Roman Imperialism

Introduction

Scholars generally agree that the Roman Empire was one of world history’s most successful imperial states, in terms of its geographical extent, longevity, and posthumous influence. The Roman Empire has consequently become the quintessential empire for purposes of comparative study of interstate predominance. The foregoing statements will not arouse much controversy; indeed, they represent nearly a scholarly consensus. But they do beg two important questions: What is an empire and what is imperialism? The books in the section Sourcebooks and Readers provide excellent introductions to the subject of Roman imperialism per se, while those in the sections Defining Imperialism, Evaluating Empire, and Theorizing Empire collect together essential readings for answering these basic questions.

Sourcebooks and Readers

Gruen 1970 is still useful as a collection of excerpts from some of the most influential older writings on Roman imperialism, although the footnotes have been excised from the original essays, somewhat limiting their value. Champion 2004 provides seminal scholarly essays on Roman imperialism, with full annotation and accompanying translated primary sources, on imperial motivations; political, social, and economic consequences of empire; ideology and imperial governance; cultural assimilation; hybridization; resistance; and the frontier and imperial strategic defense. Erskine 2010 presents a useful overview of pertinent scholarly debates within the field, along with selected primary sources.

Champion, C. B., ed. 2004. Roman imperialism: Readings and sources. Interpreting Ancient History. Oxford and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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Collection of influential essays on Roman imperialism, with complementary primary-source translations.
Champion, C. B., ed. 2004. Roman imperialism: Readings and sources. Interpreting Ancient History. Oxford and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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Erskine, A. 2010. Roman imperialism. Debates and Documents in Ancient History. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press.
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Provides a good introduction to the topic and discusses important scholarly debates. Includes primary-source translations.
Erskine, A. 2010. Roman imperialism. Debates and Documents in Ancient History. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press.
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Gruen, E. S., ed. 1970. Imperialism in the Roman Republic. European Problem Studies. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
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Collection of older, seminal essays on Roman imperialism.
Gruen, E. S., ed. 1970. Imperialism in the Roman Republic. European Problem Studies. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
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Defining Imperialism

A basic problem in the study of Roman imperialism involves its definitional terms. The ancient Romans had the words imperare (“to command”) and imperium (“the power to command”; “geographical region subjected to such power”), but they did not have a conception that neatly maps onto our ideas of “imperialism.” As Koebner and Schmidt 1964 elucidates, this is because the term “imperialism” was more or less unknown in the English-speaking world until the 1870s, and the two figures who were mainly responsible for its entry into common English parlance, John A. Hobson and Vladimir Lenin, wrote in the early 20th century (see Hobson 2011 and Lenin 2010). They saw “imperialism” as a by-product of the industrialist-capitalist economies of modern nation-states. Their theories therefore cannot be used for studying the ancient world without radical modification, but at the same time they put the word “imperialism” on the map, as it were. The economist Joseph Schumpeter differed (see Schumpeter 1991), viewing imperialism as an atavistic survival of aggressive impulses from primitive times, but he did not define “imperialism” in concrete terms. And so, any study of Roman imperialism must begin by grappling with what the word “imperialism” actually means. This problem is compounded by the fact that the terms “imperialism” and “empire” are emotionally loaded words today, and scholars and lay people alike employ them loosely and with a wide range of meanings (for this reason some scholars prefer the term “hegemonialism” to “imperialism” in analyzing interstate power relations in Antiquity, but the word is something of a monstrosity and has not gained traction). Moses Finley (Finley 1981) helped make these terms, “empire” and “imperialism,” more useful for students of classical Antiquity, by identifying the concrete features of any imperial state in its relations with weaker, subjected states: (1) restriction of freedom of action in interstate relations; (2) political, judicial, and/or administrative interference in internal affairs; (3) compulsory military service; (4) payment of some form of tribute; (5) confiscation of land from other states; and (6) various forms of economic exploitation/subordination. Ancient Rome qualifies as an imperial state by all of his criteria. The reader should bear Finley’s concrete definition of “Roman imperialism” in mind in reading any and all of the works assembled in this article. But Finley has been criticized for a tendency to make generalized, blanket statements about large historical processes that result in the loss of temporal and regional nuances and idiosyncrasies. Here, studies utilizing archaeological work, such as Alcock 1993 and Revell 2009, can serve as correctives, demonstrating that the phenomenon of Roman imperialism was not quite so uniform.

Alcock, S. E. 1993. Graecia capta: The landscapes of Roman Greece. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Analyzes the impact of Roman rule in Greece, through an examination of the archaeological record.
Alcock, S. E. 1993. Graecia capta: The landscapes of Roman Greece. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Finley, M. I. 1981. The Athenian Empire: A balance sheet. In Economy and society in ancient Greece. By M. I. Finley, 41–61. Edited by B. D. Shaw and R. P. Saller. New York: Viking.
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Although this essay deals with classical Athens, it contains Finley’s most concise exposition of the formal criteria for empire; the six-point definition is on p. 45.
Finley, M. I. 1981. The Athenian Empire: A balance sheet. In Economy and society in ancient Greece. By M. I. Finley, 41–61. Edited by B. D. Shaw and R. P. Saller. New York: Viking.
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Hobson, J. A. 2011. Imperialism: A study. Nottingham, UK: Spokesman.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511792076Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A famous study defining imperialism as an exploitative, nationalistic business enterprise. Originally published in 1902 (London: James Nisbet).
Hobson, J. A. 2011. Imperialism: A study. Nottingham, UK: Spokesman.
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Koebner, R., and H.-D. Schmidt. 1964. Imperialism: The story and significance of a political word, 1840–1960. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Classic study of the origins and development of “imperialism” as a political and analytical term.
Koebner, R., and H.-D. Schmidt. 1964. Imperialism: The story and significance of a political word, 1840–1960. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Lenin, V. I. 2010. Imperialism: The highest stage of capitalism. Great Ideas. London: Penguin.
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As its title indicates, this famous manifesto conceived of imperialism as a by-product of exploitative finance capital; like Hobson, Lenin presupposed the modern nation-state and highly developed financial institutions. Originally published in 1917.
Lenin, V. I. 2010. Imperialism: The highest stage of capitalism. Great Ideas. London: Penguin.
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Revell, L. 2009. Roman imperialism and local identities. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Examines “Roman-ness” in the archaeological record of three provinces: Baetica, Tarraconensis, and Brittania.
Revell, L. 2009. Roman imperialism and local identities. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Schumpeter, J. A. 1991. Imperialism and social classes. Edited by P. M. Sweezy. Translated by H. Norden. Philadelphia: Orion.
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Schumpeter, like Hobson and Lenin, viewed imperialism as a financially and socially exploitative evil; unlike them, however, he believed it was a lingering residue from primitive times, and that enlightened capitalism would eradicate it. Originally published in 1919, reprinted in 1927 and 1951 (Oxford: Blackwell).
Schumpeter, J. A. 1991. Imperialism and social classes. Edited by P. M. Sweezy. Translated by H. Norden. Philadelphia: Orion.
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Evaluating Empire

“Imperialism” and “empire” are emotionally laden words in present-day society. Most people today regard them in highly negative ways, as a result of the horrors of the 20th century in general and the devastation of the two world wars in particular. Before the First World War, empire building was often seen as a noble, civilizing enterprise, as when Rudyard Kipling famously lionized it as the “white man’s burden.” But even today, “empire” has eloquent detractors and defenders, with Hardt and Negri 2000 and Ferguson 2003 serving as striking examples, respectively. The study of Roman imperialism therefore cannot escape the strong ideological charge the terms “empire” and “imperialism” carry with them. Together, both books demonstrate the emotional valence, whether positive or negative, of the terms “empire” and “imperialism” and issue a salutary warning for students of ancient Rome who would employ them.

Ferguson, N. 2003. Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. New York: Basic Books.
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A diametrically opposed vision of imperialism to that in Hardt and Negri 2000, seeing the British Empire as a global force for economic, political, and cultural development.
Ferguson, N. 2003. Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. New York: Basic Books.
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Hardt, M., and A. Negri. 2000. Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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A somewhat apocalyptic vision of the terrifying new kind of empire emerging in the early 21st century: postcolonial, center-less, immanent, cybernetic, and globalized.
Hardt, M., and A. Negri. 2000. Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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Theorizing Empire

Work of political scientists and international-relations theorists provides different, but complementary, analytical lenses through which to view imperial development in international systems. Chilcote 2000 collects many influential essays on imperialism, while Doyle 1986 discusses some of their applications for understanding historical societies. Michael Doyle discusses three basic ways to understand imperial development: “metrocentric,” “pericentric,” and “systemic” levels of analysis. The “metrocentric” level of analysis concentrates on the individual characteristics of a particular imperial power: its political structure, military organization, territorial domain, cultural values, religious system, natural resources, etc. Until recently, most work on Roman imperialism adopted this analytical perspective. The “pericentric” approach shifts attention away from the imperial metropole in order to focus on peripheral, subjected states and peoples. This approach seeks to understand imperial processes as a pull from weaker, peripheral states, whose very weakness creates a power vacuum and an imperial opportunity for stronger powers, thus creating an “invitation to empire.” Robinson and Gallagher 1961, in its study of the Victorian Western nation-states’ involvements in Africa, is perhaps the most famous example of this approach. Finally, other theorists believe that the default condition in systems of states is one of international anarchy. In such a brutal environment, in which the general condition is one of violence or potential violence, all states compete militarily for power and security. These conditions mean that state systems sometimes experience great power disparities, giving rise to empires. Waltz 1979 is the single most important theoretical work in this tradition, commonly referred to as “neorealism.”

