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St. Peter's in the Vatican (Rome) (Medieval Studies)

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May 21st, 2018
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  1. Introduction
  2. The history of St. Peter’s Church in Rome is actually the history of two successive churches, the first early Christian building and the actual church, built in the 16th and 17th centuries, as well as the way these two structures were and are connected in both a literal sense and an ideological, historically founded sense. Thus, this bibliography is divided in three parts: Old St. Peter’s, Old and New St. Peter’s, and New St. Peter’s. The intermediate phase, during which an important part of the early Christian basilica was still functioning but the new church had not yet been finished, is categorized here as Old and New St. Peter’s. Many authors are concerned with either the old or the new church and do not necessarily study the connections between the two. In collections of essays and exhibition catalogues, essays and entries about both churches may be found. Several titles are therefore of interest in more than one of the three categories. The user of this bibliography should therefore be sure to consider the three main sections complementary to one another.
  3.  
  4. Old St. Peter’s
  5. After the Basilica Salvatoris, later known as San Giovanni in Laterano (St. John Lateran), St. Peter’s was built in Rome in the years following 320; the precise building dates remain unknown and are still debated. On the site where the apostle Peter had been buried on a large burial site—usually referred to now as the necropolis and partly overlapping a still earlier circus—a monument had earlier been erected to commemorate the place of his sepulcher. Apparently, this monument became a place of worship in a limited way. The main altar of the basilica was placed above this monument, on the line where the apse was attached to the large transept. It still forms the place where the main altar is situated in the actual St. Peter’s, albeit several meters higher than the 4th-century altar. The basilica comprised a large nave with two aisles on either side of it. A large and high transept was built on the western side, to which an apse was added. Note that the basilica, like several other early Christian basilicas in Rome, was built with the apse on the western side. The entrance of the basilica on the east side was preceded by a spacious atrium, with colonnades on all sides, although the colonnades may have been built in successive phases. The nave of the basilica itself was supported by twenty-two pairs of columns of colored marbles and granite. Gradually, the vast space of this church became occupied by many monuments and tombs of popes, adding to the particular importance of the church for visitors, pilgrims, secular and religious dignitaries, and for the chapter of St. Peter’s, which was installed at some point. Plans to adapt the basilica to the changed needs and notions of what should be the respectable church to commemorate the grave of the apostle Peter were made at several points during the Middle Ages. Toward the end of the 6th century, Pope Gregory the Great had an annular crypt built to facilitate the veneration of Saint Peter’s sepulcher. More radical renovations, which would include the replacement of a part of the basilica, were drawn up around the middle of the 15th century. These plans were never completely realized; the new foundation of a much larger choir was left alone until it formed part of the plans to rebuild part of the church in the early 16th century (see New St. Peter’s). The early Christian basilica was demolished in two phases in the 16th and 17th centuries, to be replaced by the even larger building, which still exists.
  6.  
  7. General Overviews
  8. In overviews, St. Peter’s is presented from various points of view. Krautheimer 1965 and Brandenburg 2004 explore early Christian architecture. Medieval Rome itself proves a fruitful point of departure for Krautheimer 2000, whereas Meredith Gill treats the later phase in her book about Renaissance art and architecture (Gill 2005).
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  10. Brandenburg, Hugo. Die frühchristlichen Kirchen Roms vom 4. bis zum 7. Jahrhundert: Der Beginn der abendländischen Kirchenbaukunst. Regensburg, Germany: Schnell and Steiner, 2004.
  11.  
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  13.  
  14. Also in Italian and English. Very useful book, filling the gap since the publication of the five volumes of Krautheimer’s Corpus. Brandenburg analyzes the material and gives new research results. Rather limited footnotes and bibliographical references. Old St. Peter’s is treated here as one of the martyrs and memoria churches (pp. 91–102).
  15.  
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  18.  
  19. Gill, Meredith J. “The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.” In Rome. Edited by Marcia B. Hall, 27–106. Artistic Centers of the Italian Renaissance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  20.  
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  22.  
  23. Altarpieces and mosaics are treated as part of the interior decoration of St. Peter’s prior to the papal exile in Avignon. Also examines the efforts of several popes to revitalize the position of St. Peter’s after the return of the papacy to Rome; the benediction loggia; papal tombs; the high altar ciborium; and mural paintings. See pp. 40–44, 53–54, 63–65, and 83–85.
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  27.  
  28. Krautheimer, Richard. Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1965.
  29.  
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  31.  
  32. A still fascinating overview of the development of early Christian architecture, before and after Constantine’s victory in 312. The author places St. Peter’s in the proper context of architectural developments. On St. Peter’s, see pp. 32–36. Later editions available.
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  37. Krautheimer, Richard. Rome: Profile of a City, 312–1308. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.
  38.  
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  40.  
  41. Originally published in 1980. Fabulous history of the architecture and town-planning aspects of Rome from late Antiquity until the late Middle Ages. The patrons and the historical context present a well-written starting point, in which individual buildings are presented in a more understandable fashion. The chosen time frame also helps to analyze how the buildings mutually influenced each other and their surroundings. On the architecture of St. Peter’s, see, in particular, pp. 26–27. Includes a new foreword by Marvin Trachtenberg.
  42.  
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  45.  
  46. Lenski, Noel, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  47.  
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  49.  
  50. As the title clearly indicates, this work is not devoted to St. Peter’s in particular, but the context of politics, religion, society, and the empire gives the section on art and culture an interesting outlook. Crucial questions are discussed, such as the fact that the basilica type was chosen for Christian cult buildings, as are the supposed meanings attached to such choices.
  51.  
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  54.  
  55. Archaeological Reports and Studies
  56. Our knowledge of the early Christian origins has benefited immensely from the archaeological excavations that were undertaken in the years during and following World War II. The explicit goal of these excavations was to find the remains of the sepulcher of Saint Peter. Due to these findings, the study of the early Christian architecture in Rome and elsewhere flourished in the second half of the 20th century. The work often referred to as Esplorazioni is the main source (see Apollonj Ghetti, et al. 1951); Toynbee and Ward-Perkins 1956 was written soon afterward, whereas Liverani 1999 has catalogued the material of other excavation campaigns as well. Although the main elements of the reconstruction of the early Christian basilica are generally accepted, several elements, including the building dates, have again been questioned recently.
  57.  
  58. Apollonj Ghetti, B. M., A. Ferrua, E. Josi, and E. Kirschbaum. Esplorazioni sotto la Confessione di S. Pietro in Vaticano eseguite negli anni 1940–1949. 2 vols. Vatican City: Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana, 1951.
  59.  
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  61.  
  62. Contains reports of the archaeological research of the years immediately preceding the publication. Crucial and highly important for all later research into the architectural history of Old St. Peter’s. Since only parts of the archaeological sites are visible (though not for the general public), the photographs in this book are important as well.
  63.  
  64. Find this resource:
  65.  
  66.  
  67. Liverani, Paolo. La topografia antica del Vaticano. Vatican City: Monumenti, Musei e gallerie pontificie, 1999.
  68.  
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  70.  
  71. Liverani treats the archeological finds of the Vatican area, studying the surroundings of where the basilica for St. Peter’s was built. Interesting introductory essays are followed by a catalogue with detailed descriptions and photos.
  72.  
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  74.  
  75.  
  76. Toynbee, Jocelyn M. C., and John Bryan Ward-Perkins. The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations. London: Longmans, Green, 1956.
  77.  
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  79.  
  80. Written as an independent evaluation of the excavations that took place a few years earlier. The Vatican area and the successive building campaigns to construct the circus, the necropolis with the monument for the apostle Peter, and the Constantinian basilica are described and evaluated. The position and the form of the early monument and its importance for the basilica are treated in a fascinating way. A true scholarly classic in this field.
  81.  
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  83.  
  84.  
  85. Sources
  86. Not many written sources exist, but the Liber Pontificalis is of enormous value for scholars. The edition of Duchesne 1955–1957 is widely used, and Davis’s translations (Davis 1989, Davis 1992, Davis 1995) are helpful for students. Geertman 2004 and Bauer 2004 are by well-known scholars in this field; the titles help better understand the possibilities and limitations of the use of the Liber Pontificalis.
  87.  
  88. Bauer, Franz Alto. Das Bild der Stadt Rom im Frühmittelalter: Papststiftungen im Spiegel des Liber Pontificalis von Gregor dem Dritten bis zu Leo dem Dritten. Wiesbaden, Germany: Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2004.
  89.  
