Scandinavia (Renaissance and Reformation)

Introduction

At the beginning of the 14th century, three independent kingdoms dominated northern Europe: Denmark, which included the southernmost provinces of what is today Sweden, as well as the German duchies of Schleswig and Holstein; Norway, which claimed Iceland and the Faroe Islands; and Sweden, which included much of modern Finland. In 1397 these three kingdoms were unified under the Kalmar Union, which enjoyed an uneasy existence until its partial dissolution with the victory of a Swedish rebellion led by Gustav Vasa and his election as king of Sweden in 1523. The history of the succeeding century is dominated in large part by the intense rivalry between the Swedes and the Danes over control of the region and the increasingly valuable Baltic trade. From 1536 to 1660, Danish territory was second in size only to the Spanish Empire, and its royal coffers were swollen with income from the dues paid by merchants traversing the straits controlled by its navy. By the beginning of the 17th century, these resources, together with Denmark’s early embrace of Protestantism, provided the realm with an opportunity to play a leading role in European affairs. But Denmark’s moment was fleeting, and it would be Sweden’s impact that would be far heavier in the Thirty Years War and would continue over the course of the 17th century to develop a Baltic empire that would include portions of modern-day Estonia, Poland, and Germany, as well as all of Denmark’s former holdings on the Scandinavian peninsula. By the 14th century, the majority of Scandinavia had long been part of the Christian fold and to a large degree was incorporated into European culture. There was a steady trickle of students from the Nordic realms to European universities in the later Middle Ages, and domestic universities were established at Lund in 1425, at Uppsala in 1477, and at Copenhagen in 1479. The region’s strong economic ties to England, Germany, and the Netherlands helped to accelerate the process of cultural integration with the Continent and to shape Scandinavian artistic, architectural, and cultural development, particularly in urban centers. The consolidation of royal power in 16th-century Denmark and Sweden and the inception of the Reformation brought about the more aggressive introduction of Renaissance culture and encouraged its dissemination, particularly through the agency of the royal court and the reformed church. The history of Scandinavia between 1350 and 1650 was typified by tremendous diversity and difference as well as similarity and integration. This article attempts to provide a sense of this variety and to point to connections, common themes, and unifying elements.

General Overviews

No single work provides an overview of Scandinavia from 1350 to 1650; however, the works listed in this section span both the time period and the region and explore the relationship among the kingdoms and their environmental and cultural-political context.

Scandinavia

To the people living in Europe’s northernmost kingdoms between 1350 and 1650, the term Scandinavia would have held no recognizable meaning. Indeed, the name was adopted only in the 18th century as a designation for the peninsula shared by Norway and Sweden. Today the name Scandinavia is generally taken to refer to those three kingdoms—Denmark, Norway, and Sweden—which share common ethnic, cultural, and linguistic bonds. However, in the period under question, those three kingdoms continually evolved and transformed, making the modern use of the term irrelevant or inaccurate. This is all the more the case because the majority of modern historiography has been informed by a nationalistic paradigm and, consequently, virtually all major works of Scandinavian history are national in focus. An all-inclusive, integrated history of Scandinavia remains to be written. Indeed, the cultural variety and historical complexity of the region would make the production of any such volume a tremendous challenge. Helle 2003; Sawyer and Sawyer 1993; Kirby 1990; Eliassen, et al. 2001; and Rystad 1983 provide broad regional overviews of the historical trends in this period.

Eliassen, Finn-Einar, Jørgen Mikkelsen, and Bjørn Poulsen, eds. Regional Integration in Early Modern Scandinavia. Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press, 2001.
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Regions and regionalism have played an important role in Scandinavian history for centuries. The essays in this book examine the ways in which regionalism influenced political, economic, and cultural life from 1400 to 1850.
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Helle, Knut, ed. The Cambridge History of Scandinavia. Vol. 1, Prehistory to 1520. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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This encyclopedic work contains articles by recognized experts that cover the full range of Scandinavian history up to the year 1520.
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Kirby, David. Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period: The Baltic World, 1492–1772. New York: Longman, 1990.
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Kirby’s work is important because it contextualizes Scandinavia, especially Sweden and Denmark, and demonstrates not only these countries’ crucial role in the Baltic region, but also the many ways in which they were affected and transformed as a consequence of regional and European events and forces. Republished as recently as 2003 (London: Pearson Education).
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Rystad, Göran, ed. Europe and Scandinavia: Aspects of the Process of Integration in the 17th Century. Lund Studies in International History 18. Lund, Sweden: Esselte Studium, 1983.
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This series of articles covers various aspects of the integration of Scandinavian institutions with their European counterparts, and the impact of Scandinavian involvement with European affairs.
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Sawyer, Brigit, and Peter Sawyer. Medieval Scandinavia: From Conversion to Reformation, circa 800–1500. Nordic Series 17. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.
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This is an overview of Scandinavian history in a period that saw ever-increasing contact between Europe and Scandinavia, the gradual transformation of Scandinavian culture, and its slow integration into the European cultural and institutional mainstream. Reprinted as recently as 2003.
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The Baltic

Ever since Ferand Braudel’s monumental work on the Mediterranean, historians have come to recognize the importance of the seas as venues for human history. The ability of the Baltic Sea both to separate people and cultures and to facilitate contact and bring them together has played a central role in the history of the region. Equally important is the Baltic’s role as a source of economic resources and a medium for their transport. Kirby and Hinkkanen 2000 provides an overview of the Baltic and North Seas in geographical and human terms, with particular attention to the sea’s importance to regional economics and politics. Lavery 2002 focuses on the contest between the Scandinavian kingdoms and the empire for control of the Baltic in the mid-16th century.

Kirby, David, and Merja-Liisa Hinkkanen. The Baltic and the North Seas. Seas in History. New York: Routledge, 2000.
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Beginning with a discussion of the Baltic Sea as a geographical feature and environment, this work examines the sea’s significance to various aspects of Scandinavia’s history, such as the role it has played in the transmission of technology, trade, and fishing, and the role of women.
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Lavery, Jason. Germany’s Northern Challenge: The Holy Roman Empire and the Scandinavian Struggle for the Baltic, 1563–1576. Studies in Central European Histories. Boston: Brill, 2002.
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Lavery examines the relationship between the Holy Roman Empire and the Scandinavian kingdoms in the years after the Peace of Augsburg, which ended over thirty years of religious and political unrest in the Holy Roman Empire in 1555.
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The Nordic Kingdoms

The overwhelming majority of works on Scandinavian history are national histories. The selection listed here is useful for gaining a general overview of the histories of the Nordic kingdoms and some—though not all—of their constituent parts. Scandinavia is a vast region, and its more remote areas are populated by people such as the Sami (Lapps), who are not well represented in any of the standard literature. Language is an obstacle to accessing the histories of other areas, such as Poland/Lithuania, that were at one time part of Sweden or that held brief importance to the affairs of the region.

The Kalmar Union

In 1397 Queen Margareta of Denmark succeeded in engineering the union of the three Nordic Realms under one crown. Union kings were elected and the Danish royal house managed to dominate the office; however, their power was seldom uncontested and the union remained largely theoretical. It disintegrated with the rebellion of the Swedes and the establishment of an independent Swedish kingdom under the rule of Gustav Vasa in 1523. Both Allen 1864–1872 and Larsson 1997 provide detailed information on this complex chapter of Scandinavian history.

