a las Ordenanzas de Minas. Mexico City: Díaz de León y White, 1874.
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In this work, Gamboa provides a diagnosis on the Mexican mining sector, providing reformist solutions for the sector. The publication was widely available and had wide-reaching repercussions.
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González, María del Refugio, ed. Ordenanzas de la Minería de la Nueva España formadas y propuestas por su Real Tribunal. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1996.
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The Mining Ordinances of 1783 were instrumental in the reorganization of the mining sector. This work contains all the newly introduced dispositions regulating the mining sector; the functions and jurisdiction of the court, its judges and deputies, and the privileges afforded to the miners, with regard to mine drainage and other matters.
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Howe, Walter. The Mining Guild of New Spain and its General Court, 1770–1821. New York: Greenwood, 1968.
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This is a pioneering work that remains a classic on the theme, from the perspective of institutional history.
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Agriculture

The agricultural landscape also underwent important changes, partly due to population increase, and partly because the Bourbon Reforms focused on increasing the production and export of agricultural products. In the latter case, the objective was to elevate the production of new crops such as flax, hemp, vanilla, cochineal, and logwood, among other products. Moreover, the establishment of the monopoly controlling tobacco production also had its repercussions, namely the reorganization of the agricultural landscape. The changes experienced in the 18th-century agriculture of New Spain were related to economic growth, population increase, and the Bourbon Reforms. Recent studies, such as Van Young 1981 and Serrera 1977, show how the traditional livestock haciendas in the Guadalajara region allowed their lands to be allotted to the cultivation of cereals, thus displacing the livestock activities to the north. Veracruz and Yucatan were more directly affected by the reforms due to the gradual move toward free trade, which permitted the agricultural activities along the coast to be linked with the Caribbean markets. Furthermore, the cultivation and export of logwood, indigo, cochineal, vanilla, and other products was promoted. On the other hand, Morin 1979, which studies the case of Michoacán, shows that the growth in this sector had little to do with the Bourbon Reforms. Calderón Quijano 1963 looks at the impact on rural communities. There is a wealth of documental sources that show the state of the agricultural sector in the 18th century. Scientists such as José Antonio Alzate and Moreno (Alzate 1985) wrote about grana cochinilla and other crops of commercial interest of the period. Florescano and Gil 1976 provides economic and geographical descriptions. Florescano and Gil 1976, and Florescano and Pastor 1981 show the full range of measures taken by the Spanish government when faced with one of the most important agricultural crises of the colonial era.

Alzate, José Antonio de. Memorias y ensayos. Edited by Roberto Moreno. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1985.
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The author published Alzates’ works on several commercial crops such as the grana a natural dye.
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Calderón Quijano, José Antonio. El Banco de San Carlos y las comunidades de indios en la Nueva España. Seville, Spain: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1963.
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As a result of the Bourbon Reforms, with regard to viability and profitability, any excesses from the communities were transferred to Mexico City and deposited in the general account, and thus denominated as communal goods. The said surpluses should have been invested in works benefitting the indigenous communities; however, due to the financial crisis of the Crown, they were confiscated to create the San Carlos Bank.
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Florescano, Enrique, and Isabel Gil. Descripciones económicas general de la Nueva España 1784–1817. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 1976.
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The documents compiled in this book offer valuable information on agricultural production, commerce, and other economic aspects of New Spain in the 18th century.
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Florescano, Enrique, and Rodolfo Pastor, comps. La crisis agrícola de 1785–1786. Mexico City: Archivo General de la Nación, 1981.
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This collection of documents provides a complete view of the measures that the viceroyal government implemented during the maize crisis.
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Morin, Claude. Michoacán en la Nueva España del siglo XVIII: Crecimiento y desigualdad en una economía colonial. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1979.
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This work reappraises the periodization of the 17th and 18th centuries from the perspective of economic history. Using the case of Michoacán as a reference point, it suggests that the greatest economic growth was registered prior to the Bourbon Reforms.
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Serrera, Ramón. Guadalajara ganadera: Estudio regional novohispano, 1760–1805. Madrid: CSIC, 1977.
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A very complete history of the cattle industry in the Guadalajara region and its impact on the economic growth that developed in the 18th in the northern region of New Spain.
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Van Young, Eric. Hacienda and Markets in Eighteenth Century Mexico: The Rural Economy of the Guadalajara Region, 1675–1820. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981.
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This study provides details of the changes undergone throughout this long agricultural period.
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Haciendas and Communal Property

