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- 153
- Print Culture
- It is difficult for us to imagine a world without printed matter. We
- find evidence of print everywhere around us – in books, journals,
- newspapers, prints of famous paintings, and also in everyday things
- like theatre programmes, official circulars, calendars, diaries,
- advertisements, cinema posters at street corners. We read printed
- literature, see printed images, follow the news through newspapers,
- and track public debates that appear in print. We take for granted
- this world of print and often forget that there was a time before
- print. We may not realise that print itself has a history which has, in
- fact, shaped our contemporary world. What is this history? When
- did printed literature begin to circulate? How has it helped create
- the modern world?
- In this chapter we will look at the development of print, from its
- beginnings in East Asia to its expansion in Europe and in India. We
- will understand the impact of the spread of technology and consider
- how social lives and cultures changed with the coming of print.
- Print Culture and the Modern World
- Print Culture and the Modern World
- Chapter VII
- Fig. 1 – Book making before the age of print, from
- Akhlaq-i-Nasiri, 1595.
- This is a royal workshop in the sixteenth century,
- much before printing began in India. You can see
- the text being dictated, written and illustrated. The
- art of writing and illustrating by hand was
- important in the age before print. Think about
- what happened to these forms of art with the
- coming of printing machines.
- India and the Contemporary World
- 154
- 1 The First Printed Books
- Fig. 2 – A page from the Diamond Sutra.
- The earliest kind of print technology was developed in China, Japan
- and Korea. This was a system of hand printing. From AD 594
- onwards, books in China were printed by rubbing paper – also
- invented there – against the inked surface of woodblocks. As both
- sides of the thin, porous sheet could not be printed, the traditional
- Chinese ‘accordion book’ was folded and stitched at the side.
- Superbly skilled craftsmen could duplicate, with remarkable accuracy,
- the beauty of calligraphy.
- The imperial state in China was, for a very long time, the major
- producer of printed material. China possessed a huge bureaucratic
- system which recruited its personnel through civil service
- examinations. Textbooks for this examination were printed in vast
- numbers under the sponsorship of the imperial state. From the
- sixteenth century, the number of examination candidates went up
- and that increased the volume of print.
- By the seventeenth century, as urban culture bloomed in China, the
- uses of print diversified. Print was no longer used just by scholarofficials. Merchants used print in their everyday life, as they collected
- trade information. Reading increasingly became a leisure activity.
- The new readership preferred fictional narratives, poetry,
- autobiographies, anthologies of literary masterpieces, and romantic
- plays. Rich women began to read, and many women began
- publishing their poetry and plays. Wives of scholar-officials published
- their works and courtesans wrote about their lives.
- This new reading culture was accompanied by a new technology.
- Western printing techniques and mechanical presses were imported
- in the late nineteenth century as Western powers established their
- outposts in China. Shanghai became the hub of the new print culture,
- catering to the Western-style schools. From hand printing there was
- now a gradual shift to mechanical printing.
- 1.1 Print in Japan
- Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing
- technology into Japan around AD 768-770. The oldest Japanese book,
- printed in AD 868, is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra, containing six sheets
- of text and woodcut illustrations. Pictures were printed on textiles,
- New words
- Calligraphy – The art of beautiful and stylised
- writing
- 155
- Print Culture
- playing cards and paper money. In medieval Japan, poets and
- prose writers were regularly published, and books were cheap
- and abundant.
- Printing of visual material led to interesting publishing practices. In
- the late eighteenth century, in the flourishing urban circles at Edo
- (later to be known as Tokyo), illustrated collections of paintings
- depicted an elegant urban culture, involving artists, courtesans, and
- teahouse gatherings. Libraries and bookstores were packed with
- hand-printed material of various types – books on women, musical
- instruments, calculations, tea ceremony, flower arrangements, proper
- etiquette, cooking and famous places.
- Box 1
- Kitagawa Utamaro, born in Edo in 1753, was widely known for
- his contributions to an art form called ukiyo (‘pictures of the floating
- world’) or depiction of ordinary human experiences, especially urban
- ones. These prints travelled to contemporary US and Europe and
- influenced artists like Manet, Monet and Van Gogh. Publishers like
- Tsutaya Juzaburo identified subjects and commissioned artists who
- drew the theme in outline. Then a skilled woodblock carver pasted
- the drawing on a woodblock and carved a printing block to
- reproduce the painter’s lines. In the process, the original drawing
- would be destroyed and only prints would survive.
- Fig. 3 – An ukiyo
- print by Kitagawa
- Utamaro.
- Fig. 4 – A morning scene,
- ukiyo print by Shunman
- Kubo, late eighteenth
- century.
- A man looks out of the
- window at the snowfall while
- women prepare tea and
- perform other domestic
- duties.
- India and the Contemporary World
- 156
- 2 Print Comes to Europe
- For centuries, silk and spices from China flowed into Europe through
- the silk route. In the eleventh century, Chinese paper reached Europe
- via the same route. Paper made possible the production of
- manuscripts, carefully written by scribes. Then, in 1295, Marco Polo,
- a great explorer, returned to Italy after many years of exploration in
- China. As you read above, China already had the technology of
- woodblock printing. Marco Polo brought this knowledge back with
- him. Now Italians began producing books with woodblocks, and
- soon the technology spread to other parts of Europe. Luxury
- editions were still handwritten on very expensive vellum, meant for
- aristocratic circles and rich monastic libraries which scoffed at printed
- books as cheap vulgarities. Merchants and students in the university
- towns bought the cheaper printed copies.