Chilcote, R. H., ed. 2000. Imperialism: Theoretical directions. Key Concepts in Critical History. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books.
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A reader containing classic essays on imperialism in the modern world, especially on the impact of finance capital in underdeveloped countries. Many of these essays, by people of the likes of Marx, Lenin, and Luxemburg, help to sharpen the focus of the Roman historian by way of contrast.
Chilcote, R. H., ed. 2000. Imperialism: Theoretical directions. Key Concepts in Critical History. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books.
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Doyle, M. W. 1986. Empires. Cornell Studies in Comparative History. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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Provides an introduction to the concept of empire, with a focus on political science and international-relations theory, as well as several case studies: Athens and Sparta, Rome, the Ottomans, and 19th-century European powers in Africa.
Doyle, M. W. 1986. Empires. Cornell Studies in Comparative History. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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Robinson, R., and J. Gallagher. 1961. Africa and the Victorians: The climax of imperialism in the Dark Continent. New York: Doubleday.
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Famous study of European imperialism in Africa, pioneering the “pericentric” approach.
Robinson, R., and J. Gallagher. 1961. Africa and the Victorians: The climax of imperialism in the Dark Continent. New York: Doubleday.
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Waltz, K. N. 1979. Theory of international politics. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
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The foundational document for neorealist interpretations of anarchic interstate systems. Republished as recently as 2010 (Long Grove, IL: Waveland).
Waltz, K. N. 1979. Theory of international politics. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
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Applications of Theories

Roman historians have begun to employ these various ways of viewing imperial development. Badian 2000, Harris 2006, and Rich 1993 are important examples of the “metrocentric” level of analysis. Champion 2007 employs a “pericentric” approach, as does Gruen 1984, if less explicitly. Eckstein 2006 and Eckstein 2008 introduce Roman historians to the systemic level of analysis.

Badian, E. 2000. Foreign clientelae (264–70 B.C.). New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Groundbreaking metrocentric study, suggesting that Roman social relations informed Roman diplomacy and foreign policy. Originally published in 1958 (Oxford: Clarendon).
Badian, E. 2000. Foreign clientelae (264–70 B.C.). New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Champion, C. B. 2007. Empire by invitation: Greek political strategies and Roman imperial interventions in the second century BCE. Transactions of the American Philological Association 137.2: 255–275.
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Demonstrates how internal factionalism within the Greek city of Dyme led to Roman interventions in local political institutions in 144/143 BCE; an example of pericentric perspectives on Roman imperialism.
Champion, C. B. 2007. Empire by invitation: Greek political strategies and Roman imperial interventions in the second century BCE. Transactions of the American Philological Association 137.2: 255–275.
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Eckstein, A. M. 2006. Mediterranean anarchy, interstate war, and the rise of Rome. Hellenistic Culture and Society 48. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Wide-ranging application of neorealism, with a focus on the Roman Republic.
Eckstein, A. M. 2006. Mediterranean anarchy, interstate war, and the rise of Rome. Hellenistic Culture and Society 48. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Eckstein, A. M. 2008. Rome enters the Greek East: From anarchy to hierarchy in the Hellenistic Mediterranean, 230–170 BC. Oxford and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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Study of the rise of Rome to Mediterranean-wide supremacy in the years 230–170 BCE, from a neorealist perspective.
Eckstein, A. M. 2008. Rome enters the Greek East: From anarchy to hierarchy in the Hellenistic Mediterranean, 230–170 BC. Oxford and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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Gruen, E. S. 1984. The Hellenistic world and the coming of Rome. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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While this work’s dominant approach can be said to be metrocentric—the primary focus is on Roman policy emanating from the Senate in Rome—insofar as it argues that Roman diplomacy in the Middle Republic was largely patterned on Greek diplomatic instruments, we can also say that it has an important pericentric component: the nature of the Roman imperial presence was heavily influenced by the subjected periphery of Greece.
Gruen, E. S. 1984. The Hellenistic world and the coming of Rome. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Harris, W. V. 2006. War and imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 BC. Oxford: Clarendon.
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The most influential metrocentric interpretation over the last generation of the nature of Roman Republican imperialism. Originally published in 1979.
Harris, W. V. 2006. War and imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 BC. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Rich, J. 1993. Fear, greed, and glory: The causes of Roman war-making in the Middle Republic. In War and society in the Roman world. Edited by J. Rich and G. Shipley, 38–68. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient History 5. London: Routledge.
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Adopting a metrocentric approach, Rich argues that fear, avarice, and ambition all played major roles in Roman war making, and that monocausal explanations should be eschewed.
Rich, J. 1993. Fear, greed, and glory: The causes of Roman war-making in the Middle Republic. In War and society in the Roman world. Edited by J. Rich and G. Shipley, 38–68. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient History 5. London: Routledge.
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Selected “Metrocentric” Analyses of the Roman Empire

The metrocentric paradigm has, until recently, been the dominant mode for studying the development of Roman interstate power. Most work of this type operates at the state level, with a decided emphasis on the imperial metropole, Rome itself. These works may be conveniently grouped under the rubrics of Republic (c. 510–31 BCE) and Principate (31 BCE–c. 180 CE). That is to say, (1) the Republic: from the foundation of a polity on the banks of the Tiber river (c. 510 BCE), under the control of a relatively small number of Roman aristocratic families, who comprised the Senate, to the Battle at Actium (31 BCE), which can be said to have ushered in a new dispensation under the rule of a “princeps,” or “first citizen” (in effect, a monarch, whom we commonly call the “emperor”); and (2) the Principate: from the rise of the first emperor Caesar Augustus to the death of the emperor Marcus Aurelius (180 CE), whose reign was followed by a chaotic and troubled period lasting for most of the 3rd century CE, during which time serious political and economic problems and military crises created a contracted, unstable, and diminished Roman world.

Republic

The following items compose a selection of some of the most important studies of Roman imperial development during the Republic (c. 510–31 BCE), which predominantly adopt a metrocentric paradigm. The Republic was an expansionist state, though it refrained from direct annexation and direct territorial control. Nevertheless, the geographical expanse in which Rome exercised imperial domination increased spectacularly during this period, especially from c. 250 BCE onward. This list is by no means comprehensive, but it is representative of some of the finest work published on the imperial Republic, from a Rome-centered perspective. Badian 2000 and Badian 1971 stress Roman aristocratic values as the key to understanding Roman imperialism. The authors of Mommsen 1894, Frank 1914, and Holleaux 1921 believed the Romans to have been reluctant imperialists, who adopted a defensive posture and went to war against aggressors. Harris 2006 adopts a diametrically opposed viewpoint, seeing the Romans as predatory wolves driven by an intensely militaristic, aristocratic ethos. Gruen 1984 acknowledges the importance of Roman aristocratic political and moral ideas but finds the Romans to be flexible and willing to adapt to the Greek diplomatic instruments they found in Greek lands. Kallet-Marx 1995 argues that Rome intensified its control of overseas territory in the early 1st century BCE.

