API tools faq
paste
Advertisement
jonstond2

Jihad

jonstond2
Dec 14th, 2015
2,100
0
Never
Add comment
Not a member of Pastebin yet? Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!
text 70.94 KB | None | 0 0
raw download clone embed print report diff
  1. Introduction
  2. The Arabic term jihad is properly defined as “struggle” or “striving” and is generally described as taking place at two levels: the inner (or greater) and the outer (or lesser). According to the hadith (records of the sayings and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad), inner jihad is the struggle within oneself to avoid sinful behavior and live according to the principles of the Qurʾan, Sunna (example of the Prophet Muhammad), and Sharia (Islamic law). Outer jihad, on the other hand, refers to the defense of the Muslim community under attack. This can be a “soft defense,” such as through verbal or written debate or persuasion (jihad of the tongue, or jihad of the pen), or “hard defense” (also known as “jihad of the sword”), such as through physical or military defense of a community.
  3. Inner, or Greater, Jihad
  4. Discussions of inner jihad tend to focus either on personal piety and righteous living or on community service, such as in Ghandour 2002. The idea is that an inward focus on personal adherence to Islam’s teachings is played out in the public sphere through the application of an individual’s ethics and standards, as expressed in interactions with the family, community, and nation. A Sunni perspective on this aspect is presented in Esack 1997. Shiʿi interpretations, such as Shah-Kazemi 2006, also focus on jihad as an internal struggle for knowledge and betterment of the soul. In many cases, for both Sunnis and Shiis, such inner jihad is presented as being at odds with the often militant approach to outer jihad, or it may incorporate the concept of physical struggle with overcoming injustice, although not necessarily according to violent means, such as by engaging in civil disobedience, as discussed in Easwaran 1999 and Geoffroy 2003. Lakhani 2006 presents a Shiʿi discussion of the struggle between spiritual and military expressions of jihad. Inner jihad can also be a means of struggling against gender apartheid, as discussed in Wadud 2006, or of struggling for political and economic justice, as discussed in Ramadan 2002.
  5. Easwaran, Eknath. Nonviolent Soldier of Islam: Badshah Khan, A Man to Match His Mountains. 2d ed. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press, 1999.
  6. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  7. The biography of a Pathan Muslim ally to Mahatma Gandhi, this book provides an alternative to the Taliban by focusing on an interpretation of the Islamic tradition native to Pakistan that emphasizes nonviolence.
  8. Find this resource:
  9. Esack, Farid. Qurʾān, Liberation and Pluralism: An Islamic Perspective of Interreligious Solidarity Against Oppression. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1997.
  10. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. Written by a South African anti-apartheid Muslim activist, this work focuses on jihad as a call to social activism for social and gender justice and religious pluralism.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Geoffroy, Eric. Jihad et Contemplation: Vie et enseignement d’un soufi au temps des croisades. Paris: Editions Albouraq, 2003.
  14. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. A presentation of the life and teachings of Sheikh Arslan, the 12th-century patron saint of Damascus, with a particular focus on his treatise on the meaning of tawhid as the greater jihad of holy struggle leading to personal sanctity. Written during the time of the Crusades, his call for inner struggle, rather than outer warfare, is particularly important in considering the potential for jihad to bring an end to violence.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Ghandour, Abdel-Rahman. Jihad humanitaire: Enquete sur les ONG islamiques. Paris: Flammarion, 2002.
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19. Written by a member of Doctors without Borders (Médecins sans Frontières), this work analyzes the work of Islamic NGOs in places where states have failed to engage in humanitarian jihad. He identifies the common denominators of these NGOs as: exclusive reference to Islam, powerful social legitimacy, at times ambiguous ties to radical jihadist organizations, and competition or conflict with Western NGOs in carrying out humanitarian work.
  20. Find this resource:
  21. Lakhani, M. Ali, ed. The Sacred Foundations of Justice in Islam: The Teachings of ʿAli ibn Abi Talib. Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, 2006.
  22. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  23. Presents Ali’s personal conflict between spiritual struggle and military warfare, both of which are encompassed within the concept of jihad.
  24. Find this resource:
  25. Ramadan, Tariq. Jihad, violence, guerre et paix en Islam. Paris: Tawhid, 2002.
  26. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27. Written by Europe’s most prominent Muslim voice, this work focuses on the spiritual and dynamic meaning of jihad, rather than militancy, and calls for jihad as a mobilization for economic and political justice.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Shah-Kazemi, Reza. Justice and Remembrance: Introducing the Spirituality of Imam ʿAli. London: I.B. Tauris, 2006.
  30. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  31. Presents a Shiʿi interpretation of jihad focusing on justice and the struggle for knowledge and the betterment of the soul.
  32. Find this resource:
  33. Wadud, Amina. Inside the Gender Jihad: Women’s Reform in Islam. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2006.
  34. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35. Written by a prominent female African-American activist and convert to Islam, this book examines the story of the struggle for gender justice within Islam.
  36. Find this resource:
  37. Outer, or Lesser, Jihad
  38. In general, greater scholarly and legal attention has been given to the conduct of outer jihad because of its implications for relationships between communities and nations. Legal and religious literature, as analyzed in Cook 2000, Cook 2005, and Esposito and DeLong-Bas 2003, has tended to focus on practical application of lesser jihad, such as when and where jihad as military action becomes appropriate, who is to undertake it and how, and what scope of military activity is permitted. Attention has also been given to defining who can and cannot not be attacked in jihad, limitations on killing and destruction, and the rights of both civilians and prisoners of war, as detailed by Firestone 1999. Reference is always made to the Prophet Muhammad’s example as recorded in the hadith literature, although interpretations of this literature vary. Ramadan 2007 gives the most attention to the Prophet’s example, while Bonney 2004 takes a broader historical approach.
  39. Bonney, Richard. Jihād: From Qurʾān to bin Laden. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
  40. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  41. A comprehensive historical analysis of the text and meanings, contextual theories, and ideological interpretations of jihad, including Sunni, Shiʿi, and Sufi interpretations. Encyclopedic in detail, this volume reflects a multiplicity of interpretations with sensitivity to time period, geographical location, and political need.
  42. Find this resource:
  43. Cook, David. Understanding Jihad. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
  44. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  45. A comprehensive account of the historical development of the concept of jihad, both greater and lesser, that nevertheless focuses on the lesser jihad of military activity. Includes some contemporary translated primary documents.
  46. Find this resource:
  47. Cook, Michael. Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  48. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  49. An encyclopedic work that examines the concept of commanding right and forbidding wrong through the major Sunni and Shiʿi law schools and across history, in which jihad as holy war is only one response out of many potential responses to the existence of immorality, either in society or on the part of the government.
  50. Find this resource:
  51. Esposito, John L. with Natana J. DeLong-Bas. “Classical Islam” and “Modern Islam.” In God’s Rule: The Politics of World Religions. Edited by Jacob Neusner. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003.
  52. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  53. These two essays trace the development of Islamic political thought, including the concept of jihad, from the lifetime of Muhammad through the present.