- As the demand for books increased, booksellers all over Europe
- began exporting books to many different countries. Book fairs were
- held at different places. Production of handwritten manuscripts was
- also organised in new ways to meet the expanded demand. Scribes
- or skilled handwriters were no longer solely employed by wealthy
- or influential patrons but increasingly by booksellers as well. More
- than 50 scribes often worked for one bookseller.
- But the production of handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy
- the ever-increasing demand for books. Copying was an expensive,
- laborious and time-consuming business. Manuscripts were fragile,
- awkward to handle, and could not be carried around or read easily.
- Their circulation therefore remained limited. With the growing
- demand for books, woodblock printing gradually became more
- and more popular. By the early fifteenth century, woodblocks were
- being widely used in Europe to print textiles, playing cards, and
- religious pictures with simple, brief texts.
- There was clearly a great need for even quicker and cheaper
- reproduction of texts. This could only be with the invention of a
- new print technology. The breakthrough occurred at Strasbourg,
- Germany, where Johann Gutenberg developed the first-known
- printing press in the 1430s.
- New words
- Vellum – A parchment made from the skin
- of animals
- Imagine that you are Marco Polo. Write a letter
- from China to describe the world of print which
- you have seen there.
- Activity
- 157
- New words
- Print Culture
- Platen – In letterpress printing, platen is a board which is
- pressed onto the back of the paper to get the impression from
- the type. At one time it used to be a wooden board; later it
- was made of steel
- 2.1 Gutenberg and the Printing Press
- Gutenberg was the son of a merchant and grew up on a large
- agricultural estate. From his childhood he had seen wine and olive
- presses. Subsequently, he learnt the art of polishing stones, became a
- master goldsmith, and also acquired the expertise to create lead
- moulds used for making trinkets. Drawing on this knowledge,
- Gutenberg adapted existing technology to design his innovation.
- The olive press provided the model for the printing press, and moulds
- were used for casting the metal types for the letters of the alphabet.
- By 1448, Gutenberg perfected the system. The first book he printed
- was the Bible. About 180 copies were printed and it took three
- years to produce them. By the standards of the time this was fast
- production.
- The new technology did not entirely displace the existing art of
- producing books by hand.
- In fact, printed books at first closely resembled the written
- manuscripts in appearance and layout. The metal letters imitated the
- ornamental handwritten styles. Borders were illuminated by hand
- with foliage and other patterns, and illustrations were painted. In the
- books printed for the rich, space for decoration was kept blank on
- the printed page. Each purchaser could choose the design and decide
- on the painting school that would do the illustrations.
- In the hundred years between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were
- set up in most countries of Europe. Printers from Germany travelled
- to other countries, seeking work and helping start new presses. As
- the number of printing presses grew, book production boomed.
- The second half of the fifteenth century saw 20 million copies of
- printed books flooding the markets in Europe. The number went
- up in the sixteenth century to about 200 million copies.
- This shift from hand printing to mechanical printing led to the
- print revolution.
- Fig. 6 – Gutenberg Printing Press.
- Notice the long handle attached to the screw.
- This handle was used to turn the screw and
- press down the platen over the printing block
- that was placed on top of a sheet of damp
- paper. Gutenberg developed metal types for
- each of the 26 characters of the Roman
- alphabet and devised a way of moving them
- around so as to compose different words of the
- text. This came to be known as the moveable
- type printing machine, and it remained the basic
- print technology over the next 300 years.
- Books could now be produced much faster than
- was possible when each print block was
- prepared by carving a piece of wood by hand.
- The Gutenberg press could print 250 sheets
- on one side per hour.
- Fig. 5 – A Portrait of
- Johann Gutenberg,
- 1584.
- Printing block
- placed over
- paper
- Frame
- Screw
- Handle
- Platen
- India and the Contemporary World
- 158
- Fig. 7 – Pages of Gutenberg’s Bible, the first printed book in Europe.
- Gutenberg printed about 180 copies, of which no more than 50 have
- survived.
- Look at these pages of Gutenberg’s Bible carefully. They were not just
- products of new technology. The text was printed in the new Gutenberg
- press with metal type, but the borders were carefully designed, painted and
- illuminated by hand by artists. No two copies were the same. Every page of
- each copy was different. Even when two copies look similar, a careful
- comparison will reveal differences. Elites everywhere preferred this lack of
- uniformity: what they possessed then could be claimed as unique, for no
- one else owned a copy that was exactly the same.
- In the text you will notice the use of colour within the letters in various
- places. This had two functions: it added colour to the page, and highlighted
- all the holy words to emphasise their significance. But the colour on every
- page of the text was added by hand. Gutenberg printed the text in black,
- leaving spaces where the colour could be filled in later.
- New words
- Compositor – The person who composes the
- text for printing
- Galley – Metal frame in which types are laid
- and the text composed
- Fig. 8 – A printer’s workshop, sixteenth century.
- This picture depicts what a printer’s shop looked like in the
- sixteenth century. All the activities are going on under one roof.
- In the foreground on the right, compositors are at work, while
- on the left galleys are being prepared and ink is being applied on
- the metal types; in the background, the printers are turning the
- screws of the press, and near them proofreaders are at work.
- Right in front is the final product – the double-page printed
- sheets, stacked in neat piles, waiting to be bound.