Badian, E. 1971. Roman imperialism in the Late Republic. 2d ed. Cornell Paperbacks 109. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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Focusing on the last century BCE, Badian maintained that Roman aristocratic conceptions of honor and virtue, and not Marxian economic analyses, held the key to understanding Roman imperial behaviors.
Badian, E. 1971. Roman imperialism in the Late Republic. 2d ed. Cornell Paperbacks 109. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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Badian, E. 2000. Foreign clientelae (264–70 B.C.). New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Badian maintained that Roman foreign policy was informed by the aristocratic values underlying the Roman patron-client relationship. Originally published in 1958 (Oxford: Clarendon).
Badian, E. 2000. Foreign clientelae (264–70 B.C.). New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Frank, T. 1914. Roman imperialism. New York: Macmillan.
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Wide-ranging exposition of the now-out-of-fashion “defensive imperialism” thesis from the early 20th century. Republished as recently as 2010 (Whitefish, MT: Kessinger).
Frank, T. 1914. Roman imperialism. New York: Macmillan.
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Gruen, E. S. 1984. The Hellenistic world and the coming of Rome. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Focusing more on diplomatic rather than military aspects of Roman expansion into the Greek East, Gruen argues that the Romans learned and employed Greek diplomatic instruments in their relations with Greek cities and Hellenistic monarchies.
Gruen, E. S. 1984. The Hellenistic world and the coming of Rome. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Harris, W. V. 2006. War and imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 BC. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Influential study suggesting Rome’s imperial success was due to the exceptional bellicosity and militarism of its ruling elite. Originally published in 1979.
Harris, W. V. 2006. War and imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 BC. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Holleaux, M. 1921. Rome, la Grèce et les monarchies hellénistiques aux IIIe siècle avant J.C. (273–205). Bibliothèque des Écoles Françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 124. Paris: E. de Boccard.
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Argued that Romans were reluctant and unwitting imperialists, who had an empire thrust upon them by international developments.
Holleaux, M. 1921. Rome, la Grèce et les monarchies hellénistiques aux IIIe siècle avant J.C. (273–205). Bibliothèque des Écoles Françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 124. Paris: E. de Boccard.
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Kallet-Marx, R. M. 1995. Hegemony to empire: The development of the Roman Imperium in the East from 148 to 62 BC. Hellenistic Culture and Society 15. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Utilizing epigraphic evidence, the author charts the evolution of Roman rule in Greek lands from an informal hegemony, in which the Romans exerted subtle forms of domination, to a more powerful and intrusive imperial administrative apparatus.
Kallet-Marx, R. M. 1995. Hegemony to empire: The development of the Roman Imperium in the East from 148 to 62 BC. Hellenistic Culture and Society 15. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Mommsen, T. 1894. Römische Geschichte. Vol. 1. Berlin: Weidmann.
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Classic statement of Roman “defensive imperialism,” concluding that Roman conquests were the result of responses to outside threats. Originally published as first of three volumes in 1854 (Leipzig: Reimer & Hirsel); republished in German as recently as 2010 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft).
Mommsen, T. 1894. Römische Geschichte. Vol. 1. Berlin: Weidmann.
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Principate

The following items compose a selection of some of the most important studies of Roman imperial development during the Principate (31 BCE–c. 180 CE), which predominantly adopt a metrocentric paradigm. During this period the empire had reached its territorial limits, and in contrast to the expansionist Republic, we can consider the Principate as an empire of maintenance or consolidation, because the greatest territorial conquests occurred earlier in Roman history, and the frontier, such as it was, was more or less stabilized. This list is by no means comprehensive, but it is representative of some of the finest work published on the imperial Principate, from a Rome-centered perspective. Rostovtzeff 1926 is a classic work, emphasizing the social and economic underpinnings of Roman imperial society. Brunt 1990 and Millar 2004 study various aspects of the politics, society, economy, and demography of the Principate. Campbell 2002 considers how the army was integrated at all levels into Roman society. Garnsey and Saller 1987 seeks to understand how the government actually worked, while MacMullen 1966 examines forces working to disrupt its smooth functioning. Millar 1977 explores the daily activities of the emperor in imperial governance. Wells 1995 highlights the impact of military demands on the towns and provinces of the empire.

Brunt, P. A. 1990. Roman imperial themes. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Masterly essays on politics, government, and social conditions in Rome and in the provinces.
Brunt, P. A. 1990. Roman imperial themes. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Campbell, J. B. 2002. War and society in imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 284. Warfare and History. London: Routledge.
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Demonstrates the dominant role of the army in political, social, and economic terms.
Campbell, J. B. 2002. War and society in imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 284. Warfare and History. London: Routledge.
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Garnsey, P., and R. Saller. 1987. The Roman Empire: Economy, society and culture. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Addresses, among various other topics, the question of how the vast domains of the Roman Empire at its height were controlled.
Garnsey, P., and R. Saller. 1987. The Roman Empire: Economy, society and culture. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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MacMullen, R. 1966. Enemies of the Roman order: Treason, unrest, and alienation in the empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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Considers various kinds of threat to the established imperial order. New edition published in 1992 (London: Routledge).
MacMullen, R. 1966. Enemies of the Roman order: Treason, unrest, and alienation in the empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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Millar, F. 1977. The emperor in the Roman world (31 BC–AD 337). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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Meticulous and exhaustive study of the daily activities of the emperor, who—in theory, at least—directed the administration of the empire.
Millar, F. 1977. The emperor in the Roman world (31 BC–AD 337). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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Millar, F. 2004. Government, society, and culture in the Roman Empire. Vol. 2 of Rome, the Greek world, and the East. Edited by H. M. Cotton and G. M. Rogers. Studies in the History of Greece and Rome. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
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Considers the role of cities in the empire, the political and symbolic importance of the emperor, how the empire was lightly administered, and life in the provinces.
Millar, F. 2004. Government, society, and culture in the Roman Empire. Vol. 2 of Rome, the Greek world, and the East. Edited by H. M. Cotton and G. M. Rogers. Studies in the History of Greece and Rome. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
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Rostovtzeff, M. I. 1926. The social and economic history of the Roman Empire. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Influenced by the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, Rostovtzeff shifted scholarly attention away from political and military events to social and economic factors. Reprinted by Clarendon as recently as 1998.
Rostovtzeff, M. I. 1926. The social and economic history of the Roman Empire. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Wells, C. M. 1995. The Roman Empire. 2d ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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Studies imperial administration in Italy and the provinces, towns, and countryside within the empire, and how the military organization impinged on these.
Wells, C. M. 1995. The Roman Empire. 2d ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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Comparative Perspectives

Much work in the early 21st century has been devoted to understanding the Roman Empire in light of the study of other ancient empires, most frequently Qin and Han China. This approach enables Roman historians to move beyond traditional boundaries of the field and to engage in conversation with those studying other histories. Bang 2003 shows that perhaps more can be gleaned by comparing the Roman Empire to other premodern regimes rather than placing Rome on a kind of teleological ladder leading to modern state formation. Mutschler and Mittag 2009 offers paired essays on various imperial problems. The papers collected in Scheidel 2009b compare and contrast Roman and Chinese experiences in several topics. Scheidel 2009a concerns imperial motivations across epochs, from the perspective of biological determinism. The essays in Bang and Kołodziejczyk 2012 pertain to the notion of universal dominion, a prevalent theme found in many ancient empires. Vasunia 2012 connects this recent surge of scholarship to interest in the implications of American military action abroad.

Bang, P. F. 2003. Rome and the comparative study of tributary empires. Medieval History Journal 6.2: 189–216.
DOI: 10.1177/097194580300600202Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Bang deconstructs the dichotomy of patrimonial and bureaucratic power in the study of Roman, Mughal, and Chinese history.
Bang, P. F. 2003. Rome and the comparative study of tributary empires. Medieval History Journal 6.2: 189–216.
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Bang, P. F., and D. Kołodziejczyk, eds. 2012. Universal empire: A comparative approach to imperial culture and representation in Eurasian history. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139136952Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A wide-ranging edited volume whose contributors focus on imperialists’ claims to possess universal power.
Bang, P. F., and D. Kołodziejczyk, eds. 2012. Universal empire: A comparative approach to imperial culture and representation in Eurasian history. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Mutschler, F.-H., and A. Mittag, eds. 2009. Conceiving the empire: China and Rome compared. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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An edited volume. Each article is concerned with a particular topic in each empire and is paired with an essay by another scholar on a similar problem in the other realm.
Mutschler, F.-H., and A. Mittag, eds. 2009. Conceiving the empire: China and Rome compared. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Scheidel, W. 2009a. Sex and empire: A Darwinian perspective. In The dynamics of ancient empires: State power from Assyria to Byzantium. Edited by I. Morris and W. Scheidel, 255–325. Oxford Studies in Early Empires. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Scheidel discusses imperial motivations broadly, focusing his analysis on the male biological urge to compete for resources.
Scheidel, W. 2009a. Sex and empire: A Darwinian perspective. In The dynamics of ancient empires: State power from Assyria to Byzantium. Edited by I. Morris and W. Scheidel, 255–325. Oxford Studies in Early Empires. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Scheidel, W., ed. 2009b. Rome and China: Comparative perspectives on ancient world empires. Oxford Studies in Early Empires. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Each scholar in this volume attempts a comparison between either the Roman Republic or Empire on the one hand and either the Qin or Han dynasties on the other. Larger themes include state formation and economic development.
Scheidel, W., ed. 2009b. Rome and China: Comparative perspectives on ancient world empires. Oxford Studies in Early Empires. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Vasunia, P. 2012. The comparative study of empires. Journal of Roman Studies 101:222–237.
DOI: 10.1017/S0075435811000086Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A useful review article covering recent trends in the comparative study of empire.
Vasunia, P. 2012. The comparative study of empires. Journal of Roman Studies 101:222–237.
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The Roman Army

The study of Roman imperialism begins with study of the Roman army. Scholars in this field have gone far beyond the confines of traditional military history in discussing the social and cultural implications of the legion’s presence around Europe, the Mediterranean basin, and the Near East. Keppie 1998 and Goldsworthy 1996 remain the most accessible and useful overviews of the subjects, though Southern 2007 covers a wide breadth of information as well. Erdkamp 2010 collects many helpful papers for understanding certain aspects.