  54. Find this resource:
  55. Firestone, Reuven. Jihād: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  56. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  57. The first and most comprehensive account of the development of the concept of jihad, from pre-Islamic times through the revelation and interpretation of the Qurʾan and hadith. Outlines the interpretational development of the “Sword Verses.”
  58. Find this resource:
  59. Ramadan, Tariq. In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
  60. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  61. Written by one of the most influential European Muslims, this work reexamines the life of the Prophet Muhammad in a quest for lessons for contemporary Muslims, tying jihad to the search for peace and personal transformation.
  62. Find this resource:
  63. Bibliographies
  64. Some important online bibliographic sources include Oxford Islamic Studies Online, which is available through subscription. There are a number of online organizations tracking jihadist messages and providing English translations, including the Mansfield Report and SITE Intelligence Group Monitoring Service. The Jamestown Foundation and the RAND Corporation provide current analyses of various terrorist trends, not limited to jihadism. The Middle East Media Research Institutealso posts translated texts and videos, but does not always provide the full text, raising questions about selectivity of material presented and making comprehensive scholarly analysis difficult.
  65. The Jamestown Foundation
  66. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  67. Provides analyses of recently released jihadi statements and related phenomena.
  68. Find this resource:
  69. Mansfield Report
  70. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  71. Provides English translations of recently released jihadi statements and materials, including an archive of statements by Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. MEMRI: The Middle East Media Research Institute
  74. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75. Posts selective translations of jihadi texts and videos.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
  78. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  79. Oxford University Press’s online encyclopedia and resource service provides information ranging from Qurʾan and hadith texts to encyclopedia articles and focus articles, aided by a search engine.
  80. Find this resource:
  81. The RAND Corporation.
  82. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  83. A think tank that provides analyses of a variety of political movements globally, including jihadism and terrorist organizations.
  84. Find this resource:
  85. SITE Intelligence Group Monitoring Service.
  86. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  87. Provides English translations of recently released jihadi statements and materials, though often with the most intense translated meanings.
  88. Find this resource:
  89. At-Tibyan Publications.
  90. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  91. Provides English translations of major writings and statements by Arabic-speaking jihadi ideologues, including recent releases by Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Textbooks
  94. Works that are particularly suited for introductory-level college coursework and present a broad overview of important concepts related to jihad, both historically and globally, include Bonner 2006,Firestone 1999, and Voll 1994. Cook 2007 provides a historical approach to the concept of martyrdom within Islam.
  95. Bonner, Michael. Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006.
  96. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  97. A comprehensive introductory text covering the pre-Islamic era and the revelation of the Qurʾan through the Prophet’s lifetime, the eras of conquests and empires, and the colonial era, demonstrating how interpretations of jihad have changed according to surrounding contexts.
  98. Find this resource:
  99. Cook, David. Martyrdom in Islam. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  100. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  101. A broad overview of martyrdom as a religious concept, including its development within the Islamic tradition, covering Sunni, Shiʿi, and Sufis martyrs of both war and love, as well as the new interpretation of “self-designated martyrdom” represented by suicide bombers in the contemporary era.
  102. Find this resource:
  103. Firestone, Reuven. Jihād: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  104. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  105. The first and most comprehensive account of the development of the concept of jihad, from pre-Islamic times through the revelation and interpretation of the Qurʾan and the hadith. Outlines the interpretational development of the “Sword Verses.”
  106. Find this resource:
  107. Voll, John Obert. Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World. 2d ed. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994.
  108. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  109. An outstanding historical presentation of various developments in Islamic interpretation from the 18th through the 20th centuries, placing jihadist movements within their historical contexts.
  110. Find this resource:
  111. English Translations
  112. A proliferation of English translations of jihadi texts are available online, some translated by scholars and others translated by the jihadis themselves as part of media outreach programs. Care should always be taken to contextualize the translator, however, as there may be tendencies to exaggerate the power of the original language, delete unfavorable portions of the texts, or fail to grasp the full intent of the original text because of a lack of background in Islamic studies and history.
  113. HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS AND TREATISES
  114. Background texts for understanding contemporary developments in Islam, ranging from economic theory to jihadism, can be found in Donohue and Esposito 2006. Historical documents related to jihad and martyrdom are presented in Abedi and Legenhausen 1986. Peters 2005 provides historical coverage of jihad for both the classical and modern periods. Ibn Taymiyya 2005 includes a translation of a treatise by the medieval scholar Ibn Taymiyya, which is particularly important in understanding the rise of contemporary jihadism. Al-Buti 1995 provides a contemporary discussion of jihad that is not affiliated with any jihadist movement. Comprehensive coverage of Ayatollah Khomeini’s writings can be found in Khomeini 1981.
  115. Abedi, Mehdi", and Gary Legenhausen, eds and trans. Jihād and Shahādat: Struggle and Martyrdom in Islam. Houston, TX: Institute for Research and Islamic Studies, 1986.
  116. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  117. A collection of texts examining the relationship between these two concepts throughout Islamic history.
  118. Find this resource:
  119. Buti, Muhammad Saʿid R. al-Jihad in Islam: How to Understand and Practise It. Damascus: Dar al-Fikr, 1995.
  120. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  121. An interesting contemporary example of a primary text not linked to any jihadist movement, this work differentiates between jihad and daʿwah (missionary work) and reviews classical restrictions on jihad. It concludes with prescriptive action for Palestine.
  122. Find this resource:
  123. Donohue, John J., and John L. Esposito, eds. Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspectives. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  124. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  125. A compilation of primary texts on a variety of topics, including democracy, the clash and dialogue of civilizations, jihad, and identity. The selections on jihad include the perspectives of those justifying terrorism and those denouncing it.
  126. Find this resource:
  127. Ibn Taymiyya. Mardin: Hégire, fuite du péché et “demeure de l’Islam.” Edited and translated by Yahya Michot. Paris: Editions Albouraq, 2005.
  128. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  129. A French translation of Ibn Taymiyya’s treatise on Mardin, examining the role of hijra/emigration as a Muslim obligation. This treatise is particularly important in understanding the rise of jihadist ideology because of Abdullah al-Azzam’s reinterpretation of it, as well as its prominence among Saudi dissidents, including Muhammad al-Masʿari and ʿAbd al-ʿAziz al-Jarbuʿ.
  130. Find this resource:
  131. Khomeini, Ruhollah. Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini. Translated by Hamid Algar. Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press, 1981.
  132. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  133. A translated collected of major writings of Ayatollah Khomeini, including his religious argumentation for rule of the jurist (vilayat-i faqih).
  134. Find this resource:
  135. Peters, Rudolph. Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader. Expanded ed. Princeton: Markus Wiener, 2005.
  136. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  137. A collection of primary sources on jihad, dating from the hadith through classical and medieval interpretations to contemporary materials. Includes an introductory essay explaining the various interpretations of the concept historically.
  138. Find this resource:
  139. CONTEMPORARY JIHADI TREATISES AND STATEMENTS
  140. One of the most pivotal ideological inspirations for contemporary jihadism has been Sayyid Qutb’sMilestones, Qutb 1988, first published in 1964. Lawrence 2005 covers the statements of Osama bin Laden through 2004. Mansfield 2006 offers a collection of statements and videos by Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri. A translation of Abu Musab al-Suri’s Islamic Jihad Manifesto can be found in Lacey 2008.