- 159
- Print Culture
- 3 The Print Revolution and Its Impact
- What was the print revolution? It was not just a development, a new
- way of producing books; it transformed the lives of people,
- changing their relationship to information and knowledge, and with
- institutions and authorities. It influenced popular perceptions and
- opened up new ways of looking at things.
- Let us explore some of these changes.
- 3.1 A New Reading Public
- With the printing press, a new reading public emerged. Printing
- reduced the cost of books. The time and labour required to produce
- each book came down, and multiple copies could be produced
- with greater ease. Books flooded the market, reaching out to an
- ever-growing readership.
- Access to books created a new culture of reading. Earlier, reading
- was restricted to the elites. Common people lived in a world of oral
- culture. They heard sacred texts read out, ballads recited, and folk
- tales narrated. Knowledge was transferred orally. People collectively
- heard a story, or saw a performance. As you will see in Chapter 8,
- they did not read a book individually and silently. Before the age of
- print, books were not only expensive but they could not be produced
- in sufficient numbers. Now books could reach out to wider sections
- of people. If earlier there was a hearing public, now a reading public
- came into being.
- But the transition was not so simple. Books could be read only by
- the literate, and the rates of literacy in most European countries
- were very low till the twentieth century. How, then, could publishers
- persuade the common people to welcome the printed book? To do
- this, they had to keep in mind the wider reach of the printed work:
- even those who did not read could certainly enjoy listening to books
- being read out. So printers began publishing popular ballads and
- folk tales, and such books would be profusely illustrated with pictures.
- These were then sung and recited at gatherings in villages and in
- taverns in towns.
- Oral culture thus entered print and printed material was orally
- transmitted. The line that separated the oral and reading cultures
- became blurred. And the hearing public and reading public became
- intermingled.
- New words
- Ballad – A historical account or folk tale in
- verse, usually sung or recited
- Taverns – Places where people gathered to
- drink alcohol, to be served food, and to meet
- friends and exchange news
- You are a bookseller advertising the availability
- of new cheap printed books. Design a poster
- for your shop window.
- Activity
- India and the Contemporary World
- 160
- New words
- Protestant Reformation – A sixteenth-century
- movement to reform the Catholic Church
- dominated by Rome. Martin Luther was one
- of the main Protestant reformers. Several
- traditions of anti-Catholic Christianity
- developed out of the movement
- 3.2 Religious Debates and the Fear of Print
- Print created the possibility of wide circulation of
- ideas, and introduced a new world of debate and
- discussion. Even those who disagreed with
- established authorities could now print and circulate
- their ideas. Through the printed message, they could
- persuade people to think differently, and move them
- to action. This had significance in different spheres
- of life.
- Not everyone welcomed the printed book, and those
- who did also had fears about it. Many were
- apprehensive of the effects that the easier access to
- the printed word and the wider circulation of books,
- could have on people’s minds. It was feared that if
- there was no control over what was printed and
- read then rebellious and irreligious thoughts might
- spread. If that happened the authority of ‘valuable’
- literature would be destroyed. Expressed by religious
- authorities and monarchs, as well as many writers
- and artists, this anxiety was the basis of widespread
- criticism of the new printed literature that had began
- to circulate.
- Let us consider the implication of this in one sphere
- of life in early modern Europe – namely, religion.
- In 1517, the religious reformer Martin Luther wrote
- Ninety Five Theses criticising many of the practices
- and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church. A printed
- copy of this was posted on a church door in Wittenberg. It challenged
- the Church to debate his ideas. Luther’s writings were immediately
- reproduced in vast numbers and read widely. This lead to a division
- within the Church and to the beginning of the Protestant
- Reformation. Luther’s translation of the New Testament sold 5,000
- copies within a few weeks and a second edition appeared within
- three months. Deeply grateful to print, Luther said, ‘Printing is the
- ultimate gift of God and the greatest one.’ Several scholars, in fact,
- think that print brought about a new intellectual atmosphere and
- helped spread the new ideas that led to the Reformation.
- Fig. 9 – J.V. Schley, L’Imprimerie, 1739.
- This is one of the many images produced in early modern
- Europe, celebrating the coming of print. You can see the
- printing press descending from heaven, carried by a goddess.
- On two sides of the goddess, blessing the machine, are
- Minerva (the goddess of wisdom) and Mercury (the messenger
- god, also symbolising reason). The women in the foreground
- are holding plaques with the portraits of six pioneer printers of
- different countries. In the middle ground on the left (figure
- encircled) is the portrait of Gutenberg.
- 161
- Print Culture
- 3.3 Print and Dissent
- Print and popular religious literature stimulated many distinctive
- individual interpretations of faith even among little-educated working
- people. In the sixteenth century, Menocchio, a miller in Italy, began
- to read books that were available in his locality. He reinterpreted the
- message of the Bible and formulated a view of God and Creation
- that enraged the Roman Catholic Church. When the Roman Church
- began its inquisition to repress heretical ideas, Menocchio was hauled
- up twice and ultimately executed. The Roman Church, troubled by
- such effects of popular readings and questionings of faith, imposed
- severe controls over publishers and booksellers and began to maintain
- an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.