Erdkamp, P., ed. 2010. A companion to the Roman army. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Oxford and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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A compendium of essays on several aspects of the Roman army. Useful for laying the groundwork for individual research topics.
Erdkamp, P., ed. 2010. A companion to the Roman army. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Oxford and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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Goldsworthy, A. K. 1996. The Roman army at war: 100 BC–AD 200. Oxford Classical Monographs. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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An overview of organization of the army and the mechanics of battle. It is weighted toward the Republican civil wars and early empire.
Goldsworthy, A. K. 1996. The Roman army at war: 100 BC–AD 200. Oxford Classical Monographs. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Keppie, L. 1998. The making of the Roman army: From republic to empire. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press.
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An introduction to the topic for the general reader, with useful insights for the specialist. It covers ground that Goldsworthy 1996 does not, focusing on the organizational changes to the legion from the Roman Republic to the Empire. Originally published in 1984.
Keppie, L. 1998. The making of the Roman army: From republic to empire. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press.
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Southern, P. 2007. The Roman army: A social and institutional history. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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A good overview, with an emphasis on the imperial period and the army in Europe.
Southern, P. 2007. The Roman army: A social and institutional history. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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The Republic

Though much more can be known of the army of the imperial period, most of the geographic expansion of Roman power took place during the earlier Republic. As the nature of Roman political life changed as a result of imperial expansion, so too did the nature and conditions of military service. Rawson 1971 is a good starting point for interpreting the literary sources of the period, and Dobson 2008 unites the study of Polybius’s text with that of archaeological remains of legionary forts. Erdkamp 1998 analyzes the logistics of the Republican army on the march as Roman power expanded throughout the Mediterranean world. Steinby 2007 is the first monograph on the Roman navy to appear in quite some time. Brunt 1971 remains a fundamental source for issues of demography. Though now quite old, Smith 1958 provides a helpful guide to understanding military service in the period, particularly the reforms of the Roman legion at the end of the 2nd century; Gabba 1976 argues that these reforms took place over a longer period. Both Keaveney 2007 and McCall 2008 investigate changes to the military at the end of the Republic, as service became less the purview of the citizen-soldier and more that of the professional.

Brunt, P. A. 1971. Italian manpower, 225 B.C.–A.D. 14. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Exhaustive study of census figures, land organization, and the recruitment of legionary soldiers, among other topics. An essential guide to understanding the intersections between military service and citizenship. Reprinted as recently as 2004.
Brunt, P. A. 1971. Italian manpower, 225 B.C.–A.D. 14. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Dobson, M. 2008. The army of the Roman Republic: The second century BC, Polybius and the camps at Numantia, Spain. Oxford: Oxbow.
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Compares Polybius’s description of army organization with archaeological discoveries in central Spain.
Dobson, M. 2008. The army of the Roman Republic: The second century BC, Polybius and the camps at Numantia, Spain. Oxford: Oxbow.
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Erdkamp, P. 1998. Hunger and the sword: Warfare and food supply in Roman Republican wars (264–30 B.C.). Dutch Monographs on Ancient History and Archaeology 20. Amsterdam: Gieben.
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Studies the logistics of feeding Roman Republican armies at war.
Erdkamp, P. 1998. Hunger and the sword: Warfare and food supply in Roman Republican wars (264–30 B.C.). Dutch Monographs on Ancient History and Archaeology 20. Amsterdam: Gieben.
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Gabba, E. 1976. Republican Rome, the army, and the allies. Translated by P. J. Cuff. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Selection of papers by the celebrated Italian historian. Argues, among other things, that the reforms traditionally attributed to Marius took place over several decades.
Gabba, E. 1976. Republican Rome, the army, and the allies. Translated by P. J. Cuff. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Keaveney, A. 2007. The army in the Roman revolution. New York and London: Routledge.
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Analyzes the army’s role in the downfall of the Republic. Emphasis is on the relationship between the commander and his soldiers.
Keaveney, A. 2007. The army in the Roman revolution. New York and London: Routledge.
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McCall, J. B. 2008. The cavalry of the Roman Republic. New York and London: Routledge.
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Argues that the cavalry of the Roman Republic was much more effective than many have assumed. Also discusses the trend in the Late Republic of fewer elites experiencing military service firsthand. First published in 2001.
McCall, J. B. 2008. The cavalry of the Roman Republic. New York and London: Routledge.
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Rawson, E. 1971. The literary sources for the pre-Marian army. Papers of the British School at Rome 39:13–31.
DOI: 10.1017/S0068246200007789Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Discusses the pitfalls and reliability of the various sources, particularly Polybius and Livy.
Rawson, E. 1971. The literary sources for the pre-Marian army. Papers of the British School at Rome 39:13–31.
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Smith, R. E. 1958. Service in the post-Marian Roman army. Publications of the Faculty of the Arts of the University of Manchester 9. Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press.
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A still-useful study of the Republican legion in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. Analyzes the reforms not only of Marius, but also those of Augustus.
Smith, R. E. 1958. Service in the post-Marian Roman army. Publications of the Faculty of the Arts of the University of Manchester 9. Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press.
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Steinby, C. 2007. The Roman Republican navy: From the sixth century to 167 B.C. Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum 123. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica.
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Analyzes the role of the navy in the period of Rome’s greatest geographic expansion, arguing that Rome had a large interest in naval matters from an early date.
Steinby, C. 2007. The Roman Republican navy: From the sixth century to 167 B.C. Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum 123. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica.
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The Empire

An abundance of archaeological remains has allowed research into the imperial army to flourish. Campbell 1984 addresses the army’s role in imperial politics in the High Empire. De Blois and Lo Cascio 2007 collects papers primarily dealing with the army’s presence in various corners of the empire. Elton 1996 argues that the Roman army remained dynamic in a period traditionally thought to feature decline, while Ferrill 1986 argues that military decline was indeed largely responsible for the western empire’s atrophy.

Campbell, J. B. 1984. The emperor and the Roman army, 31 BC–AD 235. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Analyzes the relationship between the army and the emperor, and the army’s role in politics in the empire.
Campbell, J. B. 1984. The emperor and the Roman army, 31 BC–AD 235. Oxford: Clarendon.
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De Blois, L., and E. Lo Cascio, eds. 2007. The impact of the Roman army (200 BC–AD 476): Economic, social, political, religious and cultural aspects; Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Roman Empire, 200 B.C.–A.D. 476), Capri, March 29–April 2, 2005. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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Collected papers in several languages; some cover the Republic, but most deal with the presence of the military across the empire in the later period.
De Blois, L., and E. Lo Cascio, eds. 2007. The impact of the Roman army (200 BC–AD 476): Economic, social, political, religious and cultural aspects; Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Roman Empire, 200 B.C.–A.D. 476), Capri, March 29–April 2, 2005. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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Elton, H. 1996. Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350–425. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford: Clarendon.
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A thorough investigation into the workings of the army in the later period. Reprinted as recently as 2004.
Elton, H. 1996. Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350–425. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Ferrill, A. 1986. The fall of the Roman Empire: The military explanation. London: Thames and Hudson.
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Argues that the empire’s decline should be attributed to the western army’s disintegration in the 5th century.
Ferrill, A. 1986. The fall of the Roman Empire: The military explanation. London: Thames and Hudson.
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War and Society

In the study of the expansion and maintenance of Roman power, scholars have focused a great deal on the motivations of the soldiers themselves, both in and out of battle. MacMullen 1984 is a fine example of this approach. Campbell 2002 offers a synthesis of the topic for the imperial period. Lee 1996 considers legionaries’ motivations in combat, while Lendon 2005 identifies Roman cultural values that boosted military ardor. Sabin 2000 re-creates the conditions of battle for the legionary soldier, Haynes 1999 discusses the ethnic and cultural makeup of auxilia units, and Phang 2008 studies the importance and implications of Roman army discipline. Rich and Shipley 1993 provides a collection of essays on various aspects of warfare and society, and their interactions.