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  91.  
  92. Old St. Peter’s appears in light of the famous and important source, the Liber Pontificalis, among other churches that formed part of the development of Rome as a center of the cult and relics. Papal donations are indicative of the growing cult of relics and the developing pilgrimage. On St. Peter’s, see especially pp. 149–179.
  93.  
  94. Find this resource:
  95.  
  96.  
  97. Davis, Raymond, trans. The Book of Pontiffs (Liber Pontificalis): The Ancient Biographies of the First Ninety Roman Bishops to AD 715. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 1989.
  98.  
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  100.  
  101. A translation of part of the Liber Pontificalis. Useful for students, but for scholarly work an edition of the original text is necessary. Later edition available.
  102.  
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  104.  
  105.  
  106. Davis, Raymond, trans. The Lives of the Eighth-Century Popes (Liber Pontificalis): The Ancient Biographies of Nine Popes from AD 715 to AD 817. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 1992.
  107.  
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  109.  
  110. Continuation of the lives of the popes, with interesting material about the way later popes donated to St. Peter’s, and useful as well for the position and the power of the popes in the given period. Later edition available.
  111.  
  112. Find this resource:
  113.  
  114.  
  115. Davis, Raymond, trans. The Lives of the Ninth-Century Popes (Liber Pontificalis): The Ancient Biographies of Ten Popes from AD 817 to AD 891. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 1995.
  116.  
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  118.  
  119. Presents ten biographies of 9th-century popes, interesting for both the history of the papal positions and for the way Old St. Peter’s was treated by them.
  120.  
  121. Find this resource:
  122.  
  123.  
  124. Duchesne, L. M. O. Le Liber Pontificalis: Texte, introduction et commentaire. 2d ed. 3 vols. Paris: de Boccard, 1955–1957.
  125.  
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  127.  
  128. First edition published in 1886–1892, and often simply referred to as LP. All scholars make use of this crucial source. Though not contemporary, this is the main text source for knowledge about the foundation of early Christian St. Peter’s and the involvement of Constantine, who donated important items for the interior. Includes important texts about the positions and politics of the popes and the way they treated St. Peter’s and other churches.
  129.  
  130. Find this resource:
  131.  
  132.  
  133. Geertman, Herman. “Le biografie del Liber Pontificalis dal 311 al 535: Testo e commentario.” In Hic fecit basilicam: Studi sul Liber Pontificalis a gli edifice ecclesiastici di Roma da Silvestro a Silverio. Edited by Herman Geertman, 169–235. Louvain, Belgium: Peeters, 2004.
  134.  
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  136.  
  137. In a series of articles, Geertman considers different elements that are mentioned by the major source for most of the knowledge of the early Christian churches (apart from the structures themselves): the Liber Pontificalis. Other essays by Geertman may also be consulted to further one’s knowledge of the way the Liber Pontificalis can be used as a source for early Christian architecture in Rome.
  138.  
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  140.  
  141.  
  142. Reconstructions and Building Type
  143. Publications on this topic deal with the architecture of the Constantinian basilica and questions surrounding the development of the basilica as a building type. After the archaeological reports were published, works such as Christern 1967, Christern and Thiersch 1969, Jongkees 1966, Ward-Perkins 1994, and certainly Krautheimer, et al. 1977 have used the material to reconstruct the 4th-century church building.
  144.  
  145. Arbeiter, Achim. Alt-St. Peter in Geschichte und Wissenschaft: Abfolge der Bauten, Rekonstruktion, Architekturprogramm. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1988.
  146.  
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  148.  
  149. Important, reliable, and very useful study that evaluates the results of the archaeological research and the earlier attempts by various scholars to reconstruct the early Christian basilica of St. Peter’s. The author compares studies of architectural history with the older texts and the findings of the archaeologists.
  150.  
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  152.  
  153.  
  154. Christern, Jürgen. “Der Aufriss von Alt-St.-Peter.” Römische Quartalschrift für christliche Altertumskunde und Kirchengeschichte 62 (1967): 133–183.
  155.  
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  157.  
  158. After the results of the archaeological research in St. Peter’s became available, several scholars tried to translate the material in reconstructions to help understand the first large Christian churches in 4th-century Rome. A rich article that provides an important contribution to this field.
  159.  
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  161.  
  162.  
  163. Christern, Jürgen., and Katharina Thiersch. “Der Aufriss von Alt-St.-Peter II.” Römische Quartalschrift für christliche Altertumskunde und Kirchengeschichte 64 (1969): 1–34.
  164.  
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  166.  
  167. Second extensive article dealing with the reconstruction of the early Christian basilica in a careful and intelligent way. Useful for those who are also interested in the history of the study of Old St. Peter’s as it has been developed in the second half of the 20th century. The footnotes often include interesting thoughts and suggestions.
  168.  
  169. Find this resource:
  170.  
  171.  
  172. Jongkees, Jan Hendrik. Studies on Old St. Peter’s. Groningen, The Netherlands: Wolters, 1966.
  173.  
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  175.  
  176. One of the studies in which the author tried to assess the archaeological results and compare them with older plans and drawings, mainly from the 16th century. The ground plan and elevation, the proportions of architectural elements as they are handed down by sources and drawings, and the questions surrounding the building dates are all treated in a lucid and clear way.
  177.  
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  179.  
  180.  
  181. Krautheimer, Richard, Spencer Corbett, and Alfred K. Frazer. Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romae: The Early Christian Basilicas of Rome, IV–IX Centuries. Vol. 5. Vatican City: Pontificio Istituto di Archeologia Cristiana, 1977.
  182.  
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  184.  
  185. In the last volume of this famous series, the three large early Christian basilicas are described in a very thorough manner. Textual sources and images are mentioned and, where necessary, discussed, the archaeological evidence is sorted out, and the results are intertwined with observations and comparisons of the material to be found elsewhere. The building’s use, patronage, reconstruction, and architectural position are clearly treated in a way that is still valuable today. Essential for a proper understanding of the widely used reconstruction. On St. Peter’s, see pp. 165–279.
  186.  
  187. Find this resource:
  188.  
  189.  
  190. Ward-Perkins, J. B. “Constantine and the Origins of the Christian Basilica.” In Studies in Roman and Early Christian Architecture. By J. B. Ward-Perkins, 447–468. London: Pindar, 1994.
  191.  
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  193.  
  194. Originally published in Papers of the British School at Rome 22 (1954): 69–89. Analyzes the connections between the Roman basilica and the basilica built for Christian use, and investigates functions and differences in ground plans. A still interesting and helpful starting point in this field.
  195.  
  196. Find this resource:
  197.  
  198.  
  199. Architectural History
  200. Apart from the reconstruction of the early Christian basilica, researchers gradually became interested in related fields. Richard Krautheimer has spent decades studying St. Peter’s and related subjects, and Krautheimer 1985, Krautheimer 1989, and Krautheimer 1993 are important examples of this work. Paolo Liverani is a modern archaeologist with a particular interest in written sources as well; see Liverani 2007 and Liverani 2008. For the later period, Roser 2005 and Roser 2006 are important, as they deal with the phase immediately preceding the beginning of the construction of what has become the New St. Peter’s.
  201.  
  202. Krautheimer, Richard. St. Peter’s and Medieval Rome. Rome: Unione Internazionale Degli Istituti di Archeologia, Storia a Storia Dell’arte in Roma, 1985.
  203.  
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  205.  
  206. Starting from the functions of early Christian St. Peter’s, this eminent specialist on early Christian architecture discusses the way this important basilica gradually became the focal point for many related activities. During the Middle Ages the area around St. Peter’s changed in different ways, as monasteries and hostels came into existence and the borgo was beginning to develop.
  207.  
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  209.  
  210.  
  211. Krautheimer, Richard. “The Building Inscriptions and the Dates of Construction of Old St. Peter’s: A Reconsideration.” Römisches Jahrbuch der Bibliotheca Hertziana 25 (1989): 1–23.
  212.  
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  214.  
  215. Reconsiders the dates as they are handed down, and their importance for our knowledge about the years of construction of the Vatican basilica. Sums up various arguments and interpretations.
  216.  
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  218.  
  219.  
  220. Krautheimer, Richard. “The Ecclesiastical Building Policy of Constantine.” In Costantino il Grande dall’antichità all’umanesimo: Colloquio sul christianesimo nel mondo antico, Macerata 18–20 Dicembre 1990. Vol. 2. Edited by Giorgio Bonamente and Franca Fusco, 509–552. Macerata, Italy: Università degli Studi di Macerata, 1993.