- New words
- Inquisition –A former Roman Catholic court
- for identifying and punishing heretics
- Heretical – Beliefs which do not follow the
- accepted teachings of the Church. In medieval
- times, heresy was seen as a threat to the right
- of the Church to decide on what should be
- believed and what should not. Heretical beliefs
- were severely punished
- Satiety – The state of being fulfilled much
- beyond the point of satisfaction
- Seditious – Action, speech or writing that is
- seen as opposing the government
- Fear of the book
- Erasmus, a Latin scholar and a Catholic reformer,
- who criticised the excesses of Catholicism but kept
- his distance from Luther, expressed a deep anxiety
- about printing. He wrote in Adages (1508):
- ‘To what corner of the world do they not fly,
- these swarms of new books? It may be that one
- here and there contributes something worth
- knowing, but the very multitude of them is hurtful
- to scholarship, because it creates a glut, and even
- in good things satiety is most harmful ... [printers]
- fill the world with books, not just trifling things
- (such as I write, perhaps), but stupid, ignorant,
- slanderous, scandalous, raving, irreligious and
- seditious books, and the number of them
- is such that even the valuable publications lose
- their value.’
- Source
- Source A
- Fig. 10 – The macabre dance.
- This sixteenth-century print shows how the fear of printing was
- dramatised in visual representations of the time. In this highly
- interesting woodcut the coming of print is associated with the end
- of the world. The interior of the printer’s workshop here is the site
- of a dance of death. Skeletal figures control the printer and his
- workers, define and dictate what is to be done and what is to be
- produced.
- Write briefly why some people feared that the development of
- print could lead to the growth of dissenting ideas.
- Discuss
- India and the Contemporary World
- 162
- 4 The Reading Mania
- Through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries literacy rates went
- up in most parts of Europe. Churches of different denominations
- set up schools in villages, carrying literacy to peasants and artisans.
- By the end of the eighteenth century, in some parts of Europe
- literacy rates were as high as 60 to 80 per cent. As literacy and schools
- spread in European countries, there was a virtual reading mania.
- People wanted books to read and printers produced books in everincreasing numbers.
- New forms of popular literature appeared in print, targeting new
- audiences. Booksellers employed pedlars who roamed around
- villages, carrying little books for sale. There were almanacs or ritual
- calendars, along with ballads and folktales. But other forms of reading
- matter, largely for entertainment, began to reach ordinary readers as
- well. In England, penny chapbooks were carried by petty pedlars
- known as chapmen, and sold for a penny, so that even the poor
- could buy them. In France, were the ‘Biliotheque Bleue’, which were
- low-priced small books printed on poor quality paper, and bound
- in cheap blue covers. Then there were the romances, printed on
- four to six pages, and the more substantial ‘histories’ which were
- stories about the past. Books were of various sizes, serving many
- different purposes and interests.
- The periodical press developed from the early eighteenth century,
- combining information about current affairs with entertainment.
- Newspapers and journals carried information about wars and trade,
- as well as news of developments in other places.
- Similarly, the ideas of scientists and philosophers now became more
- accessible to the common people. Ancient and medieval scientific
- texts were compiled and published, and maps and scientific diagrams
- were widely printed. When scientists like Isaac Newton began to
- publish their discoveries, they could influence a much wider circle
- of scientifically minded readers. The writings of thinkers such as
- Thomas Paine, Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau were also widely
- printed and read. Thus their ideas about science, reason and rationality
- found their way into popular literature.
- New words
- Denominations – Sub groups within a religion
- Almanac – An annual publication giving
- astronomical data, information about the
- movements of the sun and moon, timing of
- full tides and eclipses, and much else that was
- of importance in the everyday life of people
- Chapbook – A term used to describe pocketsize books that are sold by travelling pedlars
- called chapmen. These became popular from
- the time of the sixteenth-century print revolution
- Box 2
- In 1791, a London publisher, James Lackington,
- wrote in his diary:
- The sale of books in general has increased
- prodigiously within the last twenty years. The
- poorer sort of farmers and even the poor country
- people in general who before that period spent
- their winter evenings in relating stories of witches,
- ghosts, hobgoblins … now shorten the winter
- night by hearing their sons and daughters read
- them tales, romances, etc. If John goes to town
- with a load of hay, he is charged to be sure not
- to forget to bring home Peregrine Pickle’s
- Adventure … and when Dolly is sent to sell her
- eggs, she is commissioned to purchase The
- History of Joseph Andrews.’
- 163
- Print Culture
- 4.1 ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!’
- By the mid-eighteenth century, there was a common conviction that
- books were a means of spreading progress and enlightenment. Many
- believed that books could change the world, liberate society from
- despotism and tyranny, and herald a time when reason and intellect
- would rule. Louise-Sebastien Mercier, a novelist in eighteenth-century
- France, declared: ‘The printing press is the most powerful engine of
- progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism
- away.’ In many of Mercier’s novels, the heroes are transformed by
- acts of reading. They devour books, are lost in the world books
- create, and become enlightened in the process. Convinced of the
- power of print in bringing enlightenment and destroying the basis
- of despotism, Mercier proclaimed: ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of
- the world! Tremble before the virtual writer!’
- 4.2 Print Culture and the French Revolution
- Many historians have argued that print culture created the conditions
- within which French Revolution occurred. Can we make such
- a connection?
- Three types of arguments have been usually put forward.
- First: print popularised the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers.
- Collectively, their writings provided a critical commentary on tradition,
- superstition and despotism. They argued for the rule of reason rather
- than custom, and demanded that everything be judged through the
- application of reason and rationality. They attacked the sacred
- authority of the Church and the despotic power of the state, thus
- eroding the legitimacy of a social order based on tradition. The
- writings of Voltaire and Rousseau were read widely; and those who
- read these books saw the world through new eyes, eyes that were
- questioning, critical and rational.