Campbell, B. 2002. War and society in imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 284. Warfare and History. London and New York: Routledge.
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A lucid general introduction to the Roman army, for scholars and general readers alike.
Campbell, B. 2002. War and society in imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 284. Warfare and History. London and New York: Routledge.
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Haynes, I. 1999. Military service and cultural identity in the auxilia. In The Roman army as a community: Including papers of a conference held at Birkbeck College, University of London, on 11–12 January 1997. Edited by A. Goldsworthy and I. Haynes, 165–174. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplemental Series 34. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
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Emphasizes the diverse makeup of auxilia forces, as well as their immersion in Roman culture.
Haynes, I. 1999. Military service and cultural identity in the auxilia. In The Roman army as a community: Including papers of a conference held at Birkbeck College, University of London, on 11–12 January 1997. Edited by A. Goldsworthy and I. Haynes, 165–174. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplemental Series 34. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
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Lee, A. D. 1996. Morale and the Roman experience of battle. In Battle in Antiquity. Edited by A. B. Lloyd, 199–217. London: Classical Press of Wales.
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Discusses how leadership, rewards, and punishment motivated the legionary soldier.
Lee, A. D. 1996. Morale and the Roman experience of battle. In Battle in Antiquity. Edited by A. B. Lloyd, 199–217. London: Classical Press of Wales.
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Lendon, J. E. 2005. Soldiers and ghosts: A history of battle in classical Antiquity. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
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Emphasizes the importance of the cultural values of virtus (manliness) and disciplina in motivating Roman soldiers.
Lendon, J. E. 2005. Soldiers and ghosts: A history of battle in classical Antiquity. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
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MacMullen, R. 1984. The legion as a society. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 33.4: 440–456.
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A seminal article on the relationship among soldiers in the legion.
MacMullen, R. 1984. The legion as a society. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 33.4: 440–456.
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Phang, S. E. 2008. Roman military service: Ideologies of discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497872Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Analysis of disciplinary measures, both positive and negative, in the Roman legion.
Phang, S. E. 2008. Roman military service: Ideologies of discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Rich, J., and G. Shipley, eds. 1993. War and society in the Roman world. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 5. London: Routledge.
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Fine collection of essays on the impact of warfare on Roman society.
Rich, J., and G. Shipley, eds. 1993. War and society in the Roman world. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 5. London: Routledge.
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Sabin, P. 2000. The face of Roman battle. Journal of Roman Studies 90:1–17.
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Influenced by John Keegan’s famous study, The Face of Battle (New York: Viking, 1976), this article brilliantly evokes the Roman legionary’s experience in battlefield conditions.
Sabin, P. 2000. The face of Roman battle. Journal of Roman Studies 90:1–17.
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Noncombat Functions

As is the case in most military organizations, only a small percentage of life in the Roman army was spent in combat operations. The rest of the time, legionaries and auxilia troops fostered close links with their surrounding communities, engaging in trade, starting and maintaining families, and, famously, erecting the great Roman building projects. Roth 1999 provides a comprehensive analysis of issues of supply and logistics, and Erdkamp 2002 collects conference papers on the subject. Davies 1974 is concerned with the re-creation of everyday military life. Feig Vishnia 2002 collects and analyzes the evidence on the large number of noncombat followers that the legions attracted, and Phang 2001 addresses soldiers’ marriages and practices of cohabitation. Austin and Rankov 1995 examines the gathering of military intelligence.

Austin, N. J. E., and N. B. Rankov. 1995. Exploratio: Military and political intelligence in the Roman world from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople. London: Routledge.
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A study of strategic intelligence and military reconnaissance from the Hannibalic War until Late Antiquity.
Austin, N. J. E., and N. B. Rankov. 1995. Exploratio: Military and political intelligence in the Roman world from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople. London: Routledge.
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Davies, R. W. 1974. “The daily life of the Roman soldier under the Principate.” In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Vol. II.1, Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neuren Forschung. Edited by H. Temporini, 299–338. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter.
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Discussion of the conditions of everyday living of the Roman soldier.
Davies, R. W. 1974. “The daily life of the Roman soldier under the Principate.” In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Vol. II.1, Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neuren Forschung. Edited by H. Temporini, 299–338. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter.
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Erdkamp, P., ed. 2002. The Roman army and the economy. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben.
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Collection of papers dedicated to the logistics of army supply and the ramifications of the army’s presence in the provinces.
Erdkamp, P., ed. 2002. The Roman army and the economy. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben.
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Feig Vishnia, R. 2002. The shadow army: The lixae and the Roman legions. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 139:265–272.
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Discussion of the wide range of noncombatant support forces accompanying the army in the provinces.
Feig Vishnia, R. 2002. The shadow army: The lixae and the Roman legions. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 139:265–272.
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Phang, S. E. 2001. The marriage of Roman soldiers (13 BC–AD 235): Law and family in the imperial army. Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 24. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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Studies marriage and cohabitation in the legion, despite the official imperial sanction against army marriage.
Phang, S. E. 2001. The marriage of Roman soldiers (13 BC–AD 235): Law and family in the imperial army. Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 24. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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Roth, J. P. 1999. The logistics of the Roman army at war (264 BC–AD 235). Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 23. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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Discusses the logistics of outfitting and supply for the Roman army.
Roth, J. P. 1999. The logistics of the Roman army at war (264 BC–AD 235). Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 23. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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The Strategy of Empire and the Nature of the Frontier

The amount of forethought, planning, and control that accompanied Roman imperialism has proven to be an ongoing topic of scholarly concern. Rich 1976 analyzes the nature of senatorial management of declarations of war in the Middle Republic, while Eckstein 1987 argues that the Republican general largely determined the outcome of discrete military and diplomatic operations on the ground. Fronda 2010 focuses on the foreign policy of individual Italian city-states in the Hannibalic War. For the imperial period, Luttwak 1979 applies insights from modern strategic analysis in the author’s discussion of the imperial frontier, while Isaac 2004 offers a fundamentally different view on the defense of empire, according to which thinking about any sort of “grand strategy” is wrong-footed. Similarly, Whittaker 1994 cautions against a modern reading of Roman imperial borders, instead describing a “frontier zone” at the limits of Roman geopolitical control. Dyson 1985 studies the archaeological remains of the limes. Mattern 1999 discusses how the long frontiers were loosely defended by the small number of imperial troops, and argues that the emperors’ energies were frequently consumed in propagandistic bravado rather than actual military achievement. Campbell 1987 discusses the usefulness of ancient military manuals for Roman generals.

Campbell, B. 1987. Teach yourself how to be a general. Journal of Roman Studies 77:13–29.
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Studying evidence for ancient military manuals and other writings, Campbell emphasizes that Roman generals lacked formal training and typically eschewed macro-strategy in favor of pragmatic tactical considerations.
Campbell, B. 1987. Teach yourself how to be a general. Journal of Roman Studies 77:13–29.
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Dyson, S. L. 1985. The creation of the Roman frontier. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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Employs archaeological evidence in order to reconstruct the Roman frontier in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, and Corsica.
Dyson, S. L. 1985. The creation of the Roman frontier. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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Eckstein, A. M. 1987. Senate and general: Individual decision-making and Roman foreign relations, 264–194 B.C. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Shows that the Republican Senate had little control over foreign policy around the Mediterranean. Individual generals in the field decided most issues in an ad hoc fashion.
Eckstein, A. M. 1987. Senate and general: Individual decision-making and Roman foreign relations, 264–194 B.C. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Fronda, M. P. 2010. Between Rome and Carthage: Southern Italy during the Second Punic War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511750830Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A salutary corrective to sweeping generalizations about Roman imperialism, demonstrating that in Italy during the Hannibalic War, individual communities’ policy decisions played an important role.
Fronda, M. P. 2010. Between Rome and Carthage: Southern Italy during the Second Punic War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Isaac, B. 2004. The limits of empire: The Roman army in the East. Rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Disagreeing with Luttwak’s analysis (Luttwak 1979), Isaac argues that the strategic energies of the military were deployed in piecemeal fashion, often focused on controlling internal unrest rather than on external security. Originally published in 1993.
Isaac, B. 2004. The limits of empire: The Roman army in the East. Rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Luttwak, E. N. 1979. The grand strategy of the Roman Empire: From the first century A.D. to the third. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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An influential analysis of the maintenance and protection of Roman frontiers from external threats, though most scholars now see it as too schematic and reductionist.
Luttwak, E. N. 1979. The grand strategy of the Roman Empire: From the first century A.D. to the third. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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Mattern, S. P. 1999. Rome and the enemy: Imperial strategy in the Principate. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Argues that emperors were more concerned with the psychological projection of superiority over barbarian peoples rather than on vigilant protection of the imperial frontier.
Mattern, S. P. 1999. Rome and the enemy: Imperial strategy in the Principate. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Rich, J. W. 1976. Declaring war in the Roman Republic in the period of transmarine expansion. Collection Latomus 149. Brussels: Latomus.
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Analyzes the management of declarations of war by the Roman Senate as a deliberative body in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE.
Rich, J. W. 1976. Declaring war in the Roman Republic in the period of transmarine expansion. Collection Latomus 149. Brussels: Latomus.
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Whittaker, C. R. 1994. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: A social and economic study. Ancient Society and History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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Whittaker argues, despite mythologies of liminal integrity and rigid, modernist conceptions of rational cartography, that the Roman Empire’s frontiers were imprecise, largely indeterminate, and open to a great degree of social and cultural interaction and negotiation.
Whittaker, C. R. 1994. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: A social and economic study. Ancient Society and History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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War and the Political Elite

Though scholars differ regarding Roman militaristic exceptionalism (e.g., Harris 2006 and Eckstein 2006, both cited under Applications of Theories), none would disagree that military and political culture were inextricably linked; indeed, most strongly among the political elite. Study of these cultural traits is fundamental for understanding motivations for Roman imperial expansion. Beard 2007 investigates the pomp and splendor of the triumph, or military parade led by successful generals; see also Versnel 1970 on the Roman triumph. Flower 2001 and McDonnell 2006 demonstrate the fundamental importance of a successful military career in a highly competitive aristocratic culture, but Rosenstein 1990 and Feig Vishnia 1996 remind us of important restrictions on and limitations to aristocratic competition in the military sphere.