  141. Lacey, Jim, ed. A Terrorist’s Call to Global Jihad: Deciphering Abu Musab al-Suri’s Islamic Jihad Manifesto. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2008.
  142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. An edited translation of the most important work by al-Qaeda’s most important ideologue, often referred to as the “Mein Kampf” of al-Qaeda.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Lawrence, Bruce, ed. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden. Translated by James Howarth. London: Verso, 2005.
  146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147. Compilation of translated and minimally annotated statements by Osama bin Laden from 1994 to 2004.
  148. Find this resource:
  149. Mansfield, Laura, ed. and trans. His Own Words: A Translation of the Writings of Dr. Ayman al Zawahiri. Old Tappan, NJ: TLG Publications, 2006.
  150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151. A translated collection of video statements and primary source documents written by Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri.
  152. Find this resource:
  153. Qutb, Sayyid. Milestones. 2d ed. Karachi, Paksitan: International Islamic Publishers, 1988.
  154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. The seminal foundational work of jihadist ideology, first published in 1964, calling for unending global jihad in participation in the cosmic conflict between good and evil. This book presents Islam as a revolution and true civilization, outlining the distinctive characteristics of jihad and when jihad with the sword is permitted.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Films
  158. Several documentaries have been produced since 9/11, seeking to understand who joins jihadist movements and why (Shah 2004), as well as analyzing the major jihadi figures (Cran 2007).
  159. Cran, William. Jihad: The Men and Ideas Behind Al Qaeda. America at a Crossroads, DVD. Washington, DC: PBS Video, 2007.
  160. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  161. An in-depth look at the three main leaders of al-Qaeda at that time: Osama bin Ladin, Ayman al-Zawahiri, and Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. The documentary traces the roots of al-Qaeda, including the Muslim Brotherhood in the 1940s and the radicalization of Sayyid Qutb.
  162. Find this resource:
  163. Shah, Saira. Death in Gaza. DVD. Directed by James Miller. HBO Films, 2004.
  164. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  165. A documentary filmed in Gaza that examines the surrounding context and motivations of those who join Hamas, particularly children.
  166. Find this resource:
  167. Jihad in History
  168. Although jihad as a military activity had come to Western attention during moments of political crisis—such as during the early Islamic conquests, the Crusades, and ongoing conflicts with the Ottoman Empire—jihad began to receive systematic scholarly attention during the 18th and 19th centuries as various resistance movements to colonialism arose in Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. Historical studies of these time periods are particularly helpful for contextualizing the assertions of some writers post-9/11 that there are only peace-loving Sufis and warmongering jihadis within the Islamic tradition. Indeed, Burke and Lapidus 1988 shows that in the 19th century some Sufis had leadership positions in the jihad movements against the European colonial overlords, demonstrating the capacity for Sufism to work in accordance with jihadism, rather than to be in opposition to it.Furnish 2005, meanwhile, brings attention to the historical expectation of some of the return of the Mahdi to bring about the End Times as related to jihad. Voll 1994 provides the broadest and most comprehensive historical overview, while Clancy-Smith 1994, Hiskett 1994, and Allen 2006 focus on specific leaders and movements. Legal studies of Islamic paradigms for addressing threats and dissent through jihad and international law are presented in Salmi, et al. 1998.
  169. Allen, Charles. God’s Terrorists: The Wahhabi Cult and the Hidden Roots of Modern Jihad. London: Little, Brown, 2006.
  170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  171. Attributes the contemporary phenomenon of jihadism to the 18th-century Wahhabi movement, particularly as it was purportedly transferred to India in the 19th century. Although the conflation of Deobandism with Wahhabism is inaccurate, this work does provide important information about the rise of jihadism in British colonial India.
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Burke, Edmund, III, and Ira M. Lapidus, eds. Islam, Politics, and Social Movements. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
  174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175. Includes a series of scholarly essays on 19th-century anticolonial resistance and millenarianism in North Africa and the Sudan and on the Iranian Revolution.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Clancy-Smith, Julia A. Rebel and Saint: Muslim Notables, Populist Protest, Colonial Encounters (Algeria and Tunisia, 1800–1904). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. Discusses the role of Sufis, both male and female, in resisting the European colonial regimes.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Furnish, Timothy R. Holiest Wars: Islamic Mahdis, Their Jihads, and Osama bin Laden. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005.
  182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. An analysis of interpretations of the Mahdi throughout Islamic history, focusing on the rise of the Mahdi in the contemporary era and what this has meant to jihadis.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Hiskett, Mervyn. The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of the Shehu Usuman dan Fodio. 2d ed. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1994.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Biographical and historical account of one of the most successful jihad movements in late 18th- and 19th-century Nigeria that was also based on the Sufi tradition.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Salmi, Ralph H., Cesar Adib Majul, and George K. Tanham. Islam and Conflict Resolution: Theories and Practices. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1998.
  190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. Outlines a variety of causes for religious activism and dissent and explains the Islamic paradigms for dealing with threats, dissent, and disintegration in the Prophetic, Classical and Medieval eras, setting the stage for interpretations of jihad as conflict and siyar (international Islamic law).
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Voll, John Obert. Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World. 2d ed. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994.
  194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. An outstanding and comprehensive historical presentation of various developments in Islamic interpretation from the 18th through the 20th centuries, placing jihadist movements within their historical contexts.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Contemporary Developments in Jihad
  198. In the 20th and 21st centuries, scholars have tended to focus on the relationship between the politicization of Islam and the Islamization of politics, and on the role of jihad within Islam and politics. Scholarship tends to be broken into four main time periods: events up until 1979; 1979–1989; 1990–2001; and the post-9/11 period.
  199. PRECURSORS TO AND THE MAJOR EVENTS OF 1979
  200. These events include the Shiʿi Islamic Revolution in Iran, the seizure of the Grand Mosque by Sunni militants in Mecca, and the Shiʿi uprising in the Eastern Province in Saudi Arabia. All of these events are discussed from a political perspective by Esposito 1998. Abrahamian 1993, Milani 1994, andMoallem 2005 address the Iranian Revolution and its impact. Hegghammer and Lacroix 2007 andTrofimov 2007 provide detailed coverage of the events and ideological developments leading up to the seizure of the Grand Mosque and the Shiʿi uprising in the Eastern Province. This period also includes the radicalization of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood at the hands of the state, as discussed by Jansen 1986, Kenney 2006, and Moussalli 1992.
  201. Abrahamian, Ervand. Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
  202. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203. An analysis of the transformation of rhetoric in revolutionary thought in Iran, highlighting the continuity of populism and socialism in religious ideology.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Esposito, John L. Islam and Politics. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. Provides case studies of a variety of political movements globally, including those based on jihad and those based on other political ideologies.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Hegghammer, Thomas, and Stephane Lacroix. “Rejectionist Islamism in Saudi Arabia: The Story of Juhayman al-ʿUtaybi Revisited.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 39, no. 1 (2007): 103–122.