- Second: print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. All
- values, norms and institutions were re-evaluated and discussed by a
- public that had become aware of the power of reason, and
- recognised the need to question existing ideas and beliefs. Within
- this public culture, new ideas of social revolution came into being.
- Third: by the 1780s there was an outpouring of literature that mocked
- the royalty and criticised their morality. In the process, it raised
- This is how Mercier describes the impact of the
- printed word, and the power of reading in one
- of his books:
- ‘Anyone who had seen me reading would have
- compared me to a man dying of thirst who was
- gulping down some fresh, pure water … Lighting
- my lamp with extraordinary caution, I threw
- myself hungrily into the reading. An easy
- eloquence, effortless and animated, carried me
- from one page to the next without my noticing
- it. A clock struck off the hours in the silence of
- the shadows, and I heard nothing. My lamp began
- to run out of oil and produced only a pale light,
- but still I read on. I could not even take out time
- to raise the wick for fear of interrupting my
- pleasure. How those new ideas rushed into my
- brain! How my intelligence adopted them!’
- Quoted by Robert Darnton, The Forbidden BestSellers of Pre-Revolutionary France, 1995.
- Source
- Source B
- New words
- Despotism – A system of governance in which
- absolute power is exercised by an individual,
- unregulated by legal and constitutional checks
- India and the Contemporary World
- 164
- Why do some historians think that print culture created the basis for the French Revolution?
- Discuss
- questions about the existing social order. Cartoons and caricatures
- typically suggested that the monarchy remained absorbed only in
- sensual pleasures while the common people suffered immense
- hardships. This literature circulated underground and led to the
- growth of hostile sentiments against the monarchy.
- How do we look at these arguments? There can be no doubt that
- print helps the spread of ideas. But we must remember that people
- did not read just one kind of literature. If they read the ideas of
- Voltaire and Rousseau, they were also exposed to monarchical and
- Church propaganda. They were not influenced directly by everything
- they read or saw. They accepted some ideas and rejected others.
- They interpreted things their own way. Print did not directly shape
- their minds, but it did open up the possibility of thinking differently.
- Fig. 11 – The nobility and the common people before the French Revolution, a
- cartoon of the late eighteenth century.
- The cartoon shows how the ordinary people – peasants, artisans and workers – had a
- hard time while the nobility enjoyed life and oppressed them. Circulation of cartoons
- like this one had an impact on the thinking of people before the revolution.
- Imagine that you are a cartoonist in France
- before the revolution. Design a cartoon as it
- would have appeared in a pamphlet.
- Activity
- 165
- Print Culture
- Box 3
- 5 The Nineteenth Century
- The nineteenth century saw vast leaps in mass literacy in Europe,
- bringing in large numbers of new readers among children,
- women and workers.
- 5.1 Children, Women and Workers
- As primary education became compulsory from the late
- nineteenth century, children became an important category
- of readers. Production of school textbooks became critical
- for the publishing industry. A children’s press, devoted to
- literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857.
- This press published new works as well as old fairy tales
- and folk tales. The Grimm Brothers in Germany spent years
- compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants. What
- they collected was edited before the stories were published
- in a collection in 1812. Anything that was considered
- unsuitable for children or would appear vulgar to the elites,
- was not included in the published version. Rural folk tales
- thus acquired a new form. In this way, print recorded old
- tales but also changed them.
- Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny
- magazines (see Fig. 12) were especially meant for women, as
- were manuals teaching proper behaviour and housekeeping.
- When novels began to be written in the nineteenth century,
- women were seen as important readers. Some of the bestknown novelists were women: Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters,
- George Eliot. Their writings became important in defining a new
- type of woman: a person with will, strength of personality,
- determination and the power to think.
- Lending libraries had been in existence from the seventeenth century
- onwards. In the nineteenth century, lending libraries in England
- became instruments for educating white-collar workers, artisans
- and lower-middle-class people. Sometimes, self-educated working
- class people wrote for themselves. After the working day was
- gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had
- some time for self-improvement and self-expression. They wrote
- political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.
- Thomas Wood, a Yorkshire mechanic, narrated
- how he would rent old newspapers and read
- them by firelight in the evenings as he could not
- afford candles. Autobiographies of poor people
- narrated their struggles to read against grim
- obstacles: the twentieth-century Russian
- revolutionary author Maxim Gorky’s My Childhood
- and My University provide glimpses of such
- struggles.
- Fig. 12 – Frontispiece of Penny Magazine.
- Penny Magazine was published between 1832 and 1835
- in England by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
- Knowledge. It was aimed primarily at the working class.
- India and the Contemporary World
- 166
- 5.2 Further Innovations
- By the late eighteenth century, the press came to be made out of
- metal. Through the nineteenth century, there were a series of further
- innovations in printing technology. By the mid-nineteenth century,
- Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power-driven
- cylindrical press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour.
- This press was particularly useful for printing newspapers. In the
- late nineteenth century, the offset press was developed which could
- print up to six colours at a time. From the turn of the twentieth
- century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations.
- A series of other developments followed. Methods of feeding paper
- improved, the quality of plates became better, automatic paper reels
- and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.
- The accumulation of several individual mechanical improvements
- transformed the appearance of printed texts.