  221.  
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  223.  
  224. Not focused on St. Peter’s. Instead, Krautheimer studies the context of Constantinian building policy, providing a fascinating view of Constantine’s involvement. Helps to put St. Peter’s in the proper perspective and discusses many of the elements involved in its foundation and construction.
  225.  
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  227.  
  228.  
  229. Liverani, Paolo. “Victors and Pilgrims in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages.” Fragmenta: Journal of the Royal Netherlands Institute in Rome 1.1 (2007): 83–102.
  230.  
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  232.  
  233. Examines the scenography of the imperial “adventus” in Rome, specifically the way this procession went through Rome to St. Peter’s and how this led to a monumentalization of specific parts of the route. Fundamental for an understanding of the late Antique and early medieval position of St. Peter’s.
  234.  
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  236.  
  237.  
  238. Liverani, Paolo. “Saint Peter’s, Leo the Great and the Leprosy of Constantine.” Papers of the British School at Rome 76 (2008): 155–172.
  239.  
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  241.  
  242. Analyzes some important inscriptions and late Antique mosaics and their implications for the involvement of Constantine with the church. Rather important in the debate about the date of construction, as compared to Bowersock’s article in the collection edited by Tronzo (see Tronzo 2005, cited under Old and New St. Peter’s: Collections of Articles and Conference Proceedings).
  243.  
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  245.  
  246.  
  247. Roser, Hannes. St. Peter in Rom im 15. Jahrhundert. Studien zu Architektur und skulpturaler Ausstattung. Munich: Hirmer, 2005.
  248.  
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  250.  
  251. Discusses the architecture and the interior decoration, principally the sculptures. The main theme is the renewal of the Constantinian church by successive popes, and the ways they chose to pursue that renewal. Plans from the 15th century to refurbish the building itself are important, as well as the question of whether Alberti and Rosselino were involved in these plans.
  252.  
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  254.  
  255.  
  256. Roser, Hannes. “Pius II and the Loggia delle Benedizioni at St. Peter’s.” In Enea Silvio Piccolomini: Arte, Storia e Cultura nell’Europa di Pio II; Atti dei Convegni Internazionali di Studi 2003–2004. Edited by Roberto di Paolo, Arianna Antoniutti, Marco Gallo, 447–457.Rome: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2006.
  257.  
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  259.  
  260. A detailed study of the loggia that was planned and built under Pius II, while the old basilica was still functioning. The architecture of the loggia is compared with other examples, and the surrounding area is examined as well.
  261.  
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  263.  
  264.  
  265. Architecture and Liturgy
  266. The liturgical arrangements in the basilica and the use of the basilica have received increased attention since the 1980s, thereby facilitating the study of the interaction between architecture in Rome and elsewhere in Europe during the Middle Ages. Carol Heitz was a pioneer in the field of architecture and liturgy (see Heitz 1976), while Blaauw 1994 opened up this field with its work on St. Peter’s, San Giovanni in Laterano, and San Maria Magiore.
  267.  
  268. Blaauw, Sible de. Cultus et Décor: Liturgia e Architettura nella Roma tardoantica e medievale. 2 vols. Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1994.
  269.  
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  271.  
  272. A key publication dealing with both the architecture and the liturgical use of the entire space. The study of the way these two aspects influenced each other creates a much better understanding of the manner in which St. Peter’s functioned and was adapted to changing needs. The liturgical needs and changes are not considered here as processes taking place within a static kind of architecture. Instead, the work looks at the way in which both architecture and liturgy constitute, confirm, and change each other. The entire second volume is devoted to St. Peter’s.
  273.  
  274. Find this resource:
  275.  
  276.  
  277. Doig, Allen. Liturgy and Architecture from the Early Church to the Middle Ages. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2008.
  278.  
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  280.  
  281. Focuses on liturgical arrangements and practices. Doig examines St. Peter’s and other churches, investigating the ways in which the early Christian basilica was a model for other churches. See, in particular, pp. 28–29.
  282.  
  283. Find this resource:
  284.  
  285.  
  286. Heitz, Carol. “More romano: Problèmes d’architecture et liturgie carolingiennes.” In Roma e l’età carolingia: Atti delle giornate di studio, 3–8 maggio 1976. Edited by Istituto nazionale di archeologia e storia dell’arte, 27–37. Rome: Multigrafica Editrice, 1976.
  287.  
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  289.  
  290. A still relevant study in which Heitz, a specialist in the field of architecture and liturgy in the Middle Ages, seeks to find out on which Roman examples Carolingian architecture may have been partly based, and if the phrase “more romano” can be connected to St. Peter’s.
  291.  
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  293.  
  294.  
  295. Art History
  296. Changing attitudes in scholarly interest are reflected in the slightly growing attention that medieval decoration and monuments are now receiving. Andaloro 2009 and Richardson 2008 are good examples of this research.
  297.  
  298. Andaloro, Maria. “Giotto tradotto: A proposito del mosaica della Navicella.” In Frammenti di memoria: Giotto, Roma e Bonifacio VIII. Edited by Maria Andaloro, Silvia Maddalo, and Massimo Miglio, 17–35. Rome: Istituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo, 2009.
  299.  
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  301.  
  302. Studies the famous piece by Giotto made for the exterior of the old basilica and compares it with contemporary mosaics and art.
  303.  
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  305.  
  306.  
  307. Richardson, Carol M. “‘Ruined, Untended and Derelict’: Fifteenth-Century Papal Tombs in St Peter’s.” In Art and Identity in Early Modern Rome. Edited by Jill Burke and Michael Bury, 191–207. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2008.
  308.  
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  310.  
  311. Discusses a group of papal tombs and the way the history of St. Peter’s was weighing down on its users in the 15th century. Interesting in the light of the major building activity that would follow.
  312.  
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  314.  
  315.  
  316. Exhibition Catalogues
  317. Art history exhibition catalogues list important publications, and often they enable the use of a theme to gather together different material. A good example is D’Onofrio 1999.
  318.  
  319. D’Onofrio, Mario, ed. Romei e Giubilei. Il pellegrinaggio medieval a San Pietro (350–1350). Milan: Electa, 1999.
  320.  
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  322.  
  323. Catalogue of an exhibition held at Palazzo Venezia, Rome, 29 October 1999–26 February 2000. Interesting with many good essays on topics related to the apostle Peter as a venerated saint, and to the basilica of St. Peter as a pilgrimage site. Includes essays on medieval St. Peter’s and its decoration and liturgical arrangements.
  324.  
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  326.  
  327.  
  328. Old and New St. Peter’s
  329. As an intermediate phase between the early Christian basilica and the new church, this period was long enough to deserve special attention. Overshadowed by the plans and projects to build a new church, this phase has not been given very much scholarly attention, but this situation is now changing. Not many scholars have approached the history of New St. Peter’s from the viewpoint of the history of the old basilica, so the continuity of the building and its monuments has mainly been treated as an element that might help explain the interior decoration, once it had been installed in the new basilica. But in the 16th and the early 17th centuries, the history and the important tradition of St. Peter’s Church were considered to be vital for its existence, and this supports greater scholarly attention in this area. In this section titles are mentioned that usually relate to the sections of Old St. Peter’s and New St. Peter’s as well. They explicitly pay attention to both church buildings, and at times to the connections between the two. Moreover, the initiated but never finished plans of Pope Nicolas V to replace the old apse and the transept belong here as well, since they continued to play a role in how elements of the old basilica were, or could be, incorporated in a new structure.
  330.  
  331. Sources and Descriptions
  332. Several sources are important for the study of the early Christian basilica and its decoration, but also for gaining information about the phase during which the New St. Peter’s was under construction while part of the old basilica was still functioning. Alfarano 1914 and Grimaldi 1972 are both eyewitness accounts, and both are closely tied with this chapter in the history of St. Peter’s.
  333.  
  334. Alfarano, Tiberio. De Basilicae Vaticanae antiquissima et nova structura. Edited by D. M. Cerrati. Rome: Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana, 1914.
  335.  
  336. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  337.  
  338. Originally written c. 1570–1582. An edition, with comments and explanations, of a very important text containing a description of practices, altars, decorative elements, and monuments in the old and the (then partly) new church, as witnessed by an insider. Not all information is necessarily correct, since many elements were described from other sources, after their destruction.
  339.  
  340. Find this resource:
  341.  
  342.  