Allen, Carl Ferdinand. De tre nordiske rigers historie under Hans, Christiern den Anden, Frederik den Første, Gustav Vasa, grevefeiden: 1497–1536. 5 vols. Copenhagen: Theiles Bogtrykkeri, 1864–1872.
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Old-fashioned and a bit too focused on “great men,” Allen’s work is nevertheless a useful and encyclopedic resource for understanding the Kalmar Union in its final century.
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Larsson, Lars-Olof. Kalmarunionens tid: Från Drottning Margareta till Kristian II. Stockholm: Rabén Prisma, 1997.
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This is a highly readable and comprehensive overview of the Kalmar Union from its inception in 1397 to its de facto dissolution in 1521.
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Denmark

Denmark is an ancient kingdom with remarkable institutional continuity, which from 1397 to 1523 dominated Scandinavia politically under the Kalmar Union. Denmark’s geographic location enabled it to control access to the Baltic Sea and to charge tolls on shipping, which was an extremely lucrative source of revenue for the Danish crown. By the 16th century, Denmark was one of the largest territorial states in Europe and enjoyed considerable wealth and prestige. Though the kingdom ultimately lost the contest to control the Baltic to Sweden in the 17th century, it continued to play an important role in Scandinavian and European affairs. Jespersen 2004 provides a general overview of Danish history in this period. Danstrup and Kock 1969–1972 is a comprehensive and encyclopedic history of Denmark.

Danstrup, John, and Hal Kock, eds. Danmarks historie. 2d ed. 15 vols. Copenhagen: Politikens Forlag, 1969–1972.
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This work provides an encyclopedic account of Denmark’s history. Reprinted as recently as 1984–1985.
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Jespersen, Knud J. V. A History of Denmark. Translated by Ivan Hill. Palgrave Essential Histories. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
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This is a brief and general overview of the history of Denmark.
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Finland

Finland came under the rule of the Swedish crown in the 12th century and remained an integral part of the kingdom until it was absorbed by Russia in 1809. Kirby 2006 provides a general overview of Finnish history, while Tarkiainen 2008 is focused on the political, cultural, and linguistic relationships during the period of Finnish integration with Sweden up to the end of the 16th century.

Kirby, David. A Concise History of Finland. Cambridge Concise Histories. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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Kirby’s work is primarily a political history; social, cultural, and economic issues are presented to the extent that they have affected politics in Finland.
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Tarkiainen, Kari. Sveriges Österland: Från forntiden till Gustav Vasa. Skrifter Utgivna av Svenska Litteratursällskapet i Finland 702. Helsingfors, Sweden: Svenska Litteratursällskapet i Finland, 2008.
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Tarkiainen’s absolute mastery of archival sources is everywhere apparent in this study of Sweden’s “Eastern lands”—Finland—from prehistory to the 16th century. The study is particularly interesting for its view of Finland as an intrinsic part of the Swedish realm and its appreciation of the cultural and linguistic diversity of Sweden in the period from the Middle Ages through the Reformation.
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Iceland

According to the Landnámabók, Norse settlement of Iceland began in 874. By the 13th century the island came under the rule of the Norwegian crown and later under Danish rule with the Norwegian realm’s absorption into the Danish crown. Though peripheral, Iceland developed a strong Nordic cultural identity. Karlsson 2000 provides an overview of the history of Iceland, while Hastrup 1990 is focused on the culture and experience of Europeans living at the fringe of European civilization.

Hastrup, Kirsten. Nature and Policy in Iceland, 1400–1800: An Anthropological Analysis of History and Mentality. Oxford: Clarendon, 1990.
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Hastrup’s work provides a fascinating insight into the lives of Europeans living at the very fringe of European civilization.
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Karlsson, Gunnar. The History of Iceland. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000.
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This overview of Icelandic history is episodic, but it is the best available in the English language.
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Norway

The kingdom of Norway was consolidated and Christianized by the end of the 11th century. In the 14th century the hereditary crown of Norway was inherited by the Danish prince Olav, effecting a personal union of the realms that was formalized in the Kalmar Union of 1397. From this date, Norway slowly became a province of the Danish realm, until control of the kingdom passed to the Swedes in 1814. Bagge and Mykland 1987 and Albrectsen 1997 provide an overview of the history of Norway during the period of Danish domination, while Benedictow 1977 looks specifically at the process by which Norway was transformed from an independent kingdom to a province of the Danish Empire. Danielsen 1995, Holmsen 1996, and Dahl and Coldevin 1961–1964 provide more-general overviews of Norwegian history, including cultural as well as political developments.

Albrectsen, Esben. Danmark-Norge, 1380–1814. Vol. 1, Faelleskabet bliver til, 1380–1536. Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget AS, 1997.
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This relatively recent work deals specifically with the relationship between Norway and Denmark during the Kalmar Union.
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Bagge, Sverre, and Knut Mykland. Norge i dansketiden: 1380–1814. Translated by Ole Shierbeck. Copenhagen: Politikens Forlag, 1987.
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Bagge and Mykland focus on the history of Norway under Danish rule.
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Benedictow, Ole J. Norges historia. Vol. 5, Fra rike til provins, 1448–1536. Oslo, Norway: Cappelens Forlag, 1977.
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Benedictow is interested in the process by which Norway was transformed from an independent realm to a province of the kingdom of Denmark.
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Dahl, Thorleif, and Axel Coldevin, eds. Vårt folks historie. 9 vols. Oslo, Norway: Aschehoug, 1961–1964.
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Vols. 1–4 are pertinent to this article: Vol. 1, Forhistorisk tid og vikingtid (by Anders Hagen and Charles L. A. Joys, 1962); Vol. 2, Hellig Olavs arv (by Joys, 1962); Vol. 3, Fra storhetstid til unionstid (by Joys, 1963), and Vol. 4, Gjennom bølgedalen (by Reidar Marmøy, 1963). This is an encyclopedic account of Norwegian history. Volumes 3 and 4 cover the later Middle Ages and the Renaissance and include exceptionally thorough surveys of the historical literature, organized by topic.
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Danielsen, Rolf, ed. Norway: A History from the Vikings to Our Own Times. Translated by Michael Drake. Oslo, Norway: Scandinavian University Press, 1995.
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This is a general overview of Norwegian history. Parts I and II cover Norwegian history from prehistory to 1814.
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Holmsen, Andreas. Norges historie fra de eldste tider til 1660. 6th ed. U-bøkene 1. Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget, 1996.
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Holmsen writes an overview of Norwegian history from prehistory to 1660. First published in 1949 (Oslo, Norway: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag).
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Poland/Lithuania

Though Poland/Lithuania is not technically part of Scandinavia, its location on the Baltic ensured the region a prominent role in Scandinavian history. In 1587 the eldest son of Johan III of Sweden, Sigismund, was elected king of Poland, and from 1592 to 1599 the kingdom of Sweden and the commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania were united. This was perhaps the climax of what was to be a long period of active Swedish involvement in Poland/Lithuania. The Swedish Vasa dynasty ruled Poland until 1668. Lukowski and Zawadzki 2001 provides a general overview of the history of Poland.