Beard, M. 2007. The Roman triumph. Cambridge, MA: Belknap.
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Discussion of the ritualized display of aristocratic power in Roman triumphal celebrations.
Beard, M. 2007. The Roman triumph. Cambridge, MA: Belknap.
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Feig Vishnia, R. 1996. State, society, and popular leaders in mid-Republican Rome, 241–167 B.C. London: Routledge.
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Focuses primarily on aristocratic competition following the First Punic War (264–241 BCE).
Feig Vishnia, R. 1996. State, society, and popular leaders in mid-Republican Rome, 241–167 B.C. London: Routledge.
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Flower, H. I. 2001. Ancestor masks and aristocratic power in Roman culture. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Discusses the role played by imagines, or wax masks of deceased politicians, in Roman funerary practice. Flower shows how aristocratic funerals were opportunities for families with military success to advertise their prominence and to encourage younger generations to emulate their ancestors’ martial accomplishments. First published in 1996.
Flower, H. I. 2001. Ancestor masks and aristocratic power in Roman culture. Oxford: Clarendon.
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McDonnell, M. 2006. Roman manliness: Virtus and the Roman Republic. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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McDonnell analyzes the fundamental role played by military service in forging masculine identity in the Middle Republic. Though some have argued that masculinity was not defined as rigidly as McDonnell implies, this book is fundamental for understanding this aspect of elite culture.
McDonnell, M. 2006. Roman manliness: Virtus and the Roman Republic. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Rosenstein, N. 1990. Imperatores victi: Military defeat and aristocratic competition in the Middle and Late Republic. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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A study of the implications of military defeat for Roman generals, arguing that the need for political stability ensured that members of the governing class were not punished excessively for failures of command.
Rosenstein, N. 1990. Imperatores victi: Military defeat and aristocratic competition in the Middle and Late Republic. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Versnel, H. S. 1970. Triumphus: An inquiry into the origin, development and meaning of the Roman triumph. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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Exhaustive study of the Roman triumph, with emphasis on its origins and cultural meanings.
Versnel, H. S. 1970. Triumphus: An inquiry into the origin, development and meaning of the Roman triumph. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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Consequences of Imperial Expansion on the Italian Countryside

The compelling issue addressed by these scholars concerns the changes to rural Italy in the aftermath of the Hannibalic War and the eastern wars of the late 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. There is no doubt that by the 130s BCE the Gracchi perceived that the demands of warfare had allowed the ager publicus to become unfairly dominated by elites, who acquired vast agricultural estates at the expense of Italian small farmers. Toynbee 1965 assumes that the Gracchan land reforms addressed a genuine problem, and this remains the dominant view. Hopkins 1981 applies sociological insights, arriving at similar conclusions. Rosenstein 2004 breaks new ground, reconstructing living conditions to argue that the peasant population would have had no difficulty bearing the brunt of wartime mortality; indeed, according to the author, it increased over the period. The essays in De Ligt and Northwood 2008 address many particular aspects of demography over the period of imperial expansion.

De Ligt, L., and S. J. Northwood, eds. 2008. People, land, and politics: Demographic developments and the transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC–AD 14. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava, Supplementum 303. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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Collected essays, some of which question whether the Italian countryside was indeed depopulated as a result of Rome’s imperialist expansion.
De Ligt, L., and S. J. Northwood, eds. 2008. People, land, and politics: Demographic developments and the transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC–AD 14. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava, Supplementum 303. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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Hopkins, K. 1981. Conquerors and slaves. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Discusses, among other topics, the implications of the widespread importation of slaves as war booty on the Roman economy. Argues that slaves replaced smallholders throughout the countryside.
Hopkins, K. 1981. Conquerors and slaves. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Rosenstein, N. 2004. Rome at war: Farms, families, and death in the Middle Republic. Studies in the History of Greece and Rome. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
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Relying on hypothetical demographic reconstruction, Rosenstein boldly challenges the long-held opinion that Italy after the Hannibalic War became depopulated of smallholders.
Rosenstein, N. 2004. Rome at war: Farms, families, and death in the Middle Republic. Studies in the History of Greece and Rome. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
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Toynbee, A. J. 1965. Hannibal’s legacy: The Hannibalic War’s effects on Roman life. 2 vols. London: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Classic interpretation of the impact of warfare on the Italian countryside in the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BCE. Postulates that extended fighting by legionaries overseas left their farms back home barren and untended, eventually leading to depopulation in rural areas and migration to towns and cities in Italy.
Toynbee, A. J. 1965. Hannibal’s legacy: The Hannibalic War’s effects on Roman life. 2 vols. London: Oxford Univ. Press.
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International Administration, Law, and Imperial Citizenship

The expansion of Roman interstate power required Rome to devise new instruments of governance, and new legal conceptions to bolster them. So, for example, in c. 242 BCE the magistracy of the peregrine praetor was created at Rome to deal with litigation in which either one or both parties were foreigners, and in 149 BCE the Romans established, by a lex Calpurnia de repetundis, an extortion court to try corrupt governors in the provinces, well covered in Gruen 1968. Lintott 1993 provides an excellent overview of Roman imperial administration, and Ando 2011 considers the ways in which legal institutions and legal discourses supported and reflected the imperial status quo, and reinforced imperial control of subjects. In law, the theory of a “law of nations,” or ius gentium, developed, whereby all peoples, theoretically at least, had rights at law, and there arose at least a notional commitment to nascent, international legal mechanisms (for which, see Bederman 2001). Sherwin-White 2001 and Nicolet 1988 (both cited under Roman Law and Roman Citizenship) as well as Bispham 2007 study various aspects of the granting of Roman citizenship and its adaptation to imperial developments, as the defeated, subjected, and governed were gradually assimilated into the Roman commonwealth. Indeed, Roman imperial success was due largely to the liberal granting of citizenship, culminating in the constitutio Antoniniana of 212 CE, which virtually granted Roman citizenship to nearly all free inhabitants of the empire. Champion 2013 contrasts this policy with the relatively restrictive citizenship laws in classical Athens and shows how these differences were reflected in foundation myths and forensic contests. We may profitably think of the progressively liberal extension of the Roman citizenship franchise as a politics of incorporation, or a policy of inclusion—and as the key to the Romans’ imperial success. Lendon 2001 sees a fundamentally important informal control in consensual subscription throughout all socio-economic classes to the aristocratic values of deference to authority and personal codes of honor.

Ando, C. 2011. Law, language, and empire in the Roman tradition. Empire and After. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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Argues that the body of rules composing the Roman legal system was also an instrument of empire.
Ando, C. 2011. Law, language, and empire in the Roman tradition. Empire and After. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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Bederman, D. J. 2001. International law in Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511494130Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
General survey of the development of international legal conceptions in Greek and Roman Antiquity.
Bederman, D. J. 2001. International law in Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Bispham, E. 2007. From Asculum to Actium: The municipalization of Italy from the Social War to Augustus. Oxford Classical Monographs. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199231843.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Meticulous study utilizing epigraphical texts to illuminate the extension of citizenship and municipalization of towns in Roman Italy during the Late Republic.
Bispham, E. 2007. From Asculum to Actium: The municipalization of Italy from the Social War to Augustus. Oxford Classical Monographs. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Champion, C. B. 2013. Imperial ideologies, citizenship myths, and legal disputes in classical Athens and Republican Rome. In A companion to Greek and Roman political thought. Edited by R. K. Balot, 85–99. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Oxford and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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Comparison of Athenian and Roman political ideologies and foundation myths in regard to citizenship and citizen franchise. Originally published in 2009.
Champion, C. B. 2013. Imperial ideologies, citizenship myths, and legal disputes in classical Athens and Republican Rome. In A companion to Greek and Roman political thought. Edited by R. K. Balot, 85–99. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Oxford and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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Gruen, E. S. 1968. Roman politics and the criminal courts, 149–78 B.C. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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Detailed analyses of the major court cases during the first seventy years of the extortion court’s existence.
Gruen, E. S. 1968. Roman politics and the criminal courts, 149–78 B.C. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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Lendon, J. E. 2001. Empire of honour: The art of government in the Roman world. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Considering the first four centuries CE, Lendon looks beyond formal administrative apparatuses of empire, arguing that basic values of Roman aristocratic culture served as ballast for the smooth functioning of the empire and were observed by elites and non-elites alike. Originally published in 1997 (Oxford: Clarendon).
Lendon, J. E. 2001. Empire of honour: The art of government in the Roman world. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Lintott, A. W. 1993. Imperium Romanum: Politics and administration. London: Routledge.
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Overview of many aspects of Roman imperial governance.
Lintott, A. W. 1993. Imperium Romanum: Politics and administration. London: Routledge.
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Roman Law and Roman Citizenship

Included here are essential works for understanding the fundamentals of Roman law and Roman citizenship, both of which were profoundly affected by imperial processes. Nicholas 1962 provides a useful introduction, and Johnston 1999 analyzes how certain parts of the law affected the citizen. Watson 1998 presents and translates Justinian’s famous compilation of Roman law. Sherwin-White 2001 remains the most important work on Roman citizenship both for the Republic and the empire, while Nicolet 1988 focuses more on the Republic.