  343. Grimaldi, Giacomo. Descrizione della basilica antica di S. Pietro in Vaticano. Edited by Reto Niggl. Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1972.
  344.  
  345. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  346.  
  347. Originally written c. 1619–1620. A description of the remainder of the early Christian basilica, with great care for detail. The text is accompanied by illustrations, which are necessary in many cases to get a proper understanding of many of the elements, such as the interior decoration, as well as the papal tombs and chapels.
  348.  
  349. Find this resource:
  350.  
  351.  
  352. Studies
  353. Various elements in the history of New St. Peter’s point to the combination of the old and the new church, either as a temporary solution (Thoenes 1992) or as possible means to renovate the age-old basilica without completely destroying it, as argued by Kempers 1996, Kempers 2000, Bosman 2002, and Bosman 2004. As a collection of monuments, the so-called grotte were built underneath New St. Peter’s, after the old basilica had completely disappeared (see Zander 2009).
  354.  
  355. Bosman, Lex. “The Dilemma of Pope Julius II: How to Preserve the Old St. Peter’s while Building a New St. Peter’s.” In “Aux quatre vents”: A Festschrift for Bert W. Meijer. Edited by Anton W. A. Boschloo, Edward Grasman, and Gert Jan van der Sman, 39–44. Florence, Italy: Centro Di Publication, 2002.
  356.  
  357. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  358.  
  359. Compares the designs from the initial stages of the planning of New St. Peter’s; brings the design by Fra Giocondo back into the debate on how the plans for a new church came about in the early 16th century.
  360.  
  361. Find this resource:
  362.  
  363.  
  364. Bosman, Lex. The Power of Tradition: Spolia in the Architecture of St. Peter’s in the Vatican. Hilversum, The Netherlands: Verloren, 2004.
  365.  
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367.  
  368. In Old St. Peter’s, at least part of the columns were spolia, or reused, material. The use of spolia in late Antiquity is often discussed when interpreting the architecture of Old St. Peter’s. Most of the nave columns of the old basilica found their way to the new basilica. The use of spolia in this way forms a binding element between the two churches, also shedding new light on the difficult process of planning and designing the new basilica.
  369.  
  370. Find this resource:
  371.  
  372.  
  373. Kempers, Bram. “Diverging Perspectives—New Saint Peter’s: Artistic Ambitions, Liturgical Requirements, Financial Limitations and Historical Interpretations.” Mededelingen van het Nederlands Instituut te Rome 55 (1996): 213–251.
  374.  
  375. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  376.  
  377. An innovative study dealing with several important factors that deeply influenced the planning and the designing of New St. Peter’s. Kempers also questions the idea that, from the outset, a completely new building was meant to replace the old basilica, and instead opts for the possibility that a complete plan did not exist at the outset.
  378.  
  379. Find this resource:
  380.  
  381.  
  382. Kempers, Bram. “‘Capella Iulia’ and ‘Capella Sixtina’: Two Tombs, One Patron and Two Churches.” In Sisto IV: Le arti a Roma nel primo Rinascimento. Edited by Fabio Benzi, 33–59. Rome: Associazione culturale Shakespeare and Company 2, 2000.
  383.  
  384. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  385.  
  386. Studies the possible position of two papal tombs in relation with the gradually developing plans to replace (a part of) the old basilica by a new building. Kempers thereby tries to retrace the steps taken by some of the crucial players in this difficult to understand part of the architectural history.
  387.  
  388. Find this resource:
  389.  
  390.  
  391. Thoenes, Christof. “Alt-und neu-St.-Peter unter einem Dach: Zu Antonio da Sangallos ‘Muro Divisorio.’” In Architektur und Kunst im Abendland: Festschrift zur Vollendung des 65; Lebensjahres von Günter Urban. Edited by Michael Jansen and Klaus Winands, 51–61. Rome: Herder, 1992.
  392.  
  393. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  394.  
  395. Discusses the interesting and important phase around 1538, when Old and New St. Peter’s existed and partly functioned together, connected by a wall that is commonly known as the muro divisorio.
  396.  
  397. Find this resource:
  398.  
  399.  
  400. Zander, Pietro. “L’angelo di Giotto nella sistemazione seicentesca delle Grotte Vaticane.” In Frammenti di memoria. Giotto, Roma e Bonifacio VIII. Edited by Maria Andaloro, Silvia Maddalo, Massimo Miglio, 67–80. Rome: Istituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo, 2009.
  401.  
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403.  
  404. A fragment of the famous “Navicella” of Giotto on the exterior of the early Christian basilica survived the demolition of the last, eastern part of the basilica and is part of the collection initiated by Pope Paul V to honor the memory of Old St. Peter’s. See also Andaloro 2009 (listed under Old St. Peter’s: Art History).
  405.  
  406. Find this resource:
  407.  
  408.  
  409. Collections of Articles and Conference Proceedings
  410. Ranging from narrow to wider themes, several collections of articles were published about the main elements of the history as a whole, as in Tronzo 2005, or focused on a specific element, such as the edited volume Pergolizzi 1999. At the conference that resulted in Spagnesi 1997, many different themes were debated, resulting in a book with important contributions.
  411.  
  412. Pergolizzi, Alfredo Maria, ed. La confessione nella Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano. Milan: Silvana Editoriale, 1999.
  413.  
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415.  
  416. A collection of articles dedicated to the tomb and confession of Saint Peter. After the demolition of the old basilica, a new structure had to be designed in order to incorporate the sepulcher in the new church and make it a place for veneration.
  417.  
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420.  
  421. Spagnesi, Gianfranco, ed. L’Architettura della basilica di San Pietro: Storia e costruzione: Atti del convegno internazionale di studi. Roma, Castel S. Angelo, 7–10 novembre 1995. Rome: Bonsignori Editori, 1997.
  422.  
  423. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  424.  
  425. A very interesting and useful collection of essays, resulting from an earlier conference in Rome. Contributions range from elements of the medieval church, like the famous bird’s-eye drawing of Peruzzi, to the reactions in the early 16th century concerning the initial plans of Julius II to replace part of the old basilica.
  426.  
  427. Find this resource:
  428.  
  429.  
  430. Tronzo, William, ed. St. Peter’s in the Vatican. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  431.  
  432. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  433.  
  434. A collection of essays mainly focused on the architectural history of St. Peter’s, both old and new. Controversial and intriguing is the essay by Bowersock, who proposes a date for Old St. Peter’s not in the time of Constantine but in the time of his son Constans. Noteworthy also are the contributions of Dale Kinney on the non-architectural spolia, Iacobini on the 13th century, and Thoenes’s and Millon’s insightful overviews of the history of New St. Peter’s. Lavin’s article about Bernini could stand alone as a monograph.
  435.  
  436. Find this resource:
  437.  
  438.  
  439. Exhibition Catalogues
  440. Even though focus is on New St. Peter’s, the history and tradition of the old basilica are treated as well in the catalogue Petros eni/Pietro è qui (Carlo-Stella, et al. 2006).
  441.  
  442. Carlo-Stella, Maria Cristina, Paolo Liverani, and Maria Luisa Polichetti, eds. Petros eni/Pietro è qui: Catalogo della mostra. Rome: Edindustria, 2006.
  443.  
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. Catalogue of an exhibition at the Braccio di Carlo Magno in Vatican City, 11 October 2006–8 March 8, 2007, on the occasion of the five-hundred-year anniversary of the New St. Peter’s. Includes catalogue entries and introductory essays about the early Christian basilica as well as the new building. The main building phases of the new basilica are treated by specialists (Frommel, Bellini, Connors, Liverani).
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450.  
  451. New St. Peter’s
  452. Under the ambitious Pope Julius II, plans were made to begin work on a new building, probably at first meant to replace (at least) the western part of the old basilica. The history of this process of planning, designing, and constructing the New St. Peter’s lasted over a century and would occupy several important architects and artists for many years, including Bramante, Raphael, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, and Michelangelo, to name the most famous among them. Eventually, an immense building replaced the old church. The nave of the new church has the same width as the old nave, whereas the aisles are somewhat wider than the pairs of aisles in the early Christian church were. The western half of the church is centered on the main altar, situated above the sepulcher of Saint Peter. The choir and each of the two transept arms have the same dimensions and are architecturally treated in the same way, albeit that later additions and changes brought about more specific attention to the deep choir. Because the main altar is placed in the crossing, the vast space of the whole church is not easily experienced and understood. In the 17th century, Pope Paul V ordered the remaining eastern half of the nave and aisles to be demolished; the architect Carlo Maderno then built the new nave with aisles and side chapels, after which Bernini was involved for some time in altering the facade. For the unprepared student and scholar, this field may resemble a bibliographic labyrinth in which it may be very difficult to find the correct path. Many studies of details of the whole process, which are important and interesting in themselves, have at the same time somewhat obscured the possibility of understanding several of the more general elements that eventually led to the completely new building. One of the many problematic issues is the connection of the patrons (the popes) and the architects, and it has proved difficult for scholars to conceive of the ways various popes were able to translate their own ambitions and ideas into the design, as well as the degree of independence of the architects in charge. The subsections here should be used in conjunction with each other, since Drawings and Models as Sources and Architectural History are complementary topics. The preceding section, Old and New St. Peter’s, includes publications that have bearing on this section as well.