Lukowski, Jerzy, and Hubert Zawadzki. A Concise History of Poland. Cambridge Concise Histories. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
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This is the best overview of Polish history presented in the English language.
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Sweden

Sweden was slower to develop as a unified political entity and to embrace Christianity than its Nordic neighbors. Both Christianity and the Swedish kingdom were firmly established by the end of the 12th century. The kingdom was loosely integrated into the Kalmar Union in 1397. But local institutions and the indigenous nobility maintained de facto control of the realm until the establishment of an independent kingdom under the leadership of Gustav Vasa in 1523. By the end of the 17th century, Sweden dominated the region and was considered one of the greatest military powers in Europe. Lindkvist and Ågren 1985 provides a concise overview of the political and economic history of Sweden from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern period. Hildebrand 1879 provides an old-fashioned, but encyclopedic, history of the Middle Ages that includes cultural history and primary sources. Roberts 1979 and Lockhart 2004 are focused on Sweden in its age of imperial greatness.

Hildebrand, Hans. Sveriges medeltid: Kulturhistorisk skildring. 3 vols. Stockholm: Norstedt, 1879.
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While this work is decidedly old-fashioned, it contains a wealth of material and references to primary texts, artifacts, artworks, and literary works relevant to the study of the Sweden during the Middle Ages.
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Lindkvist, Thomas, and Kurt Ågren. Sveriges medeltid. Scandinavian University Books. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1985.
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To be read with Sveriges historia, 1521–1809: Stormaktsdröm och småstatsrealiteter by Göran Behre, Lars-Olof Larsson, and Eva Österberg (Stockholm: Norstedts Tryckeri, 1985); these two short works provide excellent, succinct, and richly detailed overviews of Sweden during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period.
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Lockhart, Paul Douglas. Sweden in the Seventeenth Century. European History in Perspective. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
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Lockhart writes a concise introduction to the history of Sweden during its “Age of Greatness.” He focuses primarily on political and diplomatic history, particularly the development of absolutism, but also provides information on social, economic, and cultural history.
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Roberts, Michael. The Swedish Imperial Experience, 1560–1718. Wiles Lectures. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511622274Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Roberts’s work is still the best overview of Sweden’s expansion in Germany and the Baltic. Reprinted as recently as 1992.
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Reference Works

The “biographical dictionaries” are among the most useful reference works because they provide surprisingly in-depth biographical information—even on relatively obscure individuals. Because the kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden dominated Scandinavia in the late medieval and Early Modern periods, Cedergreen Bech 1979–1984 and Boëthius, et al. 1917– are important resources for biographical information on figures relevant to Danish, Swedish, Finnish, and Norwegian history.

Boëthius, Bertil, Erik Grill, Birgitta Lager-Kromnow, Göran Nilzén, and Åsa Karlsson, eds. Svenskt biografiskt lexikon. 34 vols. Stockholm: Bonniers, 1917–.
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This is an outstanding resource for in-depth biographical information on individuals relevant to Swedish history.
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Cedergreen Bech, Svend, ed. Dansk biografisk leksikon. 3d ed. 16 vols. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1979–1984.
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Because of Denmark’s domination of much of Scandinavia throughout this period, this “biographical dictionary” is an excellent resource for information on individuals who lived in Denmark, Norway, or elsewhere in the Danish dominions between 1350 and 1650.
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Journals

Besides the Scandinavian Journal of History, there are a number of journals that regularly publish articles of interest to scholars of the period between 1350 and 1650. Fortid og Nutid, Lychnos, Scandia, and Scandinavian Studies are good sources for topics relevant to the Nordic region. In contrast, Historisk Tidsskrift and Historisk Tidskrift are more concerned with the national histories of Denmark and Sweden, respectively. Kyrkohistorisk Årsskrift is a good source for church history and theological issues.

Fortid og Nutid.
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This journal specializes in Scandinavian cultural history, ethnology, and folklore.
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Historisk Tidskrift.
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This is the primary journal for Swedish history.
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Historisk Tidsskrift.
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This journal’s focus is Danish history.
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Kyrkohistorisk Årsskrift.
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This journal is concerned with church history and religious issues.
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Lychnos.
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This journal is focused on Swedish and Nordic cultural, intellectual, and educational history.
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Scandia: Tidskrift för Historisk Forskning.
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This journal is concerned primarily with central themes in Nordic and European history, as well as trends in European history and historiography.
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Scandinavian Journal of History.
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This journal is devoted to Scandinavian history.
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Scandinavian Studies.
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This journal covers a broad range of topics and disciplines with a Scandinavian focus, including literature, culture studies, and history.
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Sixteenth Century Journal.
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This journal includes articles of all aspects of the history of the 16th century.
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Sources

There are numerous printed collections of documents relevant to the study of this period. Most notably, the various Diplomatarium (Diplomatarium Norvegicum, Diplomatarium Svecanum) include large quantities of important Latin manuscripts from the medieval period, and there are also relatively complete catalogues of the production of royal chancelleries under the reigns of pivotal monarchs such as Gustav Vasa and Fredrik I (Konung Gustaf den förstes registratur, Erslev and Mollerup 1879). Other collections contain law codes (Taranger 1966–1981), important diplomatic correspondence (Laursen and Christiansen 1907–1949, Styffe 1859–1884), state correspondence (Lange 1861–1891), and documents of relevance to Scandinavian history (Kungliga Samfundet för Utgivande af Handskrifter rörande Skandinaviens Historia 1816–1865).

Diplomatarium Norvegicum. 22 vols. Christiania/Oslo, Norway: P. T. Malling, 1847–1995.
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This is a collection of Norwegian Latin manuscripts.
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Diplomatarium Svecanum. 8 vols. Stockholm: Norstedt, 1829–1976.
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This is a collection of Swedish medieval Latin manuscripts and includes documents such as inventories, legal codes, and correspondence.
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Erslev, Kristian, and William Mollerup. Kong Frederik den Førstes danske registranter. Copenhagen: Klein, 1879.
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This is the complete record of the correspondence of King Frederik I of Denmark.
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Konung Gustaf den förstes registratur 1521–1560. 29 vols. Handlingar rörande Sveriges Historia. Stockholm: Norstedt, 1861–1916.
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This is the complete record of the correspondence of King Gustav Vasa of Sweden.
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Kungliga Samfundet för Utgivande af Handskrifter rörande Skandinaviens Historia. Handlingar rörande Skandinaviens historia. 40 vols. Stockholm: Elméns & Granbergs Tryckeri, 1816–1865.
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This is a general collection of manuscripts relevant to Swedish history.
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Lange, Christian C. A. Norske Rigs-registranter tildeels i Uddrag, 1523–1660. 12 vols. 1–12. Christiania, Norway: Brøgger og Christie, 1861–1891.
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This is a collection of state correspondence dealing specifically with the rule and administration of Norway.
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Laursen, Laurs, and Carl S. Christiansen. Danmark-Norges traktater 1523–1750 med dertil hørende aktstykker. 11 vols. Copenhagen: G. E. C. Gad, 1907–1949.
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This is a collection of Denmark/Norway’s treaties and other relevant documents.
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Styffe, Carl Gustaf. Bidrag till Skandinaviens historia ur utländska arkiver. 5 vols. Stockholm: Norstedt, 1859–1884.
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This is a collection of documents relevant to Scandinavian history that have been gathered from Continental European archives.
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Taranger, Absalon, ed. Norges gamle love 1388–1604. 3 vols. Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlag, 1966–1981.
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This collection of Norwegian laws is of particular interest to legal scholars.
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Institutions and Governments