Due to the founding of new towns, there was both a political and territorial reorganization, resulting in the separation of the pueblos sujetos from their traditional cabeceras. However, with regards to the literature covering the history of the indigenous peoples, there continues to be plenty of monographic-type histories on an array of different themes, though there is insufficient coverage of the more general aspects of their life and their ownership rights. There is a substantial number of studies on the permanent fight between the haciendas and the communities over land rights: Taylor 1972, for central Oaxaca Cheryl, studies Morelos and the haciendas that produced sugar in that area, and Pastor 1987 provides an analysis the Mixtec region of Oaxaca. Menegus Bornemann 1999 and Arrioja Díaz Viruell 2011 emphasize the communal goods, and Dehouve 1990 examines the processes of political-territorial restructuring of the towns. Solano 1998 provides the same information corresponding to the 18th century. Another required source of reference is Galván Rivera 1998, which introduces the theme of the legislation of the time.

Arrioja Díaz Viruell, Luis Alberto. Pueblos de indios y tierras comunales Villa, Oaxaca: 1742–1856. Mexico City: El Colegio de Michoacán, 2011.
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This is a well-documented study on a little-studied region. By way of testimonies and other local documentation, the author analyzes the demand for land at the end of the colonial period, along with the resulting land-based conflicts. One example of the problems was the excessive fragmentation of the arable land.
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Dehouve, Daniéle. “The ‘Secession’ of Villages in the Jurisdiction of Tlapa (18th Century).” In The Indian Community of Colonial Mexico: Fifteen Essays on Land Tenure, Corporate Organizations, Ideology, and Village Politics. Edited by Ouweenel and Simon Miller, 162–183. Amsterdam: Centre for Latin American Research and Documentation (CEDLA), 1990.
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This is one of the first works to study the rupture between the cabeceras and pueblos sujetos, a process that resulted in the political restructuring of the territory, along with a change in the properties belonging to the indigenous communities. Starting with this study, it has been shown that the said process was an almost generalized phenomenon in New Spain.
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Galván Rivera, Mariano. Ordenanzas de tierras y Aguas. Edited by Teresas Rojas Rabiela. Mexico City: Registro Agrario Nacional, 1998.
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The author was born at the end of the colonial era and published this collection of laws for the first time in 1842. Based principally on Hispanic American legislation, it covers ownership in general, how to acquire ownership, servitude and agricultural methods, and other matters.
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Martin, Cheryl English. Rural Society in Colonial Morelos. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985.
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The author provides a monographic study that begins after the conquest but concentrates on the changes undergone in Morelos during the 18th century. Of particular interest are the chapters dedicated to land usage, especially with regard to the expansion of the sugarcane sector in this region; also covered are the effects of these changes on the local indigenous communities.
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Menegus Bornemann, Margarita. “Los bienes de comunidad de los pueblos de indios a fines del periodo colonial.” In Agricultura Mexicana: Crecimiento e Innovaciones. Edited by Margarita Menegus and Alejandro Tortolero, 89–126. Mexico City: Instituto José María Luis Mora, 1999.
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This is a comparative study between the communities located in Central Mexico and those in the regions of Guadalajara and Zacatecas; it provides an analysis of the differences in the behavior of the towns toward the end of the 18th century, with an emphasis on the communal land.
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Pastor, Rodolfo. Campesino y reformas: La Mixteca 1700–1856. Mexico City: Colegio de México, 1987.
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This work analyzes the Mixtec world over a lengthy period. Beginning in the pre-Hispanic period and continuing to the 19th century, it highlights the periods of transformation in this world and the decadence of the cacicazgo, and it covers all the possible themes: government, land and tributes, and so on.
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Solano, Francisco, ed. Relaciones Geográficas del Arzobispado de México 1743. 2 vols. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1998.
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Based on a questionnaire sent by the Crown to the priests of New Spain, a collection of geographic and demographic information was compiled.
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Taylor, William. Landlords and Peasants in Colonial Oaxaca. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972.
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This study focuses on the Central Valley of Oaxaca and the relationship between the indigenous communities and the Spanish-run haciendas of the region.
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Van Young, Eric. “Mexican Rural History since Chevalier: The Historiography of the Colonial Hacienda.” Latin American Research Review 18.3 (1983): 5–61.
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This work introduces the theme and is useful in the sense of gaining a general introduction as to how the studies on agriculture evolved in Mexican historiography.
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Indigenous Markets and the Repartimiento de Bienes