- Printers and publishers continuously developed new strategies
- to sell their product. Nineteenth-century periodicals serialised
- important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of writing
- novels. In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in
- cheap series, called the Shilling Series. The dust cover or the
- book jacket is also a twentieth-century innovation. With the
- onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, publishers feared a
- decline in book purchases. To sustain buying, they brought
- out cheap paperback editions.
- Look at Fig. 13. What impact do such
- advertisements have on the public mind?
- Do you think everyone reacts to printed material
- in the same way?
- Activity
- Fig. 13 – Advertisements at a railway station in England, a lithograph by Alfred Concanen, 1874.
- Printed advertisements and notices were plastered on street walls, railway platforms and public buildings.
- 167
- Print Culture
- 6 India and the World of Print
- Let us see when printing began in India and how ideas and information
- were written before the age of print.
- 6.1 Manuscripts Before the Age of Print
- India had a very rich and old tradition of handwritten manuscripts –
- in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, as well as in various vernacular languages.
- Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper.
- Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated. They would be either
- pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure
- preservation. Manuscripts continued to be produced till well after
- the introduction of print, down to the late nineteenth century.
- Manuscripts, however, were highly expensive and fragile. They had
- to be handled carefully, and they could not be read easily as the
- Fig. 15 – Pages from the Diwan of Hafiz, 1824.
- Hafiz was a fourteenth-century poet whose collected works are known as Diwan. Notice the
- beautiful calligraphy and the elaborate illustration and design. Manuscripts like this continued
- to be produced for the rich even after the coming of the letterpress.
- Fig. 14 – Pages
- from the Gita
- Govinda of
- Jayadeva,
- eighteenth century.
- This is a palm-leaf
- handwritten
- manuscript in
- accordion format.
- India and the Contemporary World
- 168
- Fig. 16 – Pages from the Rigveda.
- Handwritten manuscripts continued to be produced in India till much after
- the coming of print. This manuscript was produced in the eighteenth
- century in the Malayalam script.
- script was written in different styles. So
- manuscripts were not widely used in
- everyday life. Even though pre-colonial
- Bengal had developed an extensive network
- of village primary schools, students very
- often did not read texts. They only learnt
- to write. Teachers dictated portions of
- texts from memory and students wrote
- them down. Many thus became literate
- without ever actually reading any kinds
- of texts.
- 6.2 Print Comes to India
- The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries
- in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and
- printed several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed
- in the Konkani and in Kanara languages. Catholic priests printed
- the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin, and in 1713 the first
- Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant
- missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations
- of older works.
- The English language press did not grow in India till quite late even
- though the English East India Company began to import presses
- from the late seventeenth century.
- From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette,
- a weekly magazine that described itself as ‘a commercial paper open
- to all, but influenced by none’. So it was private English enterprise,
- proud of its independence from colonial influence, that began English
- printing in India. Hickey published a lot of advertisements, including
- those that related to the import and sale of slaves. But he also
- published a lot of gossip about the Company’s senior officials in
- India. Enraged by this, Governor-General Warren Hastings
- persecuted Hickey, and encouraged the publication of officially
- sanctioned newspapers that could counter the flow of information
- that damaged the image of the colonial government. By the
- close of the eighteenth century, a number of newspapers and
- journals appeared in print. There were Indians, too, who began
- to publish Indian newspapers. The first to appear was the weekly
- Bengal Gazette, brought out by Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who
- was close to Rammohun Roy.
- As late as 1768, a William Bolts affixed a notice
- on a public building in Calcutta:
- ‘To the Public: Mr. Bolts takes this method of
- informing the public that the want of a printing
- press in this city being of a great disadvantage in
- business ... he is going to give the best
- encouragement to any ... persons who are
- versed in the business of printing.’
- Bolts, however, left for England soon after and
- nothing came of the promise.
- Source
- Source C
- 169
- Print Culture
- 7 Religious Reform and Public Debates
- From the early nineteenth century, as you know, there were intense
- debates around religious issues. Different groups confronted the
- changes happening within colonial society in different ways, and
- offered a variety of new interpretations of the beliefs of different
- religions. Some criticised existing practices and campaigned for
- reform, while others countered the arguments of reformers. These
- debates were carried out in public and in print. Printed tracts and
- newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the
- nature of the debate. A wider public could now participate in these
- public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged
- through these clashes of opinions.
- This was a time of intense controversies between social and religious
- reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow
- immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood and idolatry. In
- Bengal, as the debate developed, tracts and newspapers proliferated,
- circulating a variety of arguments. To reach a wider audience, the
- ideas were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary
- people. Rammohun Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi from 1821
- and the Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika
- to oppose his opinions. From 1822, two Persian newspapers were
- published, Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. In the same year,
- a Gujarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar, made its appearance.
- In north India, the ulama were deeply anxious about the collapse
- of Muslim dynasties. They feared that colonial rulers would
- encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. To counter
- this, they used cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and
- Urdu translations of holy scriptures, and printed religious
- newspapers and tracts. The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867,
- published thousands upon thousands of fatwas telling Muslim
- readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday lives, and
- explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines. All through the
- nineteenth century, a number of Muslim sects and seminaries
- appeared, each with a different interpretation of faith, each keen
- on enlarging its following and countering the influence of its
- opponents. Urdu print helped them conduct these battles in public.