At the end of the Middle Ages, Sweden and Denmark enjoyed elective monarchies; only Norway, ever more closely allied with western European fashions, had transitioned to a hereditary model. With the demise of the Kalmar Union, the governments both of Denmark and Sweden underwent an extraordinary transformation. Under the Vasa monarchy, the Swedish state developed by fits and starts into an absolutist state by the middle of the 17th century. Denmark developed an unusual system whereby the king and the conciliar aristocracy were partners in power until 1660, when Denmark too became an absolutist state. Much recent historiography has focused on the bureaucratic and administrative developments that accompanied and supported this evolution. Anderson 2013 (first published in 1974), a classic work, provides a concise overview of the political development of the Nordic kingdoms. Jespersen 1980, Jespersen 2000, Lockhart 2007, Rian 1997, Svalenius 1992, Svalenius 1937, and Metcalf 1987 provide more-detailed studies of the development of state institutions in Sweden and Denmark. Svenska Riksdagsakter is a collection of documents associated with the Swedish Riksdag or parliament.

Anderson, Perry. Lineages of the Absolutist State. Verso World History. London: Verso, 2013.
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Originally published in 1974 (London: NLB). Anderson avoids any discussion of the topic of absolutism in Denmark, but his discussion of the peculiar development of Swedish absolutism, as well as his analysis of Poland and Prussia, is insightful and useful to understanding the Swedish “Great Power Period” and the Baltic in the 16th and 17th centuries.
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Jespersen, Knud J. V., ed. Rigsråd, adel og administration, 1570–1648. Odense University Studies in History and Social Sciences 67. Odense, Denmark: Universitetsforlag, 1980.
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These essays provide an analysis of the Danish Council of State, the Chancery, and the evolution of royal government in the Early Modern period.
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Jespersen, Leon, ed. A Revolution from Above? The Power State of 16th and 17th Century Scandinavia. Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press, 2000.
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This is a detailed analysis of the development of the state and the growth of royal power in Scandinavia.
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Lockhart, Paul Douglas. Denmark, 1513–1660: The Rise and Decline of a Renaissance Monarchy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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Lockhart traces the developments that led to the end of the weak medieval monarchy and to the emergence of a government based on the partnership of the king and aristocracy. At the same time, he traces the process of Denmark’s integration into the political and cultural European mainstream and the conditions that led to the failure of aristocratic partnership with the king and the development of Danish absolutism in the 1660s.
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Metcalf, Michael F., ed. The Riksdag: A History of the Swedish Parliament. New York: St. Martin’s, 1987.
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This volume traces the development of the Riksdag from the 13th century to modern times.
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Rian, Øystein. Danmark-Norge, 1380–1814. Vol. 2, Den aristokratiske fyrstestaten, 1536–1648. Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget AS, 1997.
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This is a study of the peculiar “diarchy” in which the Danish king shared power with the conciliar aristocracy, and its impact on the Danish rule of Norway.
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Svalenius, Ivan. Georg Norman: En biografisk studie. Lund, Sweden: A. B. Gleerupska Universitets Bokhandeln, 1937.
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Georg Norman was a highly educated German who entered King Gustav Vasa’s service and was instrumental to the Swedish Reformation, the development of royal government, and the institution of humanist education in Sweden.
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Svalenius, Ivan. Rikskansliet i Sverige, 1560–1592. Skrifter Utgivna av Svenska Riksarkivet 7. Stockholm: Komentus, 1992.
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This fascinating work examines the core of royal government—the king’s secretaries—at a critical moment in Swedish history: the reigns of Erik XIV and Johan III. Svalenius contextualizes the secretaries, providing information on the formation and organization of the chancellery, as well as biographical sketches of the secretaries themselves, their educational backgrounds, and their family connections.
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Svenska riksdagsakter jämte andra handlingar som höra till statsförfattningens historia under tidehvarfvet 1521–1718. Stockholm: Norstedt, 1894–1910.
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These volumes contain records of the deliberations of the Estates (Riksdag) and associated documents relating to the government of Sweden.
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Wars and Governments

Scholarship dealing with the near-constant warfare of the late 16th and 17th centuries has come closer to a holistic vision of Scandinavian history than any other genre. Christiansen 1997, Frost 2000, Lockhart 1996, and Oakley 1992 place the regional contests in their Scandinavian and European contexts and demonstrate the connections and interrelatedness of the Scandinavians and their world. Bellamy 2006 provides an insightful account that reveals the centrality of the relationship between the development of the military and government administration. Palme 1942 focuses on the relationship between Sweden and Denmark during the tumultuous years at the end of the 16th century, while Venge 1977 is focused on a tumultuous period in the formation of Danish royal power in the early 16th century.

Bellamy, Marin. Christian IV and His Navy: A Political and Administrative History of the Danish Navy, 1596–1648. The Northern World 25. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
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This is an account of Christian IV, and the development of the royal administration and the Danish navy during the period of Danish greatness.
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Christiansen, Eric. The Northern Crusades. 2d ed. New York: Penguin, 1997.
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This account focuses very specifically on the wars waged in the Baltic region in the name of Christianity from the 12th to the 16th centuries.
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Frost, Robert I. The Northern Wars, 1558–1721. Modern Wars in Perspective. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education, 2000.
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The Baltic region was highly unstable in the period after 1558, largely as a consequence of shifting political realities and a booming Baltic economy. Frost presents the series of conflicts that shook the region as a continuity shaped by shared circumstances.
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Lockhart, Paul Douglas. “Denmark and the Empire: A Reassessment of Danish Foreign Policy under King Christian IV.” Scandinavian Studies 64.3 (1992): 390–416.
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This article focuses specifically on Christian IV’s foreign policy in the German states. Available online through purchase or by subscription.
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Lockhart, Paul Douglas. Denmark in the Thirty Years’ War, 1618–1648: King Christian IV and the Decline of the Oldenburg State. Selinsgrove, PA: Susquehanna University Press, 1996.
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At the beginning of the 17th century, Denmark seemed poised to dominate Baltic affairs. Lockhart traces the missteps and misfortunes that characterized Danish involvement in the Thirty Years War and that led to the eclipse of Danish power in the region.
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Oakley, Stewart P. War and Peace in the Baltic, 1560–1790. War in Context. London: Routledge, 1992.
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This is the most recent and best overview of Baltic power politics in the Early Modern period.
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Palme, Sven Ulrik. Sverige och Danmark 1596–1611. Uppsala, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1942.
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This text provides an analysis of the origins of the War of Kalmar.
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Venge, Mikael. “Når vinden føjer sig . . .”: Spillet om magten i Danmark marts–december 1523. Odense University Studies in History and Social Sciences 47. Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press, 1977.
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The fall of the Danish king Christian II from power, which led to the long and protracted conflict of the Counts War, was instrumental to the formation of royal power in 16th-century Denmark. This careful study examines Christian’s fall from power and its implications.
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Scandinavia’s Rulers

Biographies of Scandinavia’s kings and queens are numerous. Traditionally, most of these works fall into the category of nationalist epic (Ahnlund 1999), but more-objective views, such as that offered in Svalenius 1992 or Roberts 1968, provide valuable insights into the process of state building. More recently, a critical perspective of the monarchy has become dominant, with works such as those of Lars-Olof Larsson (Larsson 2002, Larsson 2005), which dare to ask if the Vasa monarchs were “fathers of the country” or tyrannical. Several authors try to find the person beneath the institution (Rodén 2008, Heiberg 1988).