  453.  
  454. Overviews
  455. As a first step in the study of the architectural history of New St. Peter’s, these overviews will be helpful, since they tend to treat the subject in the broader context of Italian Renaissance architecture in the 16th century. Several volumes of the Storia dell’architettura italiana are mentioned here, all of them recent, well documented, and thorough studies (see Bellini 2001, Benedetti 2003, Bruschi 2002, Fiore 2002, Frommel 1998 and Fromel 2002). Frommel 2007 is also a good place to start.
  456.  
  457. Bellini, Federico. “I grandi cantieri: Campidoglio, San Pietro, Studium Urbis.” In Storia dell’ architettura italiana: Il secondo cinquecento. Edited by Claudia Conforti and Richard J. Tuttle, 66–93. Milan: Electa, 2001.
  458.  
  459. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  460.  
  461. The large-scale, ongoing project of St. Peter’s is treated from Michelangelo onward until well beyond his death. Also looks at the phases in which the actual appearance was largely decided upon by the changes Michelangelo made to the previously built parts and the realization of his own work, as well as the continuation thereof; see pp. 74–84.
  462.  
  463. Find this resource:
  464.  
  465.  
  466. Benedetti, Sandro. “Carlo Maderno e il cantiere di San Pietro.” In Storia dell’architettura italiana: Il seicento. Edited by Aurora Scotti Tosini, 120–139. Milan: Electa, 2003.
  467.  
  468. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  469.  
  470. After a century of work, a complete and finished building had not yet been produced. Thus, in the early 17th century, Maderno received the difficult commission to bring the construction to an end, which is described here in great detail. Limitations posed by the existing western part, as well as from the dilemma resulting from a centrally planned but longitudinal building, made Maderno’s job difficult.
  471.  
  472. Find this resource:
  473.  
  474.  
  475. Bruschi, Arnaldo. “Roma, dal Sacco al tempo di Paolo III (1527–50).” In Storia dell’ architettura italiana: Il primo cinquecento. Edited by Arnaldo Bruschi, 160–207. Milan: Electa, 2002.
  476.  
  477. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  478.  
  479. St. Peter’s appears in several chapters in this volume, notably those by Fiore, Frommel, and Bruschi. Although the continuous history is divided into several limited phases, the reader benefits from the specific context in which St. Peter’s appears. Here the problem of how to continue with a possible reduction of the cost of the work is treated (pp. 162–166, 175–179). The large-scale plans of Antonio da Sangallo are dealt with on pp. 189–191. Michelangelo appears as well, on pp. 199–202.
  480.  
  481. Find this resource:
  482.  
  483.  
  484. Fiore, Francesco Paolo. “Roma, le diverse maniere.” In Storia dell’ architettura italiana: Il primo cinquecento. Edited by Arnaldo Bruschi, 132–159. Milan: Electa, 2002.
  485.  
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487.  
  488. After Raphael’s death, Antonio da Sangallo became the chief architect, and his first projects in that capacity are discussed here (pp. 146–149).
  489.  
  490. Find this resource:
  491.  
  492.  
  493. Frommel, Christoph Luitpold. “Roma.” In Storia dell’ architettura italiana: Il quatrocento. Edited by Francesco Paolo Fiore, 374–433. Milan: Electa, 1998.
  494.  
  495. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  496.  
  497. In the context of the mainly regionally grouped material of this volume, Frommel treats the plans initiated by Pope Nicolas V. Thus, the pope’s plans for St. Peter’s are discussed as elements of his architectural patronage (pp. 374–382).
  498.  
  499. Find this resource:
  500.  
  501.  
  502. Frommel, Christoph Luitpold. “La città come opera d’arte: Bramante e Raffaello (1500–20).” In Storia dell’ architettura italiana: Il primo cinquecento. Edited by Arnaldo Bruschi, 76–131. Milan: Electa, 2002.
  503.  
  504. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  505.  
  506. St. Peter’s appears here in the context of the work of Bramante and Raphael. See pp. 87–90, 98–99, 121–123.
  507.  
  508. Find this resource:
  509.  
  510.  
  511. Frommel, Christoph Luitpold. The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2007.
  512.  
  513. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  514.  
  515. Reference work by a specialist on Italian Renaissance architecture, treated chronologically and divided by the various architects. New St. Peter’s is discussed as part of the work of Bramante, Giuliano da Sangallo, Raphael, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Baldassare Peruzzi, and, of course, Michelangelo. Provides detailed yet very readable analyses, making it a good starting point.
  516.  
  517. Find this resource:
  518.  
  519.  
  520. Sources
  521. The publications listed here are based on written sources. While most titles treat the sources themselves, Basso 1987 is concerned with the way the specific archives of St. Peter’s were assembled and form part of a larger organization. The titles mentioned cannot be separated completely from other kinds of sources, however, and should be considered in conjunction with Drawings and Models as Sources.
  522.  
  523. Basso, Michele. I privilege e le consuetudini della Rev.da Fabbrica di San Pietro in Vaticano (sec. XVI–XX). 2 vols. Rome: Typis Polyglottis Vaticanis, 1987.
  524.  
  525. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  526.  
  527. Examines the history and regulations of the organization responsible for the church building as well as its archive, with an introduction to the archive of the basilica itself.
  528.  
  529. Find this resource:
  530.  
  531.  
  532. Frey, Dagobert. “Zur Baugeschichte des St. Peter: Mitteilungen aus der Reverendissima Fabbrica di S. Pietro.” Jahrbuch der Königlich Preussischen Kunstsammlungen 31 (1911): 1–95.
  533.  
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535.  
  536. An important and widely used look at extracts from the archives of St. Peter’s. One should be aware, however, that the passages are the result of a selective process made by Frey. Continued in Jahrbuch der Königlich Preussischen Kunstsammlungen 33 (1913), with a supplement in 37 (1916): 22–136.
  537.  
  538. Find this resource:
  539.  
  540.  
  541. Frommel, Christoph Luitpold. “Die Peterskirche unter Papst Julius II. im Licht neuer Dokumente.” Römisches Jahrbuch für Kunstgeschichte 16 (1976): 57–136.
  542.  
  543. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  544.  
  545. Important study dealing with the initial stages of the project under Pope Julius II. Both written sources and drawings are used. Examines crucial questions as to whether a centrally planned or a longitudinal building was intended, and looks at the organization of the “fabbrica” and the financing of the project.
  546.  
  547. Find this resource:
  548.  
  549.  
  550. Letarouilly, Paul. Il Vaticano e la basilica di San Pietro. Edited by Antonella di Luggo Aversa. Novara, Italy: Istituto Geografico De Agostini, 1999.
  551.  
  552. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  553.  
  554. A collection of minutely prepared drawings of different (reconstructed) phases of the basilica, ranging from overviews and the way the building was situated in the specific area of Rome, to decorative details. Very helpful and often necessary to understand the consequences of various reconstructions. Originally published as Le Vatican et la basilique de Saint-Pierre de Rome, 2 vols. (Paris: A. Morel, 1878–1882).
  555.  
  556. Find this resource:
  557.  
  558.  
  559. Shearman, John. Raphael in Early Modern Sources, 1483–1602. 2 vols. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.
  560.  
  561. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  562.  
  563. Incredibly important collection and analyses of source material on Raphael, including several sources concerning his contributions as successor of Bramante as chief architect of St. Peter’s.
  564.  
  565. Find this resource:
  566.  
  567.  
  568. Vasari, Giorgio. Le Vite de’più eccellenti pittori, scultori ed architettori. Edited by Gaetano Milanesi. Florence, Italy: Sansoni, 1878–1882.
  569.  
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571.  