  210. DOI: 10.1017/S0020743807002553Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. The most detailed account of the origins and influences of the leader of the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque that is considered to be the precursor to al-Qaeda.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Jansen, Johannes J. G. The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat’s Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East. New York: Macmillan, 1986.
  214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. One of the earliest examinations of the rise of contemporary jihadism through the lens of Muhammad ʿAbd al-Salam Faraj, the ideologue of the assassination of Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Kenney, Jeffrey T. Muslim Rebels: Kharijites and the Politics of Extremism in Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. An analysis of the historical group known as the Kharijites, including how this term has been invoked in the government’s struggle against both the Muslim Brotherhood and the extremists in Egypt.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Milani, Mohsen M. The Making of Iran’s Islamic Revolution: From Monarchy to Islamic Republic. 2d ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994.
  222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. Broad-ranging analysis of the circumstances leading up to the Islamic Revolution, examining its domestic, regional, and international impact.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Moallem, Minoo. Between Warrior Brother and Veiled Sister: Islamic Fundamentalism and the Politics of Patriarchy in Iran. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Examines the Islamic Revolution as both a religious and a nationalist phenomenon, incorporating changing understandings of gender roles as reflections of the revolutionary and religious ideology.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Moussalli, Ahmad S. Radical Islamic Fundamentalism: The Ideology and Political Discourse of Sayyid Qutb. Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1992.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. An analysis of the writings of the major ideologue of global jihad, Sayyid Qutb, demonstrating the radicalization that resulted from his imprisonment, torture, and execution in 1966.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Trofimov, Yaroslav. The Siege of Mecca: The Forgotten Uprising in Islam’s Holiest Shrine and the Birth of Al Qaeda. New York: Doubleday, 2007.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. The most comprehensive account of the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque and the events and ideas leading up to it, as well as the ongoing significance of the ideology in the creation of the global jihadist ideology of al-Qaeda.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. MAJOR EVENTS OF 1979–1989
  238. The events of this period include the 1979–1989 conflict in Afghanistan between the mujahideen and the Communist Soviet Union, which ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union; the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq war; the rise of Shiʿi activism in Lebanon, including the foundation of the Amal movement and Hezbollah (as discussed in Saad-Ghorayeb 2002); the assassination of Egyptian president Anwar al-Sadat by jihadist militants; and the foundation of Hamas, as addressed in Hroub 2000. Comprehensive historical coverage of the rise of jihadism is presented in Kepel 2000, while Burke 2003 provides a history of the rise of al-Qaeda as an ideology, rather than an organization.
  239. Burke, Jason. Al-Qaeda: Casting a Shadow of Terror. London: I.B. Tauris, 2003.
  240. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241. One of the earliest histories of al-Qaeda to challenge the practice of lumping together Islamic militant groups, which he believes demonstrates a failure to recognize their differing agendas and objectives.
  242. Find this resource:
  243. Hroub, Khaled. Hamas: Political Thought and Practice. Washington, DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 2000.
  244. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  245. The definitive account of the rise and development of the political theories and practices of Hamas, written with the help of Hamas’s own documents, many of which are included in translation.
  246. Find this resource:
  247. Kepel, Gilles. Jihad: Expansion et declin de l’islamisme. Paris: Gallimard, 2000.
  248. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  249. A comprehensive analysis of political trends in Islam, including the rise of jihadism in the post-Islamist era.
  250. Find this resource:
  251. Saad-Ghorayeb, Amal. Hizbuʾllah: Politics and Religion. London: Pluto Press, 2002.
  252. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  253. A comprehensive study of the political and religious ideology of Hezbollah, based largely on interviews with members. Emphasizes jihad as a defense of Lebanese sovereignty due to the ongoing conflict with Israel.
  254. Find this resource:
  255. MAJOR EVENTS OF 1990–2001
  256. This time period witnessed a rise of religiously expressed political dissidence, particularly in opposition to the state, and often to the West, a phenomenon described as the “clash of civilizations” in Huntingdon 1996. As described in Rashid 2000, the major story of this period was the consequences of the Soviet-Afghan conflict. Of particular note was the breakdown of the previously symbiotic relationship between the Saudi religious establishment and state that had been built upon support for the jihad in Afghanistan. This relationship was put under pressure by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and the subsequent invitation to American troops to protect Saudi Arabia and liberate Kuwait. A rise in political dissent in the Kingdom ultimately resulted in certain groups turning to violence and calls for overthrowing the state, most notably by Osama bin Laden, as discussed inFandy 1999. At the same time, there were calls for a “dialogue of civilizations” by Iranian president Mohammad Khatami and Malaysian deputy prime minister Anwar Ibrahim, both of whom represented political Islam in power. The ultimate failure of those in power to remain there or to enact effective change led some scholars to declare the ultimate failure of political Islamism, opening the door for the rise of jihadism in an attempt to achieve by force what had not been definitively gained by working through the system—a theory posited in Barber 1995 and challenged by Esposito 1995 and Burgat and Dowell 1997.
  257. Barber, Benjamin R. Jihad vs. McWorld: How Globalism and Tribalism are Reshaping the World. New York: Times Books, 1995.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Building on Samuel Huntingdon’s Clash of Civilizations, this widely discussed book posited a vision of a bipolar world in which regressive ethnic, religious, and racial hatreds are responsible for fragmenting the homogenized consumer unity brought about by globalization. This portrayal ties jihad to backwardness and retrogression, relegating the jihadist phenomenon to the socioeconomic paradigm of assuming that the poor and marginalized are the most susceptible to jihadist influences, thereby ignoring the other complex forces at play.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Burgat, Francois and William Dowell. The Islamic Movement in North Africa. 2d ed. Austin: Center for Middle Eastern Studies, University of Texas, 1997.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. An early work tracing the impact and mutation of political Islamism in the North African context and identifying major players in the Islamist movement for the 21st century.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Esposito, John L. The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. This pivotal work focuses on an important scholarly debate between those who view political Islam as a threat that needs to be contained and those who argue for a more nuanced understanding of Islam that acknowledges the variety of experiences in applying Islam in the public sphere. It touches on jihadism as one trend of thought within contemporary Islam, marking its importance in the political domain.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Fandy, Mamoun. Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. The first comprehensive analysis of major voices of dissent within Saudi Arabia. Places Osama bin Laden both within his Saudi context and as one of many voices and paths of dissent who initially called for reform but ultimately turned to the path of jihad.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Huntingdon, Samuel. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. A controversial work asserting the inherent conflict between Islam and modernity and placing the West and the Muslim world on an inevitable collision course.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. An analysis of the rise of the Taliban in the aftermath of the collapse of the Soviet Union and the repeated failures of the Afghan state to provide security for its citizens. This work pointed to the proliferation of terrorist training camps and activities in Afghanistan before 9/11.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. THE POST-9/11 PERIOD
  282. The period after September 11, 2001, saw a proliferation of writings that tended either to assert a global Islamic threat, marking a return to the “clash of civilizations” theory, or to state, as did Abou El Fadl 2005, Malik 2008, and Wolfe 2002, that the jihadis did not speak for Muslims in general, leading many Muslims to take a more activist stance in making their voices heard in opposition to the jihadis. In some cases, Muslim scholars sought to reclaim the territory claimed by the jihadis by asserting the important Islamic historical and legal traditions of nonviolence, as exemplified by Said, et al. 2001.