Ahnlund, Nils. Gustavus Adolphus the Great. Translated by Michael Roberts. Warrior Kings. New York: History Book Club, 1999.
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This reprint of an old classic, first published in 1940 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), is both nationalistic in its tone and guilty of glorifying the “Lion of the North”; nevertheless, it is a good introduction to the life of the king and his role in the development of Sweden’s government, military, and reputation as a great power.
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Heiberg, Steffen. Christian 4: Monarken, mennesket og myten. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1988.
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This is the best biography of the legendary Danish king.
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Larsson, Lars-Olof. Gustav Vasa: Landsfader eller tyrann? Stockholm: Prisma, 2002.
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Larsson challenges traditional views of the life of Gustav Vasa and provides a critical view of the man and his accomplishments.
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Larsson, Lars-Olof. Arvet efter Gustav Vasa: En berättelse om fyra kungar och ett rike. Stockholm: Prisma, 2005.
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This is the best and most succinct overview of Sweden under the second generation of Vasa kings—Erik XIV, Johan III, and Karl IX.
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Roberts, Michael. The Early Vasas: A History of Sweden, 1523–1611. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1968.
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Roberts’s work is still the classic English-language history of Sweden under the first generation of the Vasa dynasty; his analysis of the development of royal government is particularly valuable. Paperback published in 1986.
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Rodén, Marie-Louise. Drottning Christina: En biografi. Stockholm: Prisma, 2008.
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This is the best and most up to date of the more recent biographies of Queen Christina of Sweden.
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Svalenius, Ivan. Gustav Vasa. Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand, 1992.
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First published in 1948 (Stockholm: Saxon & Lindström), this is the classic version of the life of the founder of the Vasa dynasty.
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Economic History

The period since the early 1980s has witnessed the steady production of economic and social history that seeks to explore every aspect of economic production and every sector of the social world. Because of the multiethnic nature of the region and of commerce, the relationship between the social and economic in Scandinavia has an added social dimension because of the role of minority communities in economic life. Maarbjerg 1995 relates Scandinavia to its global economic context. Dyrvik 1979 and Heckscher 1954 are more specifically national in their focus and provide detailed examinations of Norwegian and Swedish economic history. Christensen 1941, Dollinger 1999, and Schildhaur 1985 examine the role of German and Dutch merchants and economic activity on Nordic economies and cultures. Van Tielhof 2002 provides a detailed account of the Baltic grain trade. Lauridsen 1987 looks at the relationship between merchant elites and royal authority in 17th-century Denmark.

Christensen, Aksel E. Dutch Trade to the Baltic about 1600: Studies in the Sound Toll Register and Dutch Shipping Records. Copenhagen: E. Munksgaard, 1941.
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This is an in-depth look at the role of the Dutch in Baltic trade c. 1600.
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Dollinger, Philippe. The German Hansa. Translated and edited by D. S. Ault and S. H. Steinberg. New introduction by Mark Casson. Emergence of International Business 1200–1800 1. London: Routledge, 1999.
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This is a good general history of the Hansa, first published in 1964 (London: Macmillan).
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Dyrvik, Ståle. Norsk økonomisk historie, 1500–1970. Bergen, Norway: Universitetsforlaget, 1979.
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This volume provides an overview of Norwegian economic history.
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Heckscher, Eli Filip. An Economic History of Sweden. Translated by Göran Ohlin. Harvard Economic Studies 95. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1954.
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This text provides an overview of Swedish economic history from the Early Modern period to the 20th century. Reprinted as recently as 1968.
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Lauridsen, John T. Marselis konsortiet: En studie over forholdet mellem handelskapital og kongemagt i 1600-tallets Danmark. Århus, Denmark: Jysk Selskab for Historie, 1987.
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This is a case study of the Marselis merchant dynasty and their relation to royal power in 17th-century Denmark.
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Maarbjerg, John P. Scandinavia in the World-Economy, ca. 1570–1700: Some Local Evidence of Economic Integration. American University Studies: History 169. New York: Peter Lang, 1995.
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This text is focuses primarily on Denmark, with specific case studies of the provinces of Fynn and Langeland.
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Schildhaur, Johannes. The Hansa: History and Culture. Translated by Katherine Vanovitch. Leipzig: Edition Leipzig, 1985.
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Schidhaur’s focus is both political and economic, as well as on the culture of the Hansa.
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van Tielhof, Milja. The “Mother of all Trades”: The Baltic Grain Trade in Amsterdam from the Late 16th to Early 19th Century. Northern World 3. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
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This study of the Baltic grain trade is indispensable to an understanding of the role of the Dutch in the economic life of early modern Scandinavia.
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Social History

Scandinavia’s political climate has long fostered an interest in the common man, and as a consequence, historians have produced a wealth of social histories with very specific focus. Because of their tremendous number and variety, they are listed under separate categories below. Petersen 1980 is of a more overarching character because it discusses the process by which Danes were transformed from a society of classes or estates to one of ranks.

Petersen, E. Ladewig. Fra standssamfund til rangssamfund, 1500–1700. Dansk Socialhistorie 3. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1980.
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This study is focused on the transition from a social order based on estates or classes to one increasingly ordered into ranks in the period from 1500 to 1700.
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Agrarian Life and the Rural Economy

As elsewhere in Europe, the overwhelming majority of the population in the medieval and Early Modern periods was rural and agrarian. Ingers 1948–1949, Lindkvist 1979, and Söderberg and Myrdal 2002 provide in-depth studies of peasant life in Swedish history. Skrubbeltrang 1978 is focused on Danish rural society and its relationship to the monarchy.

Ingers, Enoch. Bonden i svensk historia. 2 vols. Stockholm: Lantbruksförbundets Tidskriftsaktiebolag, 1948–1949.
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This encyclopedic volume discusses the peasant in Swedish history.
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Lindkvist, Thomas. Landborna i Norden under äldre medeltid. Studia Historica Upsaliensia 110. Uppsala, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1979.
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This study specifically addresses the question of how nonproducers were able to appropriate the surplus from agricultural producers who controlled both the land and the means of production, outlining a system of extraction based on labor, produce, and money.
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Skrubbeltrang, Fridlev. Den danske landbosamfund, 1500–1800. Copenhagen: Den Danske Historiske Forening, 1978.
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This is the best survey of Danish rural society and economy.
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Söderberg, Johan, and Janken Myrdal. The Agrarian Economy of Sixteenth-Century Sweden. Translated by Marie Clark Nelson. Stockholm Studies in Economic History 35. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 2002.
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In this volume the authors exploit exceptionally rich and complete Swedish sources to demonstrate that rural life in Sweden was similar in most ways to that of rural areas in Europe. They are particularly interested in the growth and structure of the economy and in the participation of rural economy in the greater economic networks of trade and the economy of the state.
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Urban History

Trading centers developed in Scandinavia by the mid-8th century, and by the middle of the 13th century a substantial number of urban centers were established in the Nordic kingdoms. Beskow 1984, Kjersgaard 1980, and Sprauten 1992 provide histories of the three most important urban centers—Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Oslo—and relate their development to their geographic locations and to their role as defensive, economic, or administrative centers. Dybdahl 1972 discusses the role of the Hansa in the Nordic urban centers of the late Middle Ages.