  572. Contains famous descriptions of the lives and works of many Renaissance artists, including several who served as an architect at St. Peter’s. In Volume IV, see pp. 160–163 on Bramante, and pp. 599–601 on Peruzzi. In Volume VII, see pp. 219–221 on Michelangelo. Apart from these, other references to St. Peter’s can be found as well.
  573.  
  574. Find this resource:
  575.  
  576.  
  577. Drawings and Models as Sources
  578. Apart from written sources, the relatively large collection of extant architectural drawings and the few surviving models serve as immensely important sources as well.
  579.  
  580. Initial Studies
  581. Many interpretations of the developments are somehow based on Geymüller 1868 and Geymüller 1875–1880, an interpretation of a famous drawing by Bramante. Ploder 1998 examines this activity as part of a study of the architectural work of Geymüller.
  582.  
  583. Geymüller, Heinrich von. Notizen über die Entwürfe zu St. Peter in Rom: Aus bis jetzt unbekannten Quellen. Karlsruhe, Germany: Müller, 1868.
  584.  
  585. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  586.  
  587. The starting point for a line of research that has become very successful and important.
  588.  
  589. Find this resource:
  590.  
  591.  
  592. Geymüller, Heinrich von. Die ursprünglichen Entwürfe für Sanct Peter in Rom. Vienna: Lehmann and Wentzel, 1875–1880.
  593.  
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595.  
  596. Fascinating account by the first person who seriously studied the drawings of St. Peter’s, kept in the Florentine Uffizi.
  597.  
  598. Find this resource:
  599.  
  600.  
  601. Ploder, Josef. Heinrich von Geymüller und die Architekturzeichnung: Werk, Wirkung und Nachlass eines Renaissance-Forschers. Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 1998.
  602.  
  603. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  604.  
  605. Exhaustive study about Geymüller, the architect who initiated the study of the 16th-century drawings for St. Peter’s. A very interesting volume, since one of the persistent ideas about Bramante’s plans originates in Geymüller’s reconstruction of Bramante’s parchment plan for a centrally planned church, which was accepted as so strong that the reconstruction replaced the original drawing in many books, including Rudolf Wittkower’s Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism (London: Warburg Institute, University of London, 1949). See pp. 103–252.
  606.  
  607. Find this resource:
  608.  
  609.  
  610. Drawings
  611. Even though many sources and a large collection of drawings survive (most but not all of which are now kept in the Uffizi in Florence), reconstructing the plans, ambitions, changes, and specific design decisions is very difficult. Without the existence of a large group of architectural drawings as well as several models, the study of New St. Peter’s would not have flourished as it has since the 1970s. The most comprehensive study, although though limited to the work of Sangallo, is Frommel and Adams 2000. Huppert 2009 and Maurer 2004 treat the drawings for St. Peter’s in a larger context, while the other works focus on the drawings for St. Peter’s.
  612.  
  613. Bruschi, Arnaldo. “Baldassarre Peruzzi per San Pietro: Aggiornamenti, ripensamenti, precisazioni.” In Baldassarre Peruzzi, 1481–1536: Atti del 19° Seminario internazionale di storia dell’architettura. Edited by Christoph L. Frommel, et al., 353–369. Venice: Marsilio, 2005.
  614.  
  615. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  616.  
  617. In the present church, nothing visible remains of Peruzzi’s involvement in the building process, though the architect spent many years working there. Bruschi argues that it is not unlikely that Peruzzi entered the fabbrica soon after the death of Bramante. Bruschi, a long-time scholar of Peruzzi’s drawings, analyzes the drawings and attempts to date them.
  618.  
  619. Find this resource:
  620.  
  621.  
  622. Frommel, Christoph L., and Nicholas Adams, eds. The Architectural Drawings of Antonio da Sangallo the Younger and His Circle. Vol. 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000.
  623.  
  624. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  625.  
  626. An important work with detailed descriptions of the drawings of Sangallo the Younger, many of which were for St. Peter’s. Introductory articles by Frommel, Bruschi, and Thoenes are mostly about St. Peter’s. Indispensable for serious students and scholars. See, in particular, pp. 1–21, 23–32, 33–43.
  627.  
  628. Find this resource:
  629.  
  630.  
  631. Gnann, Achim. “Zum neuentdeckten Grundriß Raphaels für St. Peter.” In Festschrift für Konrad Oberhuber. Edited by Achim Gnann and Heinz Widauer, 70–81. Milan: Electa, 2000.
  632.  
  633. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  634.  
  635. Of the two drawings of Raphael for the architecture of St. Peter’s, one was discovered not too long ago. This study deals with that drawing and serves as a jumping off point for further study.
  636.  
  637. Find this resource:
  638.  
  639.  
  640. Hubert, Hans. “Baldassare Peruzzi und der neubau der Peterskirche in Rom.” In Baldassarre Peruzzi, 1481–1536: Atti del 19° Seminario internazionale di storia dell’architettura. Edited by Christoph L. Frommel, et al., 371–409. Venice: Marsilio, 2005.
  641.  
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643.  
  644. Focuses on the plans by Peruzzi for a centrally planned design for St. Peter’s, and on the way Peruzzi reacted to the work of his fellow architect Antonio da Sangallo the Younger. Peruzzi’s St. Peter drawings are divided in four groups. The career of Peruzzi and his position in comparison with Sangallo are the main elements in this study, in which Peruzzi appears as a proponent of centrally planned churches, against the longitudinal plans of Sangallo. Even when, in the end, Peruzzi received a position at the same level of responsibility as Sangallo, he did not see his ideas realized.
  645.  
  646. Find this resource:
  647.  
  648.  
  649. Huppert, Ann C. “Envisioning New St. Peter’s: Perspectival Drawings and the Process of Design.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 68.2 (2009): 158–177.
  650.  
  651. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  652.  
  653. It is generally accepted that Renaissance architects preferred to use plans and elevations, a point of view supported by architectural theory. Perspective drawings were said to be misleading, since not all measures can be deduced. Huppert, however, convincingly argues that perspective drawings were used as well, by analyzing drawings for St. Peter’s by Bramante, Raphael, Peruzzi, and others. The result is a very interesting study, because of the way architectural drawings were used in general in the design process, and particularly in the process of designing important parts for the new church.
  654.  
  655. Find this resource:
  656.  
  657.  
  658. Maurer, Golo. Michelangelo. Die Architekturzeichnungen; Entwurfsprozeß und Planungspraxis. Regensburg, Germany: Schnell and Steiner, 2004.
  659.  
  660. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  661.  
  662. A well-documented study of the architectural drawings of Michelangelo. Important for its approach to his drawings as part of the corpus as it was handed down, since they are important works in their own right.
  663.  
  664. Find this resource:
  665.  
  666.  
  667. Millon, Henry A., and Craigh Hugh Smyth. “Michelangelo and St. Peter’s—I: Notes on a Plan of the Attic as Originally Built on the South Hemicycle.” Burlington Magazine 111.797 (1969): 484–501.
  668.  
  669. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  670.  
  671. Some ten years after Michelangelo had been appointed chief architect, the first part of the attic and the vault of the south hemicycle were constructed. The rather different exterior—as compared to similar parts of St. Peter’s—is thoroughly discussed here, as is the important role played by several of his drawings.
  672.  
  673. Find this resource:
  674.  
  675.  
  676. Niebaum, Jens. “Bramante und der Neubau von St. Peter. Die Planungen vor dem ‘Ausführungsprojekt.’” Römisches Jahrbuch der Bibliotheca Hertziana 34 (2001–2002): 87–184.
  677.  
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679.  
  680. An important study on the sources and foremost drawings of the first phase of the planning and design of New St. Peter’s. Whether or not the analysis is too in depth and provides results that may well be discussed by others, the depth of this article is admirable and very useful.
  681.  
  682. Find this resource:
  683.  
  684.  
  685. Models
  686. Compared to the number of drawings, only a few models survive. In written sources, however, crucial evidence can be found to increase our knowledge about the models and how they were used. Shearman 2001 and Thoenes 2002 look at different models, the first of which doesn’t exist anymore, while the second (in Thoenes 2002) is an enormous wooden model.
  687.  
  688. Shearman, John. “On the Master-Model for New Saint Peter’s, 1506–21.” In Ars et Scriptura: Festschrift für Rudolf Preimesberger zum 65. Geburtstag. Edited by Hannah Baader, Ulrike Müller, Kristina Patz, und Nicola Suthor, 125–142.. Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 2001.
  689.  
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691.  