  283. Abou El Fadl, Khaled. The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005.
  284. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  285. Written by an Islamic legal scholar as a critique of Islamic extremism in general, this work argues for a more nuanced interpretation of history that gives greater attention to the alternatives of peace and treaty relationships to jihad as the best means for dealing with the “Other.”
  286. Find this resource:
  287. Malik, Aftab Ahmad, ed. The State We Are In: Identity, Terror and the Law of Jihad. Expanded ed. Bristol, UK: Amal Press, 2008.
  288. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  289. A compilation of essays written by Muslims in the aftermath of the London bombings in order to clarify and correct understandings of the concept of jihad for both Westerners and Muslims, particularly through a denunciation of indiscriminate killing and violence against civilians.
  290. Find this resource:
  291. Said, Abdul Aziz, Nathan C. Funk, and Ayse S. Kadayifci, eds. Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam: Precept and Practice. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2001.
  292. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  293. This collection of essays by scholars and activists includes discussions of various methods of achieving peace, ranging from jihad as a coercive method to the inner jihad that focuses on nonviolence and community service.
  294. Find this resource:
  295. Wolfe, Michael, and the producers of Beliefnet, eds. Taking Back Islam: American Muslims Reclaim Their Faith. Emmaus, PA: Rodale, 2002.
  296. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  297. A compilation of essays written in the aftermath of 9/11, that provides alternative definitions and interpretations of jihad that include nonviolence, peaceful jihad, and the struggle for dignity.
  298. Find this resource:
  299. Global Jihadism
  300. Having identified a phenomenon of jihadism in opposition to both Western and domestic regimes, scholarly attention has turned not only to examining the impact of 9/11, but also to determining the root causes used by jihadis to attract adherents and assessing jihadist strategies, ideologies, tactics, and leaders.
  301. THE SCHOLARLY IMPACT OF 9/11
  302. A variety of explanatory works appeared after 9/11, attempting to explain the events, ideas, personalities, and political frustrations leading to the global jihad that resulted in 9/11. These includeDeLong-Bas 2008, Esposito 2002, Esposito and Mogahed 2008, and Kepel 2008. Because of the impact of 9/11, much of the published literature that followed the attacks was both politically and emotionally charged, seeking to assign blame rather than promote critical analysis and understanding. The “clash of civilizations” and “Islamic threat” theories resurfaced in works such asBenjamin and Simon 2002, Habeck 2005, and Lewis 2003.
  303. Benjamin, Daniel, and Steven Simon. The Age of Sacred Terror. New York: Random House, 2002.
  304. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  305. Written by the former director of counterterrorism of the National Security Council, this book takes the “threat” perspective in discussing the rise of religious violence, which is conflated with Islam. It blames the failure to fully appreciate the Islamic threat on a lack of intelligence.
  306. Find this resource:
  307. DeLong-Bas, Natana J. Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  308. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  309. Comprehensive analysis of the foundational teachings of Wahhabism, their historical trajectory, and an explanation of where global jihadist ideology came from, distinguishing between Wahhabism and jihadism.
  310. Find this resource:
  311. Esposito, John L. Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. 2002.
  312. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  313. A broad and accessible work that provides a variety of definitions of jihad through history and examines a variety of jihadist movements in the contemporary era, identifying the causes of jihadism and highlighting alternative voices to jihadism.
  314. Find this resource:
  315. Esposito, John L. and Dalia Mogahed. Who Speaks for Islam? What a Billion Muslims Really Think. New York: Gallup Press, 2008.
  316. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  317. Based on the Gallup World Poll, this book provides statistical support for understanding the demographics of who does and does not support jihadism, making a case for a more balanced appreciation of the actual role of Islam in public life.
  318. Find this resource:
  319. Habeck, Mary. Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.
  320. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  321. This work examines jihadist ideology through the lens of the “clash of civilizations,” arguing that jihadis believe that America is trying to suppress Islam, thus necessitating fighting and destroying America.
  322. Find this resource:
  323. Kepel, Gilles. Beyond Terror and Martyrdom: The Future of the Middle East. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
  324. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  325. Presents a broad approach to the question of jihadism, focusing on the political aspects of Islam. Addresses jihadism as the outcome of internecine fighting between various national and sectarian Muslim groups that has been exacerbated by the War on Terror. This book was written with the goal of marginalizing jihadist radicalism, so it has a didactic flavor absent from other works focused purely on analysis.
  326. Find this resource:
  327. Lewis, Bernard. What Went Wrong: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East. New York: Harper Perennial, 2003.
  328. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  329. A scholarly analysis of the current political state of the Middle East that concludes that Islam and modernity are incompatible, thus leading to jihadism as a step backwards.
  330. Find this resource:
  331. IDENTIFYING THE ROOT CAUSES OF JIHADISM
  332. In the early days after 9/11, it was generally assumed by analysts (such as Lawrence 1998) that political repression and socioeconomic conditions were the major contributors to the jihadist phenomenon. However, as additional data collection and analysis were undertaken, some scholars asserted that these assumed factors, including poverty, lack of education, and ideological conviction, did not fit the data sets (see Sageman 2004). Therefore, greater attention began to be paid to social networks and transnational movements, explaining not only the mobility of certain organizations, but also the cross-pollination of ideas between otherwise domestically oriented groups and the potential psychological motivations for joining jihadists, as discussed in Moghaddam 2006. This resulted in a further scholarly debate about the relative importance of fighting the “near enemy” or the “far enemy” within jihadi circles, as described by Gerges 2005, as well as questions about how centrally organized “al-Qaeda” actually was—and whether there even was a central entity of “al-Qaeda.” For some, all Islamically oriented militant organizations and activities were simply being lumped into the same broad category, either for ease of analysis or due to a failure to understand the variations between movements, particularly where domestic agendas were concerned, as discussed in Hafez 2003 and Trofimov 2006. A number of works claiming to address the question of jihadism from within also appeared, such as Gerges 2006 and Khosrokhavar 2009, reflecting the complexity of understanding individual motivations for joining these organizations.
  333. Gerges, Fawaz A. The Far Enemy: Why Jihad Went Global. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. This work challenges the assumption that al-Qaeda is a unified, global network in control of all jihadist organizations, positing instead that the jihadist movement is fractured within due to varying opinions about which enemy is to be attacked first: the near (domestic regimes) or the far (the West).