The introduction of the intendencias system suppressed the power of the alcaldes, mayores, and corregidores, thus prohibiting the repartimiento forzoso de mercancías carried out by these royal functionaries. For their part, the indigenous communities were affected as a result of the abolition of the repartimiento forzoso de mercancías, along with the reorganization of the local finances. Menegus 2000 offers students a general overview of the way this process functioned in New Spain, along with the regional differences. Dehouve 1998 and Arrioja Díaz Viruell 2011 offer case studies for Tlapa and Villa Alta, respectively. The Bourbon Reforms also aimed to further monetize the indigenous economy, and to rationalize their expenses, and finally they removed the excess monies deposited in the community coffers.

Arrioja Díaz Viruell, Luis Alberto. Pueblos de indios y tierras comunales Villa, Oaxaca: 1742–1856. Zamora, Mexico: El Colegio de Michoacán, 2011.
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In chapter 5, the author analyzes the components of the indigenous economy of Villa Alta, the subsistence and commercial crops, along with the textile production—themes that are interrelated with the repartimiento forzoso de mercancías that was carried out in Villa Alta.
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Baskes, Jeremy. “Coerced or Voluntary: The Repartimiento and Market Participation of Peasants in Late Colonial Oaxaca.” Journal of Latin American Studies 28.1 (February 1996): 1–28.
DOI: 10.1017/S0022216X0001261XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The author considers, unlike many other authors who have written on this theme, that the repartimiento de mercancías was more voluntary than coercive, and served to promote regional trade.
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Dehouve, Daniéle. “El pueblo de indios y el mercado: Tlapa en el siglo XVIII.” In Empresarios, indios y Estado: Perfil de la economía mexicana (siglo XVIII). Compiled by Arij Ouweneel and Cristina Torales Pacheco, 139–166. Amsterdam: CEDLA, 1998.
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This is an important study on the market economy of the indigenous peoples in the Tlapa region.
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Menegus, Margarita, comp. Repartimiento forzoso de Mercancías en México, Perú y Filipinas. Mexico City: Instituto José María Luis Mora, 2000.
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The book is a compilation of several works on the theme of forced repartimiento and the regional differences of the same. Menegus’s paper offers a general panorama of the repartimientos carried out in New Spain, along with the composition and the amounts involved.
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Pastor, Rodolfo. “El repartimiento de mercancías y los alcaldes mayores novohispanos: Un sistema de explotación de sus orígenes a la crisis de 1810.” In El gobierno provincial de la Nueva España, 1570–1787. Edited by Woodrow Borah, 201–236. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1985.
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This paper is a theoretic proposal on the origins of this institution in New Spain from the end of the 16th century, and how and why it evolved throughout the colonial period. It is a fundamental reference for those wishing to study this subject.
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Labor

There is an extensive body of literature on this theme. We should, of course, not fail to mention the works of Silvio Zavala, who was also a pioneer on this theme; see, for example Zavala and Castelo 1980. Riley 1984 examines the debt bondage (peonage) system, which was so characteristic of the Mexican haciendas. Many of the studies on this subject were carried out in the 1970s. More recently, Mentz 1999 revisits the theme for the area that now belongs to the state of Morelos. Moreover, there is an ample body of literature related to the theme of salaries.