  692. Fascinating contribution on the problem of the models from the first half of the 16th century, which don’t exist any longer. Instead of assuming the creation of a new model when a new architect took over the direction of the planning and construction, Shearman proposed a master-model that was subsequently changed.
  693.  
  694. Find this resource:
  695.  
  696.  
  697. Thoenes, Christof. “St. Peter 1534–1546. Sangallos Holzmodell und seine Vorstufen.” In Opus incertum: Italienische Studien aus drei Jahrzehnten. By Christof Thoenes, 418–430. Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2002.
  698.  
  699. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  700.  
  701. Thoenes studies the enormous wooden model designed by Antonio da Sangallo and analyzes its place in the wider context of the design process of New St. Peter’s. First published in 1995.
  702.  
  703. Find this resource:
  704.  
  705.  
  706. Architectural History
  707. As for the reconstructions of the architectural concepts, three main views can be found in the literature, which may or may not be mutually exclusive. One of these views, held by Bram Kempers and Lex Bosman, is that at the beginning of the demolition of the western part of the early Christian basilica, and at the outset of the construction work for a new addition, there was no plan to replace the basilica as a whole with a completely new building, but to instead find ways to combine old and new structures. Another opinion, one held by Christoph Frommel, argues that from the beginning of the work in 1506, a new centrally planned church was meant to replace the old basilica. Only later were these plans changed, over and over again, resulting in the enormous building that we know today. Yet a third opinion, one argued by Christof Thoenes, is that initially a centrally planned structure was to be combined with a longitudinal nave, together replacing the whole structure of the early Christian basilica. These three main theories all use the same sources, while emphasizing different elements. Written sources, for instance, don’t explicitly state that a completely new building was going to be constructed. Architectural drawings of successive architects may suggest something slightly different, while printed comments and descriptions may be found to support yet other interpretations.
  708.  
  709. Chronology
  710. Wolff-Metternich and Thoenes 1987 is very helpful as an introduction to the complicated early history of New St. Peter’s. Thoenes 2006 gives a treatment of Michelangelo’s work, since the phase of Michelangelo as an architect is a crucial period in the 16th-century history of the building.
  711.  
  712. Millon, Henry A., and Craig H. Smyth. “Michelangelo and St. Peter’s: Observations on the Interior of the Apses, a Model of the Apse Vault, and Related Drawings.” Römisches Jahrbuch für Kunstgeschichte 16 (1976): 137–206.
  713.  
  714. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  715.  
  716. A well-documented study in which drawings, models, and written sources are combined in a thorough and successful way. Also sheds light on the way successive (and often rivaling) architects used each other’s material. For an understanding of the realized architecture, and for the lighting of the western part, this article is very important.
  717.  
  718. Find this resource:
  719.  
  720.  
  721. Millon, Henry A., and Craig H. Smyth. “Pirro Ligorio, Michelangelo, and St. Peter.” In Pirro Ligorio: Artist and Antiquarian. Edited by Robert W. Gaston, 216–286. Milan: Silvana Editoriale, 1988.
  722.  
  723. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  724.  
  725. Studying the attic of the transept and choir, the authors deal with the later years of Michelangelo’s activity as chief architect of St. Peter’s, as well as his immediate successor, Pirro Ligorio.
  726.  
  727. Find this resource:
  728.  
  729.  
  730. Thoenes, Christof. “Madernos St. Peter-Entwürfe.” In An Architectural Progress in the Renaissance and Baroque: Sojourns In and Out of Italy. Edited by Henry A. Millon and Susan Scott Munshower, 170–193. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1992.
  731.  
  732. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  733.  
  734. How Maderno developed his project for the nave and aisles is studied here in light of an interesting paradox: the financial situation allowed him far greater freedom than any of his predecessors, but the existing parts of the new church posed serious limitations on the architect.
  735.  
  736. Find this resource:
  737.  
  738.  
  739. Thoenes, Christof. “Michelangelos St. Peter.” Römisches Jahrbuch der Bibliotheca Hertziana 37 (2006): 59–83.
  740.  
  741. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  742.  
  743. According to Thoenes, New St. Peter’s was initially planned as a centrally planned part combined with a longitudinal building. While this is an intelligent point of view, not all the relevant international publications have been acknowledged. Diminished funds after 1527 forced Michelangelo to think primarily about a centrally planned church. His insistence on such a creation is an important contribution, which cannot be well considered without discussing his cupola as well, as Thoenes’s essay shows. This is an important introduction to the history of the design and the construction of St. Peter’s in the 16th century.
  744.  
  745. Find this resource:
  746.  
  747.  
  748. Wolff-Metternich, Franz Graf, and Christof Thoenes. Die frühen St.-Peter-Entwürfe 1505–1514. Tübingen, Germany: Wasmuth, 1987.
  749.  
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751.  
  752. On the basis of the material of the late Wolff-Metternich, Thoenes provides a highly interesting and useful study. Clear analyses of various crucial drawings are gradually deepening the understanding of this complicated material.
  753.  
  754. Find this resource:
  755.  
  756.  
  757. Analysis
  758. Various aspects of the complicated story of New St. Peter’s have been studied by authors mentioned in this subsection. Bredekamp 2000 succeeds in treating the largest part of the 16th-century history of St. Peter’s, whereas Collins 2004, Fontana 2003, and McPhee 2002 treat later phases that are often given less attention.
  759.  
  760. Bredekamp, Horst. Sankt Peter in Rom und das Prinzip der produktiven Zerstörung: Bau und Abbau von Bramante bis Bernini. Berlin: Wegenbach, 2000.
  761.  
  762. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763.  
  764. Interesting study of the building of New St. Peter’s in the 16th century, approached with a fascinating theme. Successive new plans were preceded by demolition campaigns, as a result of which important parts of earlier plans of other architects often completely disappeared. Competition among architects was fought out in this way as well.
  765.  
  766. Find this resource:
  767.  
  768.  
  769. Collins, Jeffrey. Papacy and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Rome: Pius IV and the Arts. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
  770.  
  771. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  772.  
  773. A study of a long neglected period in the history of St. Peter’s, which includes the piazza in front of St. Peter’s as well as the sacristy. See chapter 3, pp. 87–131.
  774.  
  775. Find this resource:
  776.  
  777.  
  778. Fontana, Carlo. Il Tempio Vaticano 1694. Edited by Giovanna Curcio. Milan: Electa, 2003.
  779.  
  780. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  781.  
  782. A beautiful facsimile of the book dating from 1694, preceded by a voluminous set of interesting and good essays. The history of St. Peter’s is treated here to explain the points of view and opinions of Fontana.
  783.  
  784. Find this resource:
  785.  
  786.  
  787. McPhee, Sarah. Bernini and the Bell Towers: Architecture and Politics at the Vatican. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.
  788.  
  789. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  790.  
  791. The project of Bernini to add two bell towers to the façade of St. Peter’s eventually failed and led to a serious dent in his reputation. Plans, construction, rivalry among the architects, and the politics of it all are treated here in a fascinating account.
  792.  
  793. Find this resource:
  794.  
  795.  
  796. Construction History
  797. Apart from the chronology of the building, the wider influence of such a large-scale operation is studied by D’Amelio 2006.
  798.  
  799. D’Amelio, Maria Grazia. “Building Materials, Tools, and Machinery Belonging to the Reverenda Fabbrica di San Pietro, Used for Building Rome from the Late 16th to the Late 19th Century.” In Practice and Science in Early Modern Italian Building: Towards an Epistemic History of Architecture. Edited by Hermann Schlimme, 125–136. Milan: Electa, 2006.
  800.  
  801. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  802.  
  803. The long period of complicated building practices helped the development of a system of tools and machinery, which was necessary for well-planned construction projects elsewhere in Rome as well.
  804.  
  805. Find this resource:
  806.  
  807.  
  808. Art History
  809. The publications listed in this section don’t consider architecture as the primary issue but instead address the interior decoration, such as mural painting and sculpture in various forms. Paintings and painted decoration are treated by Rice 1998, while sculptures are the focus of Bredekamp and Reinhardt 2004 and Fehl 2007.
  810.  
  811. Bredekamp, Horst, and Volker Reinhardt. Totenkult und Wille zur Macht: Die unruhigen Ruhestätten der Päpste in St. Peter. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2004.
  812.  
  813. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  814.  
  815. In spite of the title, not all the monuments treated in this book are in St. Peter’s. Political and ideological contexts are studied in a fascinating way in order to reconstruct the aims and goals with which these monuments were undertaken. For tombs in other churches (not St. Peter’s), see pp. 99–178.