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Gerges, Fawaz A. Journey of the Jihadist: Inside Muslim Militancy. Orlando, FL: Harcourt, 2006.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Written by a Lebanese Christian academic, this work claims to examine jihadism from within, focusing on jihadism as a political, rather than religious, phenomenon.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Hafez, Mohammed M. Why Muslims Rebel: Repression and Resistance in the Islamic World. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. This book examines the reasons behind Muslim rebellion globally, placing jihad in the context of political suppression and repression and viewing it as a response to political exclusion.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Khosrokhavar, Farhad. Inside Jihadism: Understanding Jihadi Movements Worldwide. Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2009.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Based on religious texts, Arabic language sources, and interviews with imprisoned jihadis, this work examines two major influences on jihadis, one focused on the Middle East and emphasizing Islam as both religion and political thought, and the other focused on the Muslim secular experience in the United States and Europe.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Lawrence, Bruce B. Shattering the Myth: Islam beyond Violence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. An excellent example of the literature preceding 9/11 that asserted economic disparities and hardships arising from the colonial context of the Middle East as the justification for turning to violent jihad.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Moghaddam, Fathali M. From the Terrorists’ Point of View: What They Experience and Why They Come to Destroy. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2006.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Examines the phenomenon of jihadism from the perspective of a psychologist, examining five major grievances and approaches: unfair domestic systems, blaming the Americans for what is wrong in Muslim societies, the ends justifying the means, us against them, and engaging in heroic acts that will save the world. The author proposes democracy as a solution to terrorism.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Sageman, Marc. Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. An analysis of the various reasons people join jihadist networks, concluding that social networks, rather than poverty, ignorance, or ideological conviction, are the key indicators for who joins the jihad. Based on forensic psychology and interviews with mujahideen.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Trofimov, Yaroslav. Faith at War: A Journey on the Frontlines of Islam, from Baghdad to Timbuktu. Rev. ed. New York: Picador, 2006.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. A journalist’s account of his travels through the Middle East, North Africa, the Balkans, and Afghanistan in a quest to understand the rise of militant jihadism. Trofimov notes the confusion among Muslims themselves in struggling to understand their contemporary political circumstances.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF RELIGIOUSLY MOTIVATED VIOLENCE
  366. A variety of scholarly works, building on earlier scholarship, have challenged the predominant popular notion that Islam, as a religion, was responsible for the violence in jihadism, although still concluding that the biggest threat to the West comes from the Islamic world. Some scholars have engaged in a comparative analysis of religious violence in a variety of traditions, taking a broader sociological perspective focusing on the use of religion as an expression of political anxieties and desires, rather than as the essential cause of violence. Kimball 2002 provides a comparative theoretical framework for the use of violence by ostensibly religious leaders, while Selengut 2003undertakes a sociological and psychological analysis of religious violence. Armstrong 1991 provides a broad historical overview of interreligious violence, as seen through prism of the Crusades.Appleby 1997, Juergensmeyer 2003, and Stern 2003 provide case studies of leaders of different religious traditions who have formed militant extremist movements, examining the relative importance of religious versus political grievances.
  367. Appleby, R. Scott, ed. Spokesmen for the Despised: Fundamentalist Leaders of the Middle East. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997.
  368. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  369. A compilation of biographical essays about Jewish, Christian, and Muslim leaders of extremist organizations in the Middle East and the Sudan, emphasizing the role of religious ideology in extremist thought and action.
  370. Find this resource:
  371. Armstrong, Karen. Holy War: The Crusades and Their Impact on Today’s World. New York: Anchor Books, 1991.
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373. A comprehensive analysis of religious myths and passions surrounding the Christian Crusades in the Holy Land and their ongoing impact in the Middle East today. Considers the perspectives of Muslims, Christians, and Jews.
  374. Find this resource:
  375. Juergensmeyer, Mark. Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence. 3d ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
  376. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  377. Provides case studies for Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Sikhism, and Buddhism, analyzing their engagement in the theater of terror and cosmic warfare in the quest for martyrdom and power.
  378. Find this resource:
  379. Kimball, Charles. When Religion Becomes Evil: Five Warning Signs. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2002.
  380. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  381. Written by a professor of comparative religion, this work outlines five warning signs in religious ideologies suggesting that militant activism may arise: absolute truth claims, blind obedience, establishment of the “ideal” time, declaration that the end justifies any means, and, ultimately, the declaration of holy war.
  382. Find this resource:
  383. Selengut, Charles. Sacred Fury: Understanding Religious Violence. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 2003.
  384. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  385. A sociological and psychological analysis of fighting for God and apocalyptic violence in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
  386. Find this resource:
  387. Stern, Jessica. Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill. New York: Ecco Press, 2003.
  388. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  389. Written as a policy recommendation, this work undertakes an analysis of the most frequently cited grievances giving rise to holy war (e.g., alienation, humiliation, demographics, history, territory) for a variety of religious backgrounds, concluding that the greatest threat comes from the Islamic world.
  390. Find this resource:
  391. JIHADIST STRATEGIES
  392. Some scholars have approached the question of jihadism from the practical perspective of operational tactics and strategies, including how new recruits are both acquired and trained, how jihadis communicate with each other and the outside world, and their military methods based on the Prophetic example, as addressed in Rodgers 2008. Bunt 2003 focuses on Internet use and strategies, while Forest 2006 analyzes how terrorist networks transfer knowledge and educate new recruits, both militarily and ideologically. Poole 2004 focuses on tactical matters among jihadis, whileO’Neill 2005 provides comparative analysis of the methods used by various insurgent movements.
  393. Bunt, Gary R. Islam in the Digital Age: E-Jihad, Online Fatwas, and Cyber Islamic Environments. London: Pluto Press, 2003.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. The authoritative account of digital Islam of all varieties, with special attention to “cyber-hacktivism,” “e-jihad” as the digital sword, and the “global inter-fada” after 9/11 that ranges from support for jihad as terrorism to calls for jihad for peace.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Forest, James J. F., ed. Teaching Terror: Strategic and Tactical Learning in the Terrorist World. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. A comparative analysis of how terrorist networks transfer knowledge and educate terrorists, not only in ideology, but also in practical operations, including actual fighting, virtual fighting, and use of the media to disseminate messages. This work posits a variety of motivations and capabilities that include, but are not limited to, religious ideology.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. O’Neill, Bard E. Insurgency and Terrorism: From Revolution to Apocalypse. 2d ed. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2005.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. A comparative analysis of various insurgency movements and their methods, including jihadist groups, placing them in the context of military strategies.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Poole, H. John. Tactics of the Crescent Moon: Militant Muslim Combat Methods. Emerald Isle, NC: Posterity Press, 2004.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. A tactical guide to the military methods, both conventional and unconventional, of various jihadist movements, both historically and in the contemporary era. Poole concludes with recommendations about how the United States should adapt its methods in order to be victorious.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Rodgers, Russ. Fundamentals of Islamic Asymmetric Warfare: A Documentary Analysis of the Principles of Muhammad. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2008.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Written by an expert on modern insurgency doctrine for the U.S. armed forces, this work focuses on the military strategies used by the Prophet Muhammad, and on discussions of these strategies in medieval Islamic historical sources.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. MARTYRDOM AND SUICIDE ATTACKS
  414. Because of the methods used by the jihadis, serious scholarly attention has tended to focus on the question of martyrdom, particularly “self-designated martyrdom” in the form of suicide attacks. Pape 2005 provides a broad overview of suicide terrorism as a political tactic, covering every suicide terrorist attack from 1980 through 2005. Some sources, such as Davis 2003, focus exclusively on Muslim suicide attacks, while others, such as Khosrokhavar 2005 and Reuter 2002, engage in comparative analysis across terrorist organizations, seeking explanations that go beyond religious argumentation. Hafez 2006, Hafez 2007, and Varzi 2006 examine the phenomenon of suicide terrorism and the culture of martyrdom in Palestine, Iraq, and Iran, respectively.