Mentz, Brigida von. Trabajo, sujeción y libertad en el centro de la Nueva España: Esclavos, aprendices, campesinos y operarios manufactureros, siglos XVI a XVIII. Mexico City: Porrúa, 1999.
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This is a wide-ranging study on the working conditions and salaries of the colonial period, covering the sectors mentioned in the title.
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Miño, Manuel. La protoindustria colonial hispanoamericana. Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1993.
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Of particular interest is the analysis of the system of work, the salaries, and the working conditions. It compares the textile industry of New Spain with that of the viceroyalty of Peru.
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Riley, James D. “Crown Law and Rural Labor in New Spain: The Status of Gañanes during the Eighteenth Century.” Hispanic American Historical Review 64 (1984): 259–285.
DOI: 10.2307/2514517Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This publication covers the study of the worker system denominated as gañanes, and its evolution up until the Proclamation of 1785, which abolished the coercive enslavement system subjected upon the workers. It analyzes the importance of the gañanía in the Puebla-Tlaxcala region, with regard to the agricultural sector, and contrasted with other regions such as Oaxaca and the Valley of Mexico, where it held no relative importance, practically disappearing by the 18th century.
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Zavala, Silvio, and María Castelo. Fuentes para la historia del trabajo en Nueva España. 8 vols. Mexico City: Centro de Estudios Históricos del Movimiento Obrero Mexicano, 1980.
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This collection of documents covers the 16th and 18th centuries, and is, without doubt, the most important with regard to the study of Indian work. Essentially, it covers the commandments pronounced by the viceroys dealing with the distribution of the Indian workers to the various Spanish companies, authorities, and even to the caciques, or local chiefs.
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Cabildos and City Councils

The literature covering the cabildos (town council) of the Spanish cities and villas has been somewhat sparse. This type of study generally concentrates on Mexico City and Puebla, as in Liehr 1976. Alanis Boyso 1978 studies the elections of the república de indios in the Toluca region. The author is a pioneer in this field. Furthermore, an important part of these works cover the period prior to the Mexican War of Independence.

Alanis Boyso, José Luis. Elecciones de república para los pueblos del corregimiento de Toluca, 1729–1811. Mexico City: El Gobierno del Estado de Mexico, 1978.
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One of the first studies on the elections held in the indigenous governments.
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Liehr, Richard. Ayuntamiento y Oligarquía en Puebla, 1787–1810. Mexico City: Secretaría de Educación Pública, 1976.
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Provides an institutional history with a social perspective focused on the groups of power in the city of Puebla de los Ángeles. It analyzes the functions of the council, its municipal functions, the supply of meat to the city, the alhóndiga and the pósito, (warehouse for grains) the Tribunal de Fiel Ejecutoria, and the conflicts resulting from the crisis of the monarchy in 1808.
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The Church

With regard to the church, the changes introduced by the Bourbon Reforms were of equal importance, leading to a marked increase in royalism, intent on limiting the privileges of the church, as well as introducing reforms to the Patronato indiano. The relationship between the church in New Spain and the Crown changed during the 18th century, as noted in Farriss 1968. From a similar perspective, Mazín 1987 approaches these tensions between church and state in a case study of Michoacán. Ferrer Benimeli 2002, addresses the underlying problem of the wealth of the church, with particular respect to landholdings. On a more local level, Zahino Peñafort 1996 studies the secularization of the Indian parishes. Taylor 1996 offers the most complete history on the priests and parishioners during the Bourbon Reforms. Rodríguez de Campomanes 1765 is a classical critique of the agrarian structure of 18th-century Spain, which applies equally to New Spain.