Johnston, D. 1999. Roman law in context. Key Themes in Ancient History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511612138Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Describes various aspects of the Roman legal system as it was experienced by Roman citizens.
Johnston, D. 1999. Roman law in context. Key Themes in Ancient History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Nicholas, B. 1962. An introduction to Roman law. Clarendon Law. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Basic introduction to the Roman civil law code and its applications. Revised edition published in 2008.
Nicholas, B. 1962. An introduction to Roman law. Clarendon Law. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Nicolet, C. 1988. The world of the citizen in Republican Rome. Translated by P. S. Falla. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Describes the life of the Roman citizen in the civic, social, political, and military spheres during the Republic.
Nicolet, C. 1988. The world of the citizen in Republican Rome. Translated by P. S. Falla. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Sherwin-White, A. N. 2001. The Roman citizenship. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Classic, exhaustive study (originally. published in 1939) on most aspects of the Roman citizenship, from the beginnings through the constitutio Antoninana of 212 CE.
Sherwin-White, A. N. 2001. The Roman citizenship. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Watson, A., ed. and trans. 1998. The digest of Justinian. Rev. ed. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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Latin text and facing English translation of the great compilation of Roman civil law by the emperor Justinian (c. 482–565 CE).
Watson, A., ed. and trans. 1998. The digest of Justinian. Rev. ed. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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Cultural Imperialism

In recent decades, Roman historians have extended their purview beyond the confines of questions of warfare and international diplomacy in the Roman Empire. One of the more enlivening newer directions has been on the impact of imperial processes on culture, and vice versa. Much of this work has concerned Rome’s political-cultural interactions with Greeks. The Romans inherited from the Greeks the polarizing cultural discourse of Hellenism versus barbarism, and their own relationship with Hellenism was highly ambivalent. Dauge 1981 (cited under Roman Discourses on Barbarism) provides an in-depth analysis of the “barbarian category” in Roman thought. Ferrary 1988 (in French) is the single most important book on the question of the Romans’ “philhellenism.” Gruen 1990 and Gruen 1992 are collections of discrete essays on various aspects of Roman political-cultural interactions with Greece. Swain 1996 and Goldhill 2001 examine Greek identity, politics, and culture in the first three centuries CE, especially in the period known as the second sophistic. Lomas 1993 and Dench 2005 study Roman acculturation and cultural representations of non-Romans in southern Italy and Sicily. Champion 2004 examines the cultural representations of Romans in the history by Polybius, an important Greek statesman who was a political prisoner of the Romans in the mid-2nd century BCE. Woolf 1998 utilizes archaeological evidence to produce a wonderfully textured account of provincials’ cultural responses to Roman domination, and Webster 2001 discusses the blending of Roman and local identities. Dench 2005 studies conceptions of Roman self-identity throughout imperial expansion.

Champion, C. B. 2004. Cultural politics in Polybius’s histories. Hellenistic Culture and Society 41. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520237643.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Explores the political-cultural interchanges between the Greek elite and the Roman Republic as they are revealed in the history by Polybius, an important Greek statesman and political hostage at Rome in the 2nd century BCE.
Champion, C. B. 2004. Cultural politics in Polybius’s histories. Hellenistic Culture and Society 41. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Dench, E. 2005. Romulus’ asylum: Roman identities from the age of Alexander to the age of Hadrian. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198150510.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Examines the ways in which conceptions of Roman identity changed in relation to expansion of Roman power throughout the Mediterranean.
Dench, E. 2005. Romulus’ asylum: Roman identities from the age of Alexander to the age of Hadrian. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Ferrary, J.-L. 1988. Philhellénisme et impérialisme: Aspects idéologiques de la conquête romaine du monde hellénistique, de la seconde guerre de Macédoine à la guerre contre Mithridate. Bibliothèque des Écoles Françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 271. Rome: École Française de Rome.
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Brilliant, wide-ranging analysis of the Romans’ highly ambivalent views on Greek culture.
Ferrary, J.-L. 1988. Philhellénisme et impérialisme: Aspects idéologiques de la conquête romaine du monde hellénistique, de la seconde guerre de Macédoine à la guerre contre Mithridate. Bibliothèque des Écoles Françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 271. Rome: École Française de Rome.
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Goldhill, S., ed. 2001. Being Greek under Rome: Cultural identity, the second sophistic, and the development of empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511627323Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Collection of essays on various aspects of the Greek experience of Roman power during the 2nd century CE.
Goldhill, S., ed. 2001. Being Greek under Rome: Cultural identity, the second sophistic, and the development of empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Gruen, E. S. 1990. Studies in Greek culture and Roman policy. Cincinnati Classical Studies, n.s. 7. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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Essays on various aspects of Roman foreign policy and the impact of Hellenism on it.
Gruen, E. S. 1990. Studies in Greek culture and Roman policy. Cincinnati Classical Studies, n.s. 7. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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Gruen, E. S. 1992. Culture and national identity in Republican Rome. Cornell Studies in Classical Philology 52. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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Studies on various aspects of the impact of Hellenism in the development of a Roman collective cultural identity.
Gruen, E. S. 1992. Culture and national identity in Republican Rome. Cornell Studies in Classical Philology 52. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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Lomas, K. 1993. Rome and the western Greeks, 350 BC–AD 200: Conquest and acculturation in southern Italy. London and New York: Routledge.
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Considers the complex processes of Greek acculturation in southern Italy for over half a millennium of Roman history.
Lomas, K. 1993. Rome and the western Greeks, 350 BC–AD 200: Conquest and acculturation in southern Italy. London and New York: Routledge.
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Swain, S. 1996. Hellenism and empire: Language, classicism, and power in the Greek world, AD 50–250. Oxford: Clarendon.
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A study of Greek intellectuals’ responses to the Roman dispensation during the period from 50 to 250 CE.
Swain, S. 1996. Hellenism and empire: Language, classicism, and power in the Greek world, AD 50–250. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Webster, J. 2001. Creolizing the Roman provinces. American Journal of Archaeology 105.2: 209–225.
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Discussion of the use of the term “Romanization,” as well as an analysis of the blending of Roman and local Celtic cultures.
Webster, J. 2001. Creolizing the Roman provinces. American Journal of Archaeology 105.2: 209–225.
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Woolf, G. 1998. Becoming Roman: The origins of provincial civilization in Gaul. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Critiquing the concept of “Romanization,” Woolf demonstrates the nuances and intricacies of the forging of a (mostly elite) hybrid Roman/native culture in provincial Gaul during the Early Principate.
Woolf, G. 1998. Becoming Roman: The origins of provincial civilization in Gaul. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Archaeology

Like many other subfields in the study of Roman imperialism, the current state of the field of Roman archaeology in the Mediterranean is to a great extent concerned with negotiating an understanding of the subject no longer situated in the mentalities of Europe’s 19th-century colonial projects. Along these lines, the primary target of this scholarship is the long-standing prominence of “Romanization” as an analytical tool. To be sure, some studies, such as Millett 1990, still find it useful, though they no longer feature a metrocentric explanation of the actions of Roman elites. Many of the essays in Mattingly 1997 center on the northwest empire and urge moving beyond “Romanization.” Woolf 1998 (cited under Cultural Imperialism), Hingley 2005, Hitchner 2008, Revell 2009 (cited under Defining Imperialism), and Mattingly 2011 do so forcefully as well, variously applying theoretical models to the understanding of the study of the material remains of the Roman presence. Alcock 1993 (cited under Defining Imperialism) and Butcher 2003 remain excellent syntheses of Roman archaeology in the eastern half of the empire.