- Among Hindus, too, print encouraged the reading of religious texts,
- especially in the vernacular languages. The first printed edition of
- New words
- Ulama – Legal scholars of Islam and the sharia
- ( a body of Islamic law)
- Fatwa – A legal pronouncement on Islamic
- law usually given by a mufti (legal scholar) to
- clarify issues on which the law is uncertain
- India and the Contemporary World
- 170
- the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth-century text, came out
- from Calcutta in 1810. By the mid-nineteenth century, cheap
- lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s,
- the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar
- Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars.
- In their printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the
- faithful at any place and time. They could also be read out to large
- groups of illiterate men and women.
- Religious texts, therefore, reached a very wide circle of people,
- encouraging discussions, debates and controversies within and
- among different religions.
- Print did not only stimulate the publication of conflicting opinions
- amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people
- in different parts of India. Newspapers conveyed news from one
- place to another, creating pan-Indian identities.
- Why Newspapers?
- ‘Krishnaji Trimbuck Ranade inhabitant of Poona intends to publish a Newspaper in the Marathi Language with a view of
- affording useful information on every topic of local interest. It will be open for free discussion on subjects of general utility,
- scientific investigation and the speculations connected with the antiquities, statistics, curiosities, history and geography of
- the country and of the Deccan especially… the patronage and support of all interested in the diffusion of knowledge and
- Welfare of the People is earnestly solicited.’
- Bombay Telegraph and Courier, 6 January 1849
- ‘The task of the native newspapers and political associations is identical to the role of the Opposition in the House of
- Commons in Parliament in England. That is of critically examining government policy to suggest improvements, by removing
- those parts that will not be to the benefit of the people, and also by ensuring speedy implementation.
- These associations ought to carefully study the particular issues, gather diverse relevant information on the nation as well
- as on what are the possible and desirable improvements, and this will surely earn it considerable influence.’
- Native Opinion, 3 April 1870. Source
- Source D
- 171
- Print Culture
- 8 New Forms of Publication
- Printing created an appetite for new kinds of writing. As more and
- more people could now read, they wanted to see their own lives,
- experiences, emotions and relationships reflected in what they read.
- The novel, a literary firm which had developed in Europe, ideally
- catered to this need. It soon acquired distinctively Indian forms and
- styles. For readers, it opened up new worlds of experience, and
- gave a vivid sense of the diversity of human lives.
- Other new literary forms also entered the world of reading –
- lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters. In
- different ways, they reinforced the new emphasis on human lives
- and intimate feelings, about the political and social rules that shaped
- such things.
- By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual
- culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an
- increasing number of printing presses, visual images
- could be easily reproduced in multiple copies. Painters
- like Raja Ravi Varma produced images for mass
- circulation. Poor wood engravers who made
- woodblocks set up shop near the letterpresses, and
- were employed by print shops. Cheap prints and
- calendars, easily available in the bazaar, could be
- bought even by the poor to decorate the walls of
- their homes or places of work. These prints began
- shaping popular ideas about modernity and tradition,
- religion and politics, and society and culture.
- By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being
- published in journals and newspapers, commenting
- on social and political issues. Some caricatures
- ridiculed the educated Indians’ fascination with
- Western tastes and clothes, while others expressed
- the fear of social change. There were imperial
- caricatures lampooning nationalists, as well as
- nationalist cartoons criticising imperial rule.
- Fig. 17 – Raja Ritudhwaj rescuing Princess Madalsa
- from the captivity of demons, print by Ravi Varma.
- Raja Ravi Varma produced innumerable mythological
- paintings that were printed at the Ravi Varma Press.
- India and the Contemporary World
- 172
- 8.1 Women and Print
- Lives and feelings of women began to be written in particularly
- vivid and intense ways. Women’s reading, therefore, increased
- enormously in middle-class homes. Liberal husbands and fathers
- began educating their womenfolk at home, and sent them to schools
- when women’s schools were set up in the cities and towns after the
- mid-nineteenth century. Many journals began carrying writings by
- women, and explained why women should be educated. They also
- carried a syllabus and attached suitable reading matter which could
- be used for home-based schooling.
- But not all families were liberal. Conservative Hindus believed
- that a literate girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that
- educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
- Sometimes, rebel women defied such prohibition. We know the
- story of a girl in a conservative Muslim family of north India
- who secretly learnt to read and write in Urdu. Her family wanted
- her to read only the Arabic Quran which she did not understand.
- So she insisted on learning to read a language that was her own. In
- East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi, a
- young married girl in a very orthodox household, learnt to read in
- the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography
- Amar Jiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full-length
- autobiography published in the Bengali language.
- Since social reforms and novels had already created a great interest
- in women’s lives and emotions, there was also an interest in what
- women would have to say about their own lives. From the 1860s,
- a few Bengali women like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books
- highlighting the experiences of women – about how women were
- imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic
- labour and treated unjustly by the very people they served. In the
- 1880s, in present-day Maharashtra, Tarabai Shinde and Pandita
- Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives
- of upper-caste Hindu women, especially widows. A woman in a
- Tamil novel expressed what reading meant to women who were
- so greatly confined by social regulations: ‘For various reasons, my
- world is small … More than half my life’s happiness has come
- from books …’
- While Urdu, Tamil, Bengali and Marathi print culture had developed
- early, Hindi printing began seriously only from the 1870s. Soon, a
- large segment of it was devoted to the education of women. In
- Fig. 18 – The cover page of Indian Charivari.
- The Indian Charivari was one of the many
- journals of caricature and satire published in
- the late nineteenth century.