Farriss, Nancy. Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 1759–1821: The Crisis of Ecclesiastical Privilege. London: Athlone, 1968.
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This is a pioneering work on the subject of the relationship between the church and the state at the end of the colonial period; the crisis provoked by the attempts of the Crown to further control the Church, and to restrict its rights of ecclesiastic immunity by way of the law, decreed in 1795, which authorized the royal judges to intervene directly in the trial of crimes committed by the clergy.
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Ferrer Benimeli, José Antonio. Relaciones Iglesia-Estado en Campomanes. Madrid: Fundación Universitaria Española, 2002.
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This is a study on the thoughts and actions implemented by Campomanes (see Rodríguez de Campomanes 1765). Of particular importance is his historic-legal study of the damages caused to the Spanish economy by having the goods of the church amortized. In the opinion of Campomanes, the amortization was the cause of the decline of the empire.
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Mazín, Oscar. Entre dos majestades: El obispo y la Iglesia de Michoacán ante las reformas borbónicas, 1758–1772. Zamora, Mexico: Colegio de Michoacán, 1987.
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In this regional study, the author covers the conflict between the diocesan church and the reforms promoted by the Bourbons with regard to ecclesiastic matters.
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Rodríguez de Campomanes, Pedro. Trata de la regalía de amortización. Madrid: Imprenta de Gazeta, 1765.
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Campomanes was the finance minister under Carlos III. This is an important treatise against the amortized lands being in the hands of the church.
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Taylor, William B. Magistrates of the Sacred: Priest and Parishioners in Eighteenth-Century Mexico. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
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The author examines almost every aspect of the priests and life in the parishes of the Archdiocese of Mexico and the bishopric of Guadalajara, including the changes introduced by the Bourbon Reforms, the formation of priests, and their relationship with the Indian population up until the 1810 War of Independence.
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Zahino Peñafort, Luisa. Iglesia y sociedad en México, 1765–1800. Tradición, reforma y reacciones. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1996.
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This work studies the composition of the ecclesiastic cabildo and the parishes. Additionally, the last chapter is dedicated to the final attempt at the secularization of the doctrines of the Indians, in 1749. Finally, it covers the impact of the expulsion of the Jesuits, along with the founding and administration of the seasonal fund.
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Real Patronato (Royal Patronage)

This institution, introduced to America in the 16th century, underwent modifications in the 18th century with the arrival of the Bourbons. Hera 1963 studies the tensions between the Crown and the Holy See, and Hermann 1988 deals with the same theme. Hera 1970 lays out the legal changes in the regimen of the Patronato.

Hera, Alberto de la. El Regalismo Borbónico en su proyección indiana. Madrid: Editorial Rialpa, 1963.
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This publication provides a study on two moments, which, in the author’s opinion, determined the direction of regalism in the 18th century; the rupture between Felipe V with the Holy See, in 1709, along with another distancing between the two in 1799, during the reign of Carlos IV.
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Hera, Alberto de la. “Las Leyes del siglo XVIII sobre el Patronato indiano.” Anuario de Historia del Derecho Español 40.1 (1970).
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This work is considered as obliged reading for those interested in the study of the Patronato Real in the Indies, along with the changes introduced in the 18th century.
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Hermann, Christian. L´Eglise d´Espagne sous le patronage royal (1478–1834): Essai d´ecclesiologie politique. Madrid: Casa de Velasquez, 1988.
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In this paper, the author deals with the issue of the Patronato Real on the Iberian Peninsula and its consequences over a long period.
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Ribadeynera, Antonio Joaquín de. Manual compendio del Regio Patronato Indiano, para su más fácil uso en las materias conducentes a la práctica. Madrid: Published by Antonio Marín, 1755.
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The book describes the function of the Real Patronato system.
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The Fourth Provincial Council of Mexico

The Fourth Provincial Council of Mexico is covered extensively in Castañeda Delagado and Hernández Aparicio 2001. On the other hand, Zahino Peñafort 1999 focuses on the Crown’s intervention in this council, which provoked that the council was not approved by the Pope. Finally Lorenzana 1769, written by the archbishop of Mexico, published the discussions that took place in the Fourth Council.

Castañeda Delgado, Paulino, and Pilar Hernández Aparicio. El IV Concilio Provincial Mexicano. Madrid: Editorial Deimos, 2001.
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This is a general institutional history of this council.
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Lorenzana, Francisco A. “The Fourth Mexican Council.” In Concilios provinciales primero y segundo celebrados en la muy noble y muy leal ciudad de México, presidiendo el llmo. y Rmo. Señor don fr. Alonso de Montúfar en los años 1555 y 1565. Mexico, 1769.
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This is an indispensable document for the study of this council.
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Zahino Peñafort, Luisa. El Cardenal Lorenzana y el IV Concilio Provincial Mexicano. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1999.
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In the introductory study, the author analyzes the Crown with regard to the promotion of the Fourth Mexican Council, of 1771, with a view to the reforms to the secular church, as well as the mendicant orders. It publishes documents from the Archivo General de Indias on this topic.
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The Reform of the Cofradias

There is a large body of literature on New Spain’s guilds, covering almost all the different territorial regions of New Spain. Bazarte Martínez 1989 offers an extended historical view on the Spanish cofradías in Mexico City. Béligand 2011 studies the impact of the Bourbon Reforms on the cofradías, while Carrera, et al. 2011 offers a compilation of essays on different aspects of the functioning of the cofradías throughout this period. Meanwhile, Bechtloff 1996, quantifies the wealth of the Indian cofradías of Michoacán. One of the most important of the Bourbon Reforms, with regard to religion, was the imposition of a census for each of the diocese so as to record the cofradías that abided by the law, and those that had the necessary royal permission for their founding. In this sense, the only complete published answer is in Bergoza y Jordán 1984.