Beskow, Hans. Myten om Stockholms grundläggning: Stockholms förhistoria och medeltida skede före 1420: Reflektioner och hypoteser. Stockholm: Atlantis, 1984.
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This is a history of Stockholm that contrasts the myths of the city’s founding with its medieval history.
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Dybdahl, Vagn, ed. Det nordiske syn på forbindelsen mellem Hansestæderne og Norden: Det nordiske historikermøde i Århus 7–9 august 1957. 2d ed. Århus, Denmark: Universitetsforlaget, 1972.
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Dybdahl provides an overview of the Hanseatic cities and the Nordic Realms.
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Kjersgaard, Erik. Byen og borgen havn. Københavns Historie 1. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1980.
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This is a history of the city and the fortified harbor of Copenhagen.
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Sprauten, Knut. Byen vid festningen: Fra 1536 til 1814. Oslo Bys Historie 2. Oslo, Norway: Cappelen, 1992.
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This is a history of the city of Oslo and its relationship to the castle and administrative center at its heart.
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The Nobility

Feudalism of the type typical of much of central and western Europe never developed in Scandinavia. Nobility was associated both with possession of land and tax exemption in return for military service. However, the actual qualifications, conditions, and status of the nobility varied considerably among the Nordic realms. Petersen 1967, Lind 1994, and Ingesman and Jensen 2001 provide discussions of the Danish aristocracy in the period from 1350 to 1662. Benedictow 1971 provides an overview of the late medieval Norwegian nobility in the period leading up to Norway’s absorption by the Danish crown. Samuelson 1993 and Småberg 2004 are histories dealing with the Swedish noble class and their relationship to power, the economy, and social networks.

Benedictow, Ole J. Rapporter til det nordiske historikermøde i København 1971. Copenhagen: Nordiske Historikermøde, 1971.
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This work provides an overview of the Norwegian aristocracy at the end of the Middle Ages.
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Ingesman, Per, and Jens Villiam Jensen, eds. Riget, magten, og æren: Den danske adel 1350–1660. Århus, Denmark: Universitetsforlag, 2001.
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This collection of essays provides a detailed look at the Danish nobility and their relationship to honor, power, and government.
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Lind, Gunnar. Hæren og magten i Danmark: 1614–1662. Odense, Denmark: Universitetsforlag, 1994.
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This is a study of the development of Danish military institutions and their social and political implications.
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Petersen, E. Ladewig. The Crisis of the Danish Nobility 1580–1660. Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press, 1967.
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In the 16th century the Danish crown succeeded in gaining power at the expense of the nobility. This text provides a detailed analysis of the shifting fortunes of the Danish nobility in the late 16th and 17th centuries.
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Samuelson, Jan. Aristokrat eller förädlad bonde? Det svenska frälsets ekonomi, politik och sociala förbindelser under tiden 1523–1611. Bibliotheca Historica Lundensis 77. Lund, Sweden: Lund University Press, 1993.
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This work looks at the social standing and identity of the Swedish nobility in the period that witnessed the formalization of the noble class and therefore the blurring of social categories.
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Småberg, Thomas. Det stängda frälset: Makt och eliter i det medeltida lokalsamhället; Marks och Kinds härader i Västergötland ca. 1390–1520. Avhandlingar från Historiska Institutionen i Göteborg 42. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, 2004.
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This study explores the creation and development of the Swedish nobility, by examining the privileged elite and their exercise of power in local communities in Sweden from 1390 to 1520.
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The Church, 1350–1500

Christianity was well established in most of Scandinavia by the end of the 11th century, though missionary activity continued on the Scandinavian periphery through the Middle Ages. There are a number of comprehensive studies of national churches: Pernler 1999, Fell 1999, and Lausten 2004. The practice of Christianity on the European periphery is the subject of Imsen 2003, a study of the diocese of Nidaros in its Norwegian and European context. Questions of faith and gender and political power inform Bergh 2002, a study of the famed Swedish mystic St. Birgitta of Vadstena.

Bergh, Birger. Heliga Birgitta: Åttabarnsmor och profet. Lund, Sweden: Historisk Media, 2002.
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No study of the late medieval church in Scandinavia is complete without a reference to Saint Birgitta. Bergh presents Saint Birgitta in the context of late medieval piety and corrects the tendencies of earlier biographies to view Birgitta as a pious fraud at best or mentally ill at worst.
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Fell, Michael. And Some Fell into Good Soil: A History of Christianity in Iceland. American University Studies: Theology and Religion. New York: Peter Lang, 1999.
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This volume includes information on the medieval church as well as an account of the Icelandic Reformation and Gudbrandur Thorláksson.
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Imsen, Steinar, ed. Ecclesia Nidrosiensis, 1153–1537: Søkelys på Nidaroskirkens og Nidarosprovinsens historie. Senter for Middelalderstudier, NTNU Skrifter 15. Trondheim, Norway: Tapir Akademisk Forlag, 2003.
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Imsen discusses the Cathedral of Nidaros in the Norwegian and European contexts, as well as providing information on the relationship between Rome and one of its most distant dioceses.
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Lausten, Martin Schwarz. Danmarks kirkehistorie. 3d ed. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 2004.
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This work provides a general overview of the Danish church from the Middle Ages to the present. First published in 1983.
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Pernler, Sven-Erik. Sveriges kyrkohistoria. Vol. 2, Hög- och senmedeltid. Edited by Lennart Tegborg. Stockholm: Verbum, 1999.
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This volume provides a thorough overview of the church in late medieval Sweden.
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The Reformation

Few subjects have produced as many works as the Reformation. Perhaps predictably, given the Reformed church’s close relationship to the state, the majority of these histories have been heavily nationalistic in scope (Andrén 1999, Imsen 1982; Ísleifsdóttir 1997, Lausten 2011). However, several studies have focused on understanding the Reformation as a Scandinavian phenomenon (Grell 1995), and most recently an exceptional work has placed the Scandinavian Reformation in its European political and cultural context (Larson 2010).

Andrén, Åke. Sveriges kyrkohistoria. Vol. 3, Reformationstid. Edited by Lennart Tegborg. Stockholm: Verbum, 1999.
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This work presents a thorough account of the Swedish Reformation, from its inception to its consolidation in the 1590s. Includes articles on the Reformation and music, art, and other aspects of life and culture.
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Grell, Ole Peter, ed. The Scandinavian Reformation: From Evangelical Movement to Institutionalisation of Reform. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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The various authors presented in this work focus on the process by which Scandinavia became Lutheran by the early 17th century, on the resilience of Catholic tradition, and on the difficulties of converting the conservative peasant populations.
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Imsen, Steinar. Superintendenten: En studie i kirkepolitikk, kirkeadministrasjon og statsudvikling mellom reformasjonen og eneveldet. Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget, 1982.
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This is one of the few works to focus on the Reformation in Norway. The author’s primary interest is on the upper levels of church administration.
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Ísleifsdóttir, Vilborg Auður. Siðbreytingin á Íslandi 1537–1565: Byltingin að ofan. Reykjavík, Iceland: Hið Íslenska Bókmenntafélag, 1997.
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This text provides an in-depth study of the reformation of the church in Iceland.
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Larson, James L. Reforming the North: The Kingdoms and Churches of Scandinavia, 1520–1545. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511674846Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Larson’s recent work is the best comprehensive overview of the Reformation in Scandinavia. His specific focus is on the integration of Scandinavia in the process of European state formation and the transfer of resources and authority from the medieval church to the emergent princely states.
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Lausten, Martin Schwarz. Reformationen i Danmark. 3d ed. Frederiksberg, Denmark: Anis, 2011.
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This is the best overview of the Reformation in the Danish realm. First published in 1987 (Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag).
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Private Life and the Family

There is a growing body of scholarship dealing with private life and families—specifically marriage and childbirth (Ågren and Erickson 2005, Jacobsen 1984, and Korpiola 2009).