Butcher, K. 2003. Roman Syria and the Near East. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
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A synthesis of the archaeology of the eastern part of the empire.
Butcher, K. 2003. Roman Syria and the Near East. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
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Hingley, R. 2005. Globalizing Roman culture: Unity, diversity and empire. London and New York: Routledge.
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Hingley calls for scholarship to move beyond “Romanization” as a model and to interpret interactions between Roman and provincial cultures in a more complex and nuanced way.
Hingley, R. 2005. Globalizing Roman culture: Unity, diversity and empire. London and New York: Routledge.
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Hitchner, R. B. 2008. “Globalization avant la lettre: Globalization and the history of the Roman Empire.” New Global Studies 2.2: 1–12.
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Argues that scholarship on the Roman Empire, in focusing on the differences found at the local level, has been too myopic. Hitchner contends that many of the processes associated with globalization were present in the ancient world.
Hitchner, R. B. 2008. “Globalization avant la lettre: Globalization and the history of the Roman Empire.” New Global Studies 2.2: 1–12.
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Mattingly, D. J., ed. 1997. Dialogues in Roman imperialism: Power, discourse, and discrepant experience in the Roman Empire. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 23. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
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Collection of essays with an emphasis on Gaul and Britain. Many, though not all, challenge the continued usefulness of “Romanization” as a conceptual tool.
Mattingly, D. J., ed. 1997. Dialogues in Roman imperialism: Power, discourse, and discrepant experience in the Roman Empire. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 23. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
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Mattingly, D. J. 2011. Imperialism, power and identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire. Miriam S. Balmuth Lectures in Ancient History and Archaeology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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Mattingly explores, in a volume of collected essays, alternative approaches to the “Romanization” model, noting that it relies on a colonial legacy that masks the exploitative nature of Roman power. He uses insights from postcolonial theory and emphasizes the need to recognize discrepant experience and heterogeneity throughout the Roman world.
Mattingly, D. J. 2011. Imperialism, power and identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire. Miriam S. Balmuth Lectures in Ancient History and Archaeology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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Millett, M. 1990. The Romanization of Britain: An essay in archaeological interpretation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Millett eschews the older model of “Romanization” based on top-down causation and places local elites at the center of the process of acculturation.
Millett, M. 1990. The Romanization of Britain: An essay in archaeological interpretation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Roman Discourses on Barbarism

The barbarian category stood as a polar opposition to the position of the Roman citizen, and civilized life generally. Rome’s mission was often seen by Roman writers as a war against the forces of barbarism, clearing the way for the flowering of civilization. This theme is exhaustively explored in Dauge 1981. Dench 1995 demonstrates how inhabitants of the central Apennine Mountains in Italy were pacified in the Roman imaginary and were turned into civilized Romans. Champion 2004 examines the great Greek historian Polybius’s use of the barbarian category in relation to Roman identity.

Champion, C. B. 2004. Cultural politics in Polybius’s histories. Hellenistic Culture and Society 41. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520237643.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
An examination of the Hellenic-barbarian continuum in Polybius’s history, with special attention to his representations of Romans.
Champion, C. B. 2004. Cultural politics in Polybius’s histories. Hellenistic Culture and Society 41. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Dauge, Y. A. 1981. Le barbare: Recherches sur la conception romaine de la barbarie et de la civilisation. Collection Latomus 176. Brussels: Latomus.
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Exhaustive study of the Roman conception and representations of the “barbarian” other.
Dauge, Y. A. 1981. Le barbare: Recherches sur la conception romaine de la barbarie et de la civilisation. Collection Latomus 176. Brussels: Latomus.
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Dench, E. 1995. From barbarians to new men: Greek, Roman, and modern perceptions of peoples of the central Apennines. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Studies the Roman civilizing mission and representations of the peoples of central Italy along a continuum of civilized versus barbarous.
Dench, E. 1995. From barbarians to new men: Greek, Roman, and modern perceptions of peoples of the central Apennines. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Empire in Image and Representation

In a largely non-literate society such as ancient Rome, artistic representation had a profound impact on how Romans of all social levels understood and interacted with Roman power. Zanker 1990 focuses on Late Republican elites’ use of images to promote their own political power, while Hölscher 2004 situates Roman art within a powerful semantic system capable of delivering a wide range of ideological messages. The papers collected in Dillon and Welch 2009 focus on warfare as a central motif in Roman artistic representation. Both Ferris 2000 and Webster 2003 are concerned with the role of art in negotiating the relationship between the imperial metropole and the provincial or “barbarian” periphery.

Dillon, S., and K. E. Welch, eds. 2009. Representations of war in ancient Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Collection of articles on various aspects of warfare in Roman art.
Dillon, S., and K. E. Welch, eds. 2009. Representations of war in ancient Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Ferris, I. M. 2000. Enemies of Rome: Barbarians through Roman eyes. Stroud, UK: Sutton.
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Examines artistic depictions of barbarians as a foil to Roman power that variously elevated Roman above barbarian but also criticized Roman sway.
Ferris, I. M. 2000. Enemies of Rome: Barbarians through Roman eyes. Stroud, UK: Sutton.
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Hölscher, T. 2004. The language of images in Roman art. Translated by A. Snodgrass and A. Künzl-Snodgrass. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Translated from 1987 German edition. Analyzes Roman art as a communicative system with an array of ideological meaning, depending on context. Hölscher argues that Roman art was not restricted by temporal paradigms of visual style but could rely on many different Hellenistic motifs in order to project various ideological messages.
Hölscher, T. 2004. The language of images in Roman art. Translated by A. Snodgrass and A. Künzl-Snodgrass. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Webster, J. 2003. Art as resistance and negotiation. In Roman imperialism and provincial art. Edited by S. Scott and J. Webster, 24–51. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Explores the ways in which native artists negotiated a pathway between acceptance and resistance to Roman power, through artistic representations. Webster argues against a focus on “acculturation” in studying the effects of Roman rule in the provinces.
Webster, J. 2003. Art as resistance and negotiation. In Roman imperialism and provincial art. Edited by S. Scott and J. Webster, 24–51. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Zanker, P. 1990. The power of images in the age of Augustus. Translated by A. Shapiro. Jerome Lectures. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
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Zanker explores several themes in the transition from Republic to Principate, such as the influence of Hellenistic motifs on Late Republican art, the propaganda war between Octavian and Antony, and the role of art in establishing and justifying the new Augustan regime.
Zanker, P. 1990. The power of images in the age of Augustus. Translated by A. Shapiro. Jerome Lectures. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
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Religion and Empire

Religion was clearly an important factor in the functioning of the Roman Empire. Generally speaking, the formal religious establishment at Rome incorporated and “syncretized” native religions and cult practices of the regions that were ultimately subjected to Roman power and incorporated into the Roman Empire. There were notable exceptions, however, such as the brutal suppression of the worship of Bacchus throughout Italy in 186 BCE, or the sporadic persecutions of Christians beginning in the 1st century CE. Beard, et al. 1998 provides an excellent survey of the religions of Rome throughout Antiquity, and North 2000 offers a lucid and concise overview. Beard and North 1990 provides a wide range of essays on ancient priests and priesthoods. For the Republic, see Rüpke 2012; for the Principate, Rives 2007. Ando 2008 stresses the empirical, pragmatic nature of religion as a rational system in the maintenance of empire. Price 1984 is an invaluable study of the cult of the Roman emperor in Asia Minor. Helgeland 1988 studies the function of religion in the Roman army.

Ando, C. 2008. The matter of the gods: Religion and the Roman Empire. Transformation of the Classical Heritage 44. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Argues that Roman religion was based on imperial experience and knowledge; Romans observed the world in order to understand the gods.
Ando, C. 2008. The matter of the gods: Religion and the Roman Empire. Transformation of the Classical Heritage 44. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Beard, M., and J. North, eds. 1990. Pagan priests: Religion and power in the ancient world. London: Duckworth.
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Collection of essays on priests and priesthoods in the ancient world, several of which concern the Roman Empire, with an excellent introduction to the topic.
Beard, M., and J. North, eds. 1990. Pagan priests: Religion and power in the ancient world. London: Duckworth.
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Beard, M., J. North, and S. Price. 1998. Religions of Rome. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Text and translated documents covering the entire expanse of Roman history. An invaluable resource.
Beard, M., J. North, and S. Price. 1998. Religions of Rome. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Helgeland, J. 1988. Roman army religion. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Vol. II.16.2. Edited by H. Temporini, 1470–1505. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter.
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An analysis of the religious beliefs of Roman soldiers.
Helgeland, J. 1988. Roman army religion. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Vol. II.16.2. Edited by H. Temporini, 1470–1505. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter.
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North, J. A. 2000. Roman religion. Greece and Rome, New Surveys in the Classics 30. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Concise account of various aspects of Roman religion.
North, J. A. 2000. Roman religion. Greece and Rome, New Surveys in the Classics 30. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Price, S. R. F. 1984. Rituals and power: The Roman imperial cult in Asia Minor. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Classic study of the worship of the living emperor in Asia Minor.
Price, S. R. F. 1984. Rituals and power: The Roman imperial cult in Asia Minor. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Rives, J. B. 2007. Religion in the Roman Empire. Blackwell Ancient Religions. Oxford: Blackwell.
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An overview of religion and empire during the Principate.
Rives, J. B. 2007. Religion in the Roman Empire. Blackwell Ancient Religions. Oxford: Blackwell.
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Rüpke, J. 2012. Religion in Republican Rome: Rationalization and ritual change. Empire and After. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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Essays of various aspects of religion during the Republic, emphasizing religion as a rational system.
Rüpke, J. 2012. Religion in Republican Rome: Rationalization and ritual change. Empire and After. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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