Bazarte Martínez, Alicia. Las cofradías de Españoles en la ciudad de México, 1526–1860. Mexico City: Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, 1989.
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The author is one of the most knowledgeable people as regards the cofradías of New Spain, and has written extensively on the theme. In this work she studies the Spanish guilds as a forerunner to those of New Spain, and describes the different types of guilds.
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Bechtloff, Dagmar. Las cofradías en Michoacán durante la época colonial: La religión y su relación política y económica en una sociedad intercultural. Zamora, Mexico: Colegio de Michoacán, 1996.
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This is a study on the wealth of the cofradías. In this region, the majority of them had their wealth tied up in herds of cattle. The author quantifies the said wealth on a town-by-town basis.
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Béligand, Nadine. “Las cofradías del arzobispado de México a finales del siglo XVIII.” Historias 78 (January–April 2011): 101–128.
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The author analyzes the Bourbon Reforms with regard to the cofradías and the impact they had in the Valley of Toluca. She offers a general panorama on the changes introduced, of the cofradías, and of the repressed brotherhoods.
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Bergoza y Jordán, Antonio. Cuestionario de don Antonio Bergoza y Jordán, obispo de Antequera a los señores curas de la diócesis. Edited by Irene Huesca, Manuel Esparza, and Luis Castañeda Guzmán. 2 vols. Oaxaca, Mexico: Archivo General del Estado de Oaxaca, 1984.
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The document is an account of all the cofradías that existed in Oaxaca. It is a very useful source that registers more than nine hundred cofradias, most of them rural and belonging to the Indian native population.
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Carrera, Eduardo, et al. Las voces de la fe: Las cofradías en México (siglos XVII–XIX). Mexico City: Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, 2011.
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This publication offers a collection of papers on the Spanish and Indian cofradías in several regions of New Spain. Some of them cover popular religion; others analyze the economic resources of the cofradías.
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Crime and Judicial Practice

Taylor 1979 is a study of homicide in New Spain that revealed new aspects of indigenous society. Taylor’s book has inspired a number of articles based on criminal records of local ecclesiastical and judicial courts. Lira 2006 gives the reader a clear idea of the relationship between the Christian notion of sin and its judicial implications. This same subject is explored in Schrader-Kniffki and Yanakakis 2014. On the other hand, Pescador 1994 and Delgado 2009 focus on women, Christian values and frequent transgressions of moral norms, which were dealt in ecclesiastical courts. Finally, Uribe-Uran 2006 focuses on spousal homicides.