Ågren, Maria, and Amy Louise Erickson, eds. The Marital Economy in Scandinavia and Britain, 1400–1900. Women and Gender in the Early Modern World. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
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This collection of essays provides insights into the economic, social, and legal aspects of marital partnerships throughout Scandinavia and Britain in the Early Modern period, emphasizing marriage as an economic institution.
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Jacobsen, Grethe. “Pregnancy and Childbirth in the Medieval North: A Topology of Sources and a Preliminary Study.” Scandinavian Journal of History 9.2–3 (1984): 91–111.
DOI: 10.1080/03468758408579036Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This interdisciplinary study explores the extant sources for insight into this very private aspect of women’s lives, and the biological process that is the foundation for society. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Korpiola, Mia. Between Betrothal and Bedding: Marriage Formation in Sweden 1200–1600. Northern World 43. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004173293.i-437Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Korpiola describes the process of marriage in medieval Sweden as a series of legal acts, highlighting the contrast between traditional marriage forms and Catholic marriage doctrine. The study continues to illuminate the changes to marriage brought about by the Reformation and the growth of the early modern state.
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Women and Gender

Early-21st-century scholarship has taken a particularly keen interest in the role of women in history. Sawyer 2000 provides an overview of the history of women in medieval Scandinavia, whereas Czaika 2009 and Falkdalen 2010 examine the lives of specific elite women in Sweden during the 16th century, in relationship to such issues as patronage, literacy, and power.

Czaika, Otfried. Elisabet Vasa: En kvinna på 1500-talet och hennes böcker. Föreningen Biblis Julgåva. Stockholm: Föreningen Biblis, 2009.
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Czaika’s recent work is an exciting attempt to access the cultural and intellectual world of an elite woman, through a study of her books. Czaika focuses on the ways in which texts relate to gender, class, and confessional outlook.
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Falkdalen, Karin Tegenborg. Vasadöttrarna. Lund, Sweden: Historiska Media, 2010.
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Mixing biography with a healthy dose of cultural and political history, Falkdalen provides an insightful account of the life of elite women in 16th-century Sweden.
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Sawyer, Birgit. Kvinnor och familj i det forn- och medeltida Skandinavien. Göteborg, Sweden: Viktoria Bokförlag AB, 2000.
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This is an excellent overview of the history of women and family in Scandinavia from prehistory through the Middle Ages. Sawyer sheds light on women’s circumstances and social standing, relationship to family, and property ownership and inheritance.
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Education and Print Culture

The history of education and print culture is well documented. There are a number of encyclopedic long-range histories that incorporate education, literature, and cultural and intellectual traditions within a national context (Bagge 2001, Friis 1945, Lindroth 1997a, Lindroth 1997b), as well as more-specialized studies of intellectual life in the Lutheran-dominated state (Gilje and Rasmussen 2002), and aristocratic education and the monarchy (Mackeprang 1924).

Bagge, Sverre. Da boken kom til Norge, 1000–1537. Norsk Idéhistorie 1. Oslo, Norway: Aschehoug, 2001.
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This is the first volume of a series that provides a comprehensive survey of Norwegian cultural and intellectual history, starting with the conversion to Christianity and continuing through the Reformation period.
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Friis, Oluf. Den danske litteraturs historie: Fra oldtiden indtil Renaessancen (c. 1615). Copenhagen: H. Hirschsprungs Forlag, 1945.
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Friis provides a thorough overview of Danish literary history. Republished in 1975 (Copenhagen: Gad).
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Gilje, Nils, and Tarald Rasmussen. Tankeliv i den lutherske stat. Edited by Trond Berg Eriksen and Øystein Sørensen. Norsk Idéhistorie 2. Oslo, Norway: Aschehoug, 2002.
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This is a comprehensive overview of cultural and intellectual life in post-Reformation Norway.
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Lindroth, Sten. Svensk lärdomshistoria: Medeltiden, reformationstiden. Stockholm: Norstedt, 1997a.
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This work by Lindroth contains an in-depth study of educational institutions and practices as well as curricula and a record of the most-important authors and influences in the period from the 12th century through the Reformation. It covers natural scientific views as well as literature and courtly culture. First published in 1975.
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Lindroth, Sten. Svensk lärdomshistoria: Stormaktstiden. Stockholm: Norstedt, 1997b.
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Lindroth continues his study of Swedish cultural and intellectual institutions and scholarship in this volume, which covers Sweden in its “Age of Greatness.” The volume includes information on educational institutions (particularly universities) and Sweden’s increasing integration with the European cultural and intellectual mainstream. First published in 1975.
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Mackeprang, Mouritz. “Christian IVs Ridderakademi og Skolen 1623–65.” In Sorø: Klostret, skolen, akademiet gennem tiderne. Vol. 1, Tiden før 1737. Edited by Soransk Samfund, 374–502. Copenhagen: J. Frimodt, 1924.
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This is an in-depth study of one particular academy founded by Christian IV for the training of the Danish nobility.
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Humanism and Humanistic Scholarship

Humanism played an important role in the Scandinavian Reformation and in the consolidation of royal power and the development of the nation-state. Karsten Friis-Jensen (Friis-Jensen 1988–1989, Friis-Jensen 1991), Karen Skovgaard-Petersen (Skovgaard-Petersen 2002), and Kurt Johannesson (Johannesson 1991) are the recognized experts on this subject in Denmark and Sweden.

Friis-Jensen, Karsten. “Humanism and Politics: The Paris Edition of Saxo Gramaticus’s Gesta Danorum 1514.” Analecta Romani Instituti Danici 17–18 (1988–1989): 149–162.
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This is a study of the political implications of humanism’s study of history and book production in 16th-century Denmark, and its European implications.
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Friis-Jensen, Karsten. “Historiography and Humanism in the Early Sixteenth-Century Scandinavia.” In Acta Conventus Neo-Latini Torontonensis: Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Neo-Latin Studies: Toronto, 8 August to 13 August 1988. Edited by Alexander Dalzell, Charles Fantazzi, and Richard J. Schoeck, 325–333. Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies 86. Binghamton, NY: Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1991.
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Humanists were experts in the uses of history and became essential to the development of national identities and the expression and justification of dynastic ambition. This study focuses on the relationship between humanists and history in the Scandinavian context.
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Johannesson, Kurt. The Renaissance of the Goths in Sixteenth-Century Sweden: Johannes and Olaus Magnus as Politicians and Historians. Translated and edited by James Larson. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
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Johannesson is the preeminent expert on humanism and humanist culture during the Swedish Renaissance. This volume on the work of the humanist scholars Johannes and Olaus Magnus relates broadly both to the cultural and intellectual history of Sweden and their relationship to Continental humanism.
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Skovgaard-Petersen, Karen. Historiography at the Court of Christian IV (1588–1648): Studies in the Latin Histories of Denmark by Johannes Pontanus and Johannes Meursius. Renæssance Studier 11. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2002.
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This work provides an analysis of the Latin history of Denmark produced under the patronage of Christian IV at the nadir of Denmark’s power.
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Nature, Natural Philosophy, and Science

Scandinavia produced several thinkers in this period who had distinct impact on European natural scientific understanding. Perhaps the most famous are Tycho Brahe (Christianson 2000) and Petrus Severinus (Shackelford 2004).