  415. Davis, Joyce M. Martyrs: Innocence, Vengeance, and Despair in the Middle East. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
  416. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  417. A highly readable account that uses biographies of suicide attackers as a lens for analyzing the motivations and political goals of the attackers, with the goal of understanding “why they hate us.”
  418. Find this resource:
  419. Hafez, Mohammed M. Manufacturing Human Bombs: The Making of Palestinian Suicide Bombers. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2006.
  420. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  421. An interdisciplinary approach to analysis of suicide bombings that looks at individuals, organizations, and societies in identifying the necessary context of a culture of martyrdom. Explores the strategic decision making used in suicide bombings, as well as the political context that generates a supply of recruits.
  422. Find this resource:
  423. Hafez, Mohammad M. Suicide Bombers in Iraq: The Strategy and Ideology of Martyrdom. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2007.
  424. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  425. An analysis of Sunni suicide bombers in Iraq from 2003 until 2006. Discusses the influence of transnational networks on national conflicts and the ideology, theology, and mythology of suicide terrorism.
  426. Find this resource:
  427. Khosrokhavar, Farhad. Suicide Bombers: Allah’s New Martyrs. Translated by David Macey. London: Pluto Press, 2005.
  428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  429. Examines the relationship between the suicide bomber and the concept of martyrdom, arguing for variations between jihadist groups according to their political circumstances. Thus, Third World jihadis are depicted as being excluded from the benefits of modernity, and the minority jihadis of the Western world are depicted as reacting to racism and discrimination.
  430. Find this resource:
  431. Pape, Robert A. Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Random House, 2005.
  432. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  433. Places suicide attacks within their broad context, making it clear that suicide attacks are neither unique to, nor have their origins in, Islam. Based on data covering every suicide terrorist attack from 1980 through 2005, this book also challenges assumptions about suicide attackers being poor, desperate, and uneducated religious fanatics by showing that many are well-educated, middle-class political activists.
  434. Find this resource:
  435. Reuter, Christoph. My Life Is a Weapon: A Modern History of Suicide Bombing. Translated by Helena Ragg-Kirkby. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.
  436. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  437. While this work focuses largely on Muslim suicide bombers, covering Iran, Lebanon, and Palestine, it also acknowledges the cross-pollination that occurs between terrorist organizations, including separatist movements in Sri Lanka and Kurdistan.
  438. Find this resource:
  439. Varzi, Roxanne. Warring Souls: Youth, Media, and Martyrdom in Post-Revolution Iran. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006.
  440. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  441. This anthropological work examines the ongoing legacy and impact of the culture of martyrdom inculcated during the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, which was justified as jihad in defense of the new Islamic Republic.
  442. Find this resource:
  443. Al-Qaeda
  444. Of all jihadist organizations, al-Qaeda has clearly received the most media coverage. Analyses generally tend to focus on questions of either organization or leadership.
  445. ORGANIZATION
  446. Analysis of al-Qaeda has branched into several fields, including those that assert al-Qaeda is a broad umbrella organization encompassing all militant organizations that couch their grievances and goals in Islamic terms (e.g., Greenberg 2005); those that focus on specific individuals who have claimed affiliation or direct contact with al-Qaeda (Atwan 2006); and those that assert that al-Qaeda is an invented community that does not exist in reality (Burke 2003). Gunaratna 2002 argues for al-Qaeda as a global network, while Nasiri and Scheuer 2006 highlights the importance of transnational networks.
  447. Atwan, Abdel Bari. The Secret History of al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
  448. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  449. Written by the former editor-in-chief of the Al-Quds newspaper, who is the only Western-based journalist to have spent time with Osama bin Laden, this work includes discussions of martyrdom, cyber-jihad, and the splitting of al-Qaeda into different branches, including in Iraq and Saudi Arabia.
  450. Find this resource:
  451. Burke, Jason. Al-Qaeda: Casting a Shadow of Terror. London: I.B. Tauris, 2003.
  452. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  453. One of the earliest histories of al-Qaeda to challenge the practice of lumping Islamic militant groups together, calling it a failure to recognize their differing agendas and objectives.
  454. Find this resource:
  455. Greenberg, Karen J., ed. Al Qaeda Now: Understanding Today’s Terrorists. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  456. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  457. This collection of essays represents one of the earliest attempts to bring together experts and scholars who had written on al-Qaeda, and to focus on its mutation into different branches, including in Europe. Works on the assumption that al-Qaeda remained a broad umbrella organization in control of networks throughout the world.
  458. Find this resource:
  459. Gunaratna, Rohan. Inside Al Qaeda: Global Network of Terror. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.
  460. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  461. Long considered one of the best works in the field, Gunaratna argues for al-Qaeda as a global network present throughout North America, Latin America, Europe, Africa, the Middle East, the Balkans, South and Southeast Asia, and Australia. The purpose of the book is to suggest policy recommendations, and Gunaratna argues that there is doctrinal flexibility within al-Qaeda that permits the pursuit of political goals.
  462. Find this resource:
  463. Nasiri, Omar, and Michael Scheuer. Inside the Jihad: My Life with Al Qaeda: A Spy’s Story. New York: Basic Books, 2006.
  464. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  465. A biographical account written by a European intelligence agent who worked inside al-Qaeda from 1994 until 2000. Highlights the importance of transnational networks for recruitment into jihadist organizations and the cross-pollination that subsequently occurs.
  466. Find this resource:
  467. LEADERSHIP
  468. Studies of prominent figures within al-Qaeda have tended to focus on Osama bin Laden (Bergen 2006, Scheuer 2006), Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri (Al-Zayyat 2004), Abu Musab al-Zarqawi (Brisard 2005,Napoleoni 2005) and Abu Musab al-Suri (Lia 2008). In some cases, the focus is exclusively on a single figure. In others, such as Post 2004, there are attempts at comparative analysis, not only within jihadism, but also in comparison to other leaders of militant organizations.