  816.  
  817. Find this resource:
  818.  
  819.  
  820. Fehl, Philipp. Monuments and the Art of Mourning: The Tombs of Popes and Princes in St. Peter’s. Edited by Richard Bösel and Raina Fehl. Rome: Unione Internazionale degli Istituti di Archeologia Storia e Storia dell’Arte in Roma, 2007.
  821.  
  822. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  823.  
  824. Originating from a series of lectures, this book presents a study of the tombs in St. Peter’s that are important visually and spatially. Tombs ranging from the Middle Ages to the 20th century are studied.
  825.  
  826. Find this resource:
  827.  
  828.  
  829. Rice, Louise. The Altars and Altarpieces of New St. Peter’s: Outfitting the Basilica, 1621–1666. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  830.  
  831. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  832.  
  833. After the completion of the New St. Peter’s, the immense space had to be filled with altars and altarpieces. The altars and their dedications themselves constituted a remembrance of the old basilica. New altarpieces and the decorations of the surrounding area in the building were important in the liturgical and artistic program.
  834.  
  835. Find this resource:
  836.  
  837.  
  838. Collections of Articles and Conference Proceedings
  839. Thoenes and Ackerman 1998, and Thoenes 2002 contain interesting and important contributions to the literature on New St. Peter’s. Hall 2005, an edited volume, does not focus exclusively on St. Peter’s, while Satzinger and Schütze 2008, also an edited volume, is the most recent work with articles on St. Peter’s.
  840.  
  841. Bruschi, Arnaldo, Christoph Luitpold Frommel, Franz Graf Wolff-Metternich, and Christof Thoenes. San Pietro che non c’è da Bramante a Sangallo il Giovane. Milan: Electa, 1996.
  842.  
  843. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  844.  
  845. A collection of important essays on New St. Peter’s. Most have been published previously, but together they make up a very interesting and useful book. Architectural drawings in various collections are extensively discussed in order to understand the successive ideas and projects for St. Peter’s from the first half of the 16th century.
  846.  
  847. Find this resource:
  848.  
  849.  
  850. Hall, Marcia B., ed. Rome. Artistic Centers of the Renaissance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  851.  
  852. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  853.  
  854. A well-written and useful introduction to the history of the art and architecture of Rome in the Renaissance. In several articles, plans for New St. Peter’s are treated, starting with Bramante, preceded by a passage about Michelangelo’s tomb for Julius II. See pp. 116–119, 191–194.
  855.  
  856. Find this resource:
  857.  
  858.  
  859. Satzinger, Georg, and Sebastian Schütze, eds. St. Peter in Rom 1506–2006: Akten der internationalen Tagung vom 22–25.2.2006 in Bonn. Munich: Hirmer, 2008.
  860.  
  861. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  862.  
  863. An important collection of essays on a variety of themes connected with the history of New St. Peter’s. In particular, see Niebaum’s essay about the planning of the project in the first period (1506–1513) and Satzinger’s about the question of a centrally planned church as compared with a longitudinal building. Other interesting essays in this collection look at the ritual of laying the foundation stone for the new church, the role of Bernini as architect in the 17th century, and 18th-century papal tombs, among other topics. As for the building history, however, not all the relevant international contributions are done justice in this volume.
  864.  
  865. Find this resource:
  866.  
  867.  
  868. Thoenes, Christof, and James Ackerman. Sostegno e adornamento: Saggi sull’architettura del Rinascimento; disegni, ordini, magnificenza. Milan: Electa, 1998.
  869.  
  870. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  871.  
  872. A collection of essays in Italian, several of which are about New St. Peter’s. An original and clear treatment of important problems and questions that are very helpful for the advanced student.
  873.  
  874. Find this resource:
  875.  
  876.  
  877. Thoenes, Christof. Opus incertum: Italienische Studien aus drei Jahrzehnten. Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2002.
  878.  
  879. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  880.  
  881. Contains a number of important essays by Thoenes, who is one of the foremost scholars of New St. Peter’s. Several very important articles are reprinted here in German, augmented by valuable postcripts by the author; see, in particular, pp. 245–275, 381–417, 418–430, 455–470, 471–487.
  882.  
  883. Find this resource:
  884.  
  885.  
  886. Exhibition Catalogues
  887. At a number of exhibitions, various important objects have been presented, such as architectural drawings. Several of these catalogues have become widely used reference works in their own right, of which Millon and Magnano Lampugnani 1994 is important, as well as the more recent Barock im Vatikan (Seeman 2005). Frommel 1984 is a valuable monograph.
  888.  
  889. Seeman, E. A., ed. Barock im Vatikan: Kunst und Kultur im Rom der Päpste 1572–1676. Bonn, Germany: Seemann Henschel, 2005.
  890.  
  891. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  892.  
  893. The exhibition catalogue for an exhibition at the Kunst-und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, which ran from November 2005 to March 2006. The chosen period notwithstanding, the history of planning and designing New St. Peter’s from the early 16th century is extensively treated. Interestingly, the interior decoration of New St. Peter’s is treated equally extensively. The successive construction phases are well defined, although perhaps greater certainty might be suggested than can actually be obtained. Very good figures of many drawings provide a starting point to this complicated history. The whole first section of the catalogue is devoted to St. Peter’s (pp. 45–172).
  894.  
  895. Find this resource:
  896.  
  897.  
  898. Frommel, Christoph Luitpold. “San Pietro: Storia della sua costruzione.” In Raffaello architetto. Edited by Christoph Luitpold Frommel, Stefano Ray, and Manfredo Tafuri, 241–309. Rome: Electa, 1984.
  899.  
  900. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  901.  
  902. Starting from the 15th-century foundation of the unfinished choir of Nicolas V, Frommel first discusses plans by Bramante, which were left equally unfinished when Raphael was in charge after Bramante’s death. Important material is presented here, both in Frommel’s essay and in this exhibition catalogue as a whole.
  903.  
  904. Find this resource:
  905.  
  906.  
  907. Kruse, Petra, ed. Hochrenaissance im Vatikan 1503–1534: Kunst und Kultur im Rom der Päpste I. Bonn, Germany: Hatje Cantz Verlag, 1999.
  908.  
  909. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  910.  
  911. The exhibition catalogue for a 1998 exhibit at the Kunst-und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, which also showed at the Vatikanische Museen and the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana. Surprisingly little attention is paid to the plans for New St. Peter’s (limited to several catalogue entries), but the main focus of this exhibition was devoted to the Vatican and related aspects, instead of St. Peter’s.
  912.  
  913. Find this resource:
  914.  
  915.  
  916. Millon, Henry A., and Craig Hugh Smyth. Michelangelo Architetto: La facciata di San Lorenzo e la cupola di San Pietro. Milan: Olivetti, 1988.
  917.  
  918. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  919.  
  920. Catalogue of an exhibition held at the Casa Buonarroti, and organized in collaboration with the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, and Ente Casa Buonarroti. Different kinds of drawings—views as well as designs—are treated in this study of the way Michelangelo went about creating his cupola and the architecture of the choir and transept. The authors have advanced the study of these crucial elements of New St. Peter’s greatly, in this and other studies.
  921.  
  922. Find this resource:
  923.  
  924.  
  925. Millon, Henry, and Vittorio Magnano Lampugnani, eds. Rinascimento da Brunelleschi a Michelangelo: La rappresentazione dell’architettura. Milan: Bompiani, 1994.
  926.  
  927. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  928.  
  929. An important catalogue, with very interesting essays and catalogue entries. St. Peter’s is mentioned in several of the essays, and one essay is devoted to the history of New St. Peter’s. Millon’s essay on models is useful (pp. 19–73). Many important drawings were shown at the exhibition, which ran from March through November 1994, and these are described in the catalogue entries. On St. Peter’s specifically, see pp. 399–423. Also published in English.
  930.  
  931. Find this resource:
  932.  
  933.  
  934. Mussolin, Mauro, ed. Michelangelo: Architetto a Roma. Milan: Silvana Editorial, 2009.
  935.  
  936. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  937.  
  938. Catalogue of an exhibition held at the Musei capitolini, Rome, 6 October 2009–7 February 2010. See the introduction by Thoenes on Michelangelo and architecture (pp. 25–37). Other contributions discuss the way Michelangelo directed and managed the difficult process, as well as the cupola (see pp. 170–179, 180–199).
  939.  
  940. Find this resource:
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