Christianson, John Robert. On Tycho’s Island: Tycho Brahe and His Assistants, 1570–1601. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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By placing Tycho Brahe in the context of his peers and contemporaries, Christianson is able to present him as a Platonic philosopher, Paracelsian chemist, Ovidian poet, and member of his family and class.
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Shackelford, Jole. A Philosophical Path for Paracelsian Medicine: The Ideas, Intellectual Context, and Influence of Petrus Severinus (1540/2–1602). Acta Historica Scientiarum Naturalium et Medicinalium 46. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2004.
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Shackelford provides an in-depth look at the work of Severinus and Paracelsianism in Denmark.
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Art, Architecture, and Music

The majority of the literature in this field has been focused on traditional art-historical concerns such as provenance and style. More recently, historians such as Peter Gillgren and Kristoffer Neville have begun to relate art to its political and social context, with fascinating results (Gillgren 2009, Neville 2001). Alm, et al. 1996 and Christensen 1988 provide more-general overviews of Swedish and Danish art in the Renaissance period, while Andersen, et al. 2011 places Danish Renaissance art in its European context. Hahr 1907–1910 and Hahr 1940 look at the role of the patronage of the monarchy and the influence of a foreign queen on the development of Renaissance art and architecture in Sweden. Axel-Nilsson 1950 provides a definitive study of sculpture and stone carving in the Swedish Renaissance. Finally, Kongsted, et al. 1990 is focused on festival music from the Renaissance period.

Alm, Göran, Inger Estham, Torbjörn Fulton, et al. Renässansens konst. Signums Svenska Konsthistoria 5. Lund, Sweden: Bokförlaget Signum, 1996.
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Also see Barockens konst (Lund, Sweden: Bokförlaget Signum, 1997), by Alm and colleagues; these volumes are part of Signum’s series on Swedish art history. They provide an excellent overview of the visual arts and architecture in early modern Sweden.
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Andersen, Michael, Birgitte Bøggild Johannsen, and Hugo Johannsen, eds. Reframing the Danish Renaissance: Problems and Prospects in a European Perspective. Publications from the National Museum: Studies in Archaeology & History 16. Copenhagen: National Museum of Denmark, 2011.
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This is a reevaluation of Danish Renaissance art in its European context that takes into consideration recent scholarship in the field, provides studies of lesser-known Danish monuments and works of art, and discusses new approaches and methodologies.
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Axel-Nilsson, Göran. “Dekorativ stenhuggarkonst i yngre vasastil.” PhD diss., Göteborgs Högskola, 1950.
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Axel-Nilsson’s work is the most comprehensive study on Swedish architectural and figural stone sculpture during the first half of the 17th century. Published in 1950 (Lund, Sweden: Håkan Ohlssons Boktryckeri).
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Christensen, Charlotte. “Christian IVs renæssance: Billedkunsten i Danmark 1588–1648.” In Christian IVs verden. Edited by Svend Ellehøj, 302–335. Copenhagen: Nyt Nordisk Forlag A. Busck, 1988.
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This is an overview of the Danish visual arts from 1588 to 1648.
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Gillgren, Peter. Vasa-renässansen: Konst och identitet i 1500-talets Sverige. Lund, Sweden: Signum, 2009.
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Gillgren’s essays relate to art, style, representation, and questions of identity and politics in 16th-century Sweden.
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Hahr, August. Studier i Johan III’s Renässans. 2 vols. Skrifter Utgifna af Kongliga Humanistiska Vetenskaps-Samfundet i Uppsala. Uppsala, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri, 1907–1910.
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Hahr’s text is one of the first to focus specifically on Renaissance art and architecture in Sweden. It remains the definitive work on the major artists and craftsmen active in late-16th-century Sweden, tracing their connections to The Netherlands, Italy, and other centers of Renaissance art production.
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Hahr, August. Drottning Katarina Jagellonica och vasarenässansen: Studier i vasatidens konst och svensk-polsk-italienska förbindelser. Skrifter Utgivna av Kungliga Humanistiska Vetenskaps-Samfundet i Uppsala 34.1. Uppsala, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri, 1940.
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This important work traces the role of Queen Katarina (Christina) as a patron of the arts whose Italian and Polish connections influenced the development of Renaissance art and architecture in Sweden.
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Kongsted, Ole, Harald Ilsøe, Steffen Heiberg, and Gerhard Kraack. Festmusik fra Renaissancen. Copenhagen: Kongelige Bibliotek, 1990.
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This collection of essays provides perspectives on music in Renaissance Scandinavia.
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Neville, Kristoffer. Klara Church and the Swedish Counter-Reformation. Rapport (Uppsala Universitet, Konstvetenskapliga Institutionen) 2. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala Universitet, Konstvetenskapliga Institutionen, 2001.
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Neville connects architecture, the Counter-Reformation, and the reception of Renaissance architectural forms in this fascinating work on the Klara Church in Stockholm.
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Cultures, Popular and Elite

Scholarship has produced a number of works that focus on material culture as a means of accessing both the social and cultural world that produced them. Magnus 1996–1998 (originally published in 1555) is an exceptional work that covers every aspect of life and culture in 16th-century Scandinavia. Aneer 2009 is one of the finest works of this type. Upmark 1912 is more typical of more traditional cultural history, but it is particularly valuable for its overview of archival sources.

Aneer, Cecilia. Skrädderi för kungligt bruk: Tillverkning av kläder vid det svenska hovet ca. 1600–1635. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis: Studia Textilia 2. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala Universitet, 2009.
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This work looks both at the production of clothing at the Swedish court in the first decades of the 17th century and the people who produced it.
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Magnus, Olaus. Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus: Romæ 1555. 3 vols. Edited by Peter Foote. Translated by Peter Fisher and Humphrey Higgens. London: Hakluyt Society, 1996–1998.
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Magnus’s work, first published in 1555, is one of the greatest humanist productions of the Scandinavian Renaissance. It is an encyclopedic account of the lands and peoples of the North and is an invaluable source for information on everything from climate and wildlife to funerary customs. Its importance to the cultural and intellectual history of Sweden would be difficult to overstate.
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Upmark, Gustaf. “Om Gustaf Vasas hof.” PhD diss., Uppsala Universitet, 1912.
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Upmark’s work is the only study of Gustav Vasa’s court produced to date and includes a thorough overview of archival sources. Published in 1912 (Stockholm: Cederquists Grafiska AB).
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