Delgado, Jessica. “Sin Temor de Dios: Women and Ecclesiastical Justice in Eighteenth-Century Toluca.” Colonial Latin American Review 18.1 (April 2009): 99–121.
DOI: 10.1080/10609160902738539Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The article examines the use of the Juzgado Eclesiático by women that resided in Valley of Toluca during the 18th century. Most of the cases have to do with sexual or marital conflict, such as sexual violence, broken promises of marriage, and loss of virginity.
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Lira, Andrés. “Dimensión jurídica de la conciencia: Pecadores y pecados en tres confesionarios de la Nueva España 1545–1732.” Historia Mexicana 55.4 (2006): 1139–1156.
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The author establishes the relationship between the confesionarios and canonical law.
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Pescador, Juan Javier. “Entre la espada y el olvido: Pleitos matrimoniales en el provisorato eclesiástico de México, siglo XVIII.” In La familia en el mundo iberoamericano. Edited by Pilar Gonzalbo and Cecilia Rabell. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1994.
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One of the first studies of the ecclesiastical court in regard to women. The essay argues that the Provisorato Elclésiatico in Mexico City was a protective institution for women. Women brought their own cases and petitions before the Provisorato.
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Schrader-Kniffki, Martina, and Yanna Yanakakis. Sins and Crimes: Zapotec-Spanish Translation in Catholic Evangelization and Colonial Law in Oaxaca, New Spaín.” In Missionary Linguistics V: Translation Theories and Practices. Selected Papers from the Seventh International Conference on Missionary Linguistics, Bremen, 28 February–2 March 2012. Edited by Otto Zwartjes, Klaus Zimmermann and Martina Schrader-Kniffki, 161–200. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2014.
DOI: 10.1075/sihols.122Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The authors analyze the effect that the translation process from Spanish to Zapotec had on pastoral literature, and how this literature shaped translation in the administrative juridical realm. The article is based on the study of the criminal archive of the district court of Villa Alta during the colonial period.
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Taylor, William. Drinking, Homicide and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1979.
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Taylor is a pioneer in this field. This study is based on the criminal trial records and analyzes how the Indians reacted to Spanish rule at the end of the colonial period. Most rebellions were produced when Spaniards threatened their land and property.
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Uribe-Uran, Victor M. “Innocent Infants or Abusive Patriarchs? Spousal Homicides, the Punishment of Indians and the Law in Colonial Mexico, 1740s–1820s.” Journal of Latin American Studies 38 (2006): 793–828.
DOI: 10.1017/S0022216X06001611Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The author addresses the spousal murders that occurred in the viceroyalty of New Spain during the 18th century. The author obtained a large sample of cases, which enabled him to make a social profile of the criminals. He concludes that most of the offenders belonged to the popular classes. Forms of punishment are also reviewed.
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Judicial Institutions

During the Bourbon government, a new institution was established in order to deal with crimes relating mainly to the increase of banditry. MacLachlan 1974 offers the reader a history of this institution. Cutter 1995, meanwhile, focuses more on the way law was practiced, and Lozano 2010 offers a case study of crimes committed in Mexico City.

Cutter, Charles R. The Legal Culture of Northern New Spain, 1700–1710. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995.
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The author addresses the study of colonial Spanish law in peripheral areas of New Spain. He argues that what happened in northern New Spain was representative of the legal practice and general culture of the time.
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Lozano, Armendares. La Criminalidad en la Ciudad de México 1800–1821. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2010.
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A case study of all the crimes committed in Mexico City at the end of the colonial period. The work also offers the reader an overview of judicial practice during the 18th century.
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MacLachlan, Colin M. Criminal Justice in Eighteenth Century Mexico: A Study of the Tribunal de la Acordada. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.
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The author offers the reader an overview of the Tribunal de la Acordada established by the Bourbon government in 1722. The tribunal’s purpose was to enforce the law and punish the increasing number of bandits. It also dealt with problems of vagrancy. Through this institution, MacLachlan analyzes functional law.
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Family and Law

According to the christian culture, polygamy, adultery, and other Indian practices were prohibited. Family and marriage, from a moral Christian point of view, were dealt with in the ecclesiastical courts and not in the civil courts. Gonzalbo Aizpuro 1998 gives definitions of both family and marriage. On the other hand, Siete Partidas and the Leyes of Toro (1505) provided the Spanish legal framework that defined family and marriage in civil law, as described in Cañedo 2012.

Cañedo, Natalia Florentini. “Familia y diferenciación genérica en la Nueva España del siglo XVI a través de los ordenamientos civiles y la correspondencia privada.” Tzintzun 56 (julio–diciembre 2012).
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This article shows how Spanish civil law differentiated men and women. Even though the article refers to the 16th century, the laws in this matter did not change during the colonial period. Cañedo’s cases studies illustrate the roles of men and women within the colonial family.
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Gonzalbo Aizpuro, Pilar. Familia y orden colonial. Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1998.
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The author studies the familia in the New World from different perspectives, such as Spanish law and Christian norms, and describes the tensions that derived from social practices and the prevailing norms. The author also highlights the problems derived from a multiethnic society.
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Ots Capdequi, José María. El derecho de familia y el derecho de sucesión en nuestra legislación de Indias. Madrid: Imprenta Helénica, 1921.
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An excellent introduction to family law from a legal historian’s perspective.
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