  469. Bergen, Peter L. The Osama bin Laden I Know: An Oral History of al Qaeda’s Leader. New York: Free Press, 2006.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. The most comprehensive oral history of Osama bin Laden, tracing his trajectory from being a friend of the Saudi monarchy to its opponent.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Brisard, Jean-Charles. Zarqawi: The New Face of Al-Qaeda. New York: Other Press, 2005.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. The definitive biography of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. Includes primary documents.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Lia, Brynjar. Architect of Global Jihad: The Life of Al-Qaida Strategist Abu Musʾab al-Suri. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. The most comprehensive biography of al-Qaeda’s most important ideologue, offering insight into his relationships with leading jihadist figures from various countries.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Napoleoni, Loretta. Insurgent Iraq: Al Zarqawi and the New Generation. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2005.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Tracks the development of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi from Jordan to Iraq as the leader of a new faction within al-Qaeda. This work contains certain factual errors, most notably the conflation of Wahhabism and Salafism, and little attention is given to the pivotal figure of Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi, al-Zarqawi’s mentor.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Post, Jerrold M. Leaders and Their Followers in a Dangerous World: The Psychology of Political Behavior. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. An examination of the leaders of various militant organizations, including jihadists, through the lens of political psychology. Emphasizes the importance of leadership over religious or political influences in attracting followers and determining the direction the movement will take.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Scheuer, Michael. Rev. ed. Through Our Enemies’ Eyes: Osama bin Laden, Radical Islam, and the Future of America. 2d ed. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2006.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. One of the most important analyses of the factors at play in the rise of Osama bin Laden, written by a former CIA officer and head of the Bin Laden unit.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Zayyat, Montasser al-. The Road to Al-Qaeda: The Story of Bin Laden’s Right-Hand Man. London: Pluto Press, 2004.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. An intellectual biography of Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri, written by an Egyptian lawyer who has known him since 1975, and who was close to him until 2003.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Jihadism in Specific Countries/Regions
  498. Case studies of jihadism in particular countries or regions have been written in order to identify the impact of jihadism within those countries or regions, as well as beyond them in a transnational or global context.
  499. CENTRAL ASIA
  500. The importance of Central Asia as a training location for jihadis has been noted since shortly after 9/11. Scholarly debates tend to focus on ethnic and national identity issues, in opposition to government claims of Wahhabism and jihadism, as the culprits behind domestic political unrest. Central Asia is discussed in Khalid 2007 and Rashid 2002, with Hughes 2008 providing coverage of Chechnya.
  501. Hughes, James. Chechnya: From Nationalism to Jihad. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Places the conflict in Chechnya in the broader context of nationalism and ethnic politics, theories of empire, and secession, rather than following the Russian government’s portrayal of the Chechan conflict as simply an instance of jihadist activity.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Khalid, Adeeb. Islam After Communism: Religion and Politics in Central Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Shows how Islam became subordinated to ethno-national identities under Communist rule, so that Islam became a means of recovering traditions that had been destroyed by oppression. Includes discussions of jihad and comparisons to secularization programs in Turkey and Yugoslavia.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Rashid, Ahmed. Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Written by a highly experienced journalist, this book is considered a pivotal account of the rise of militant jihadism in Central Asia since 9/11, with a particular focus on Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. EUROPE
  514. The terrorist attacks in Madrid in 2004 and London in 2005 attributed to al-Qaeda affiliates have led to increased study of terrorist networks in Europe, both as a security concern and as evidence of the potential fracturing of purportedly centralized al-Qaeda objectives and leadership into more specific domestic agendas. Pargeter 2008 provides in-depth coverage of the attacks, as well as a broad vision of European Islamism. Kohlmann 2004 examines the insertion of the Arab-Afghan mujahideen into Europe through the Balkans, while Wiktorowicz 2005 focuses on a transnational movement based in Great Britain.
  515. Kohlmann, Evan H. Al-Qaida’s Jihad in Europe: The Afghan-Bosnian Network. Oxford: Berg, 2004.
  516. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  517. Demonstrates the movement of the Arab-Afghan mujahideen into the Balkans during the 1992–1995 crisis, resulting in the establishment of a European base for action.
  518. Find this resource:
  519. Pargeter, Alison. The New Frontiers of Jihad: Radical Islam in Europe. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.
  520. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  521. Based on interviews with European Islamists, this work argues for understanding radical Islam in Europe in light of conditions in the Islamic world. Pargeter suggests that European jihadism is plagued by divisions, infighting, and struggles for leadership that hinder its power and cohesion. The book provides in-depth coverage of the major terrorist attacks in France, Madrid, and London.
  522. Find this resource:
  523. Wiktorowicz, Quintan. Radical Islam Rising: Muslim Extremism in the West. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005.
  524. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  525. A study of the al-Muhajiroun organization in Great Britain. Analyzes how nonreligious persons are turned into supporters of religiously motivated and justified violence. One of the earliest works to analyze a transnational movement in a systematic way.
  526. Find this resource:
  527. SAUDI ARABIA
  528. Because 15 of the 19 hijackers responsible for the 9/11 attacks were Saudi, concerns about religious interpretations within the Kingdom (and those that were exported abroad) gained significant public attention following 9/11. Many works written on Saudi Arabia shortly after 9/11 were emotionally and politically charged, and often written by people with no direct experience. DeLong-Bas 2008, al-Rasheed 2007, and Teitelbaum 2000 are the work of scholars with extensive experience in Saudi religious and political affairs, highlighting a variety of interpretations of both Islam and jihad within the Kingdom.
  529. Delong-Bas, Natana J. Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. 2d. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. The only comprehensive analysis of the foundational writings of the Wahhabi movement, with an extensive discussion of jihad in the 18th century and its trajectory to the global jihadism of Osama bin Laden in the 21st century.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Rasheed, Madawi al-. Contesting the Saudi State: Islamic Voices from a New Generation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. An examination of contemporary understandings of Wahhabism and Salafism within Saudi Arabia. Looks at a variety of interpretations of jihad, including those focused on jihad at home versus jihad abroad.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Teitelbaum, Joshua. Holier Than Thou: Saudi Arabia’s Islamic Opposition. Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2000.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. An overview of Saudi Arabia’s Islamic opposition, considering both Sunni and Shiʿi perspectives and political goals.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA
  542. The nightclub bombing in Bali in 2002 and the purported ongoing presence of al-Qaeda leaders and affiliates in Pakistan have raised concerns about the extent of support for militant jihadism in South and Southeast Asia. Barton 2005 discusses the development of militant extremism in Indonesia, while Verkaaik 2004 examines religious nationalism in Pakistan.
  543. Barton, Greg. Indonesia’s Struggle: Jemaah Islamiyah and the Soul of Islam. Sydney, Australia: University of New South Wales Press, 2005.
  544. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  545. Discusses the religious, cultural and political development of the Jemaah Islamiyah and analyzes features it shares in common with other organizations ostensibly linked to al-Qaeda. Provides coverage of the nightclub attack in Bali, arguing that the Indonesian government’s response failed to be effective in the long term.
  546. Find this resource:
  547. Verkaaik, Oskar. Migrants and Militants: Fun and Urban Violence in Pakistan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.
  548. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  549. An examination of the political violence of the Muhajir Qaumi Movement, a religious nationalist movement, that provides insight into urban youth culture and the attraction of religiously legitimated violence as entertainment.
  550. Find this resource:
Advertisement
Add Comment
Please, Sign In to add comment
Advertisement
Public Pastes
Advertisement
We use cookies for various purposes including analytics. By continuing to use Pastebin, you agree to our use of cookies as described in the Cookies Policy.  OK, I Understand
Not a member of Pastebin yet?
Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!