- Notice that the imperial British figure is
- positioned right at the centre. He is
- authoritative and imperial; telling the natives
- what is to be done. The natives sit on either
- side of him, servile and submissive. The
- Indians are being shown a copy of Punch, the
- British journal of cartoons and satire. You can
- almost hear the British master say – ‘This is
- the model, produce Indian versions of it.’
- Source
- Source E
- In 1926, Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossein, a
- noted educationist and literary figure, strongly
- condemned men for withholding education from
- women in the name of religion as she addressed
- the Bengal Women’s Education Conference:
- ‘The opponents of female education say that
- women will become unruly … Fie! They call
- themselves Muslims and yet go against the basic
- tenet of Islam which gives Women an equal right
- to education. If men are not led astray once
- educated, why should women?’
- 173
- Print Culture
- the early twentieth century, journals, written for and sometimes
- edited by women, became extremely popular. They discussed
- issues like women’s education, widowhood, widow remarriage
- and the national movement. Some of them offered household
- and fashion lessons to women and brought entertainment through
- short stories and serialised novels.
- In Punjab, too, a similar folk literature was widely printed from
- the early twentieth century. Ram Chaddha published the fast-selling
- Istri Dharm Vichar to teach women how to be obedient wives.
- The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar
- message. Many of these were in the form of dialogues about the
- qualities of a good woman.
- In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta – the Battala – was
- devoted to the printing of popular books. Here you could buy
- cheap editions of religious tracts and scriptures, as well as literature
- that was considered obscene and scandalous. By the late nineteenth
- century, a lot of these books were being profusely illustrated with
- woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the Battala
- publications to homes, enabling women to read them in their
- leisure time.
- Fig. 20 – An Indian
- couple, black and white
- woodcut.
- The image shows the
- artist’s fear that the
- cultural impact of the
- West has turned the
- family upside down.
- Notice that the man is
- playing the veena while
- the woman is smoking a
- hookah. The move
- towards women’s
- education in the late
- nineteenth century
- created anxiety about the
- breakdown of traditional
- family roles.
- Fig. 19 – Ghor Kali (The End of the
- World), coloured woodcut, late
- nineteenth century.
- The artist’s vision of the destruction
- of proper family relations. Here the
- husband is totally dominated by his
- wife who is perched on his shoulder.
- He is cruel towards his mother,
- dragging her like an animal, by the
- noose.
- India and the Contemporary World
- 174
- 8.2 Print and the Poor People
- Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth-century
- Madras towns and sold at crossroads, allowing poor people travelling
- to markets to buy them. Public libraries were set up from the early
- twentieth century, expanding the access to books. These libraries were
- located mostly in cities and towns, and at times in prosperous villages.
- For rich local patrons, setting up a library was a way of acquiring prestige.
- From the late nineteenth century, issues of caste discrimination began to
- be written about in many printed tracts and essays. Jyotiba Phule, the
- Maratha pioneer of ‘low caste’ protest movements, wrote about the
- injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1871). In the twentieth
- century, B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker
- in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caste and
- their writings were read by people all over India. Local protest
- movements and sects also created a lot of popular journals and tracts
- criticising ancient scriptures and envisioning a new and just future.
- Workers in factories were too overworked and lacked the education to
- write much about their experiences. But Kashibaba, a Kanpur
- millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1938 to
- show the links between caste and class exploitation. The poems of
- another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan
- Chakr between 1935 and 1955, were brought together and published
- in a collection called Sacchi Kavitayan. By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton
- millworkers set up libraries to educate themselves, following the example
- of Bombay workers. These were sponsored by social reformers who
- tried to restrict excessive drinking among them, to bring literacy and,
- sometimes, to propagate the message of nationalism.
- Look at Figs. 19, 20 and 21 carefully.
- ¾ What comment are the artists making on the
- social changes taking place in society?
- ¾ What changes in society were taking place to
- provoke this reaction?
- ¾ Do you agree with the artist’s view?
- Activity
- Fig. 21 – A European couple sitting on chairs,
- nineteenth-century woodcut.
- The picture suggests traditional family roles. The
- Sahib holds a liquor bottle in his hand while the
- Memsahib plays the violin.
- 175
- Print Culture
- 9 Print and Censorship
- Before 1798, the colonial state under the East India Company was
- not too concerned with censorship. Strangely, its early measures to
- control printed matter were directed against Englishmen in India
- who were critical of Company misrule and hated the actions of
- particular Company officers. The Company was worried that such
- criticisms might be used by its critics in England to attack its trade
- monopoly in India.
- By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations
- to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging
- publication of newspapers that would celebrate Britsh rule. In 1835,
- faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular
- newspapers, Governor-General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws.
- Thomas Macaulay, a liberal colonial official, formulated new rules
- that restored the earlier freedoms.
- After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press
- changed. Enraged Englishmen demanded a clamp down on the
- ‘native’ press. As vernacular newspapers became assertively
- nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of
- stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed,
- modelled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government
- with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular
- press. From now on the government kept regular track of the
- vernacular newspapers published in different provinces. When a
- report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned, and if
- the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the
- printing machinery confiscated.
- Despite repressive measures, nationalist newspapers grew in numbers
- in all parts of India. They reported on colonial misrule and
- encouraged nationalist activities. Attempts to throttle nationalist
- criticism provoked militant protest. This in turn led to a renewed
- cycle of persecution and protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were
- deported in 1907, Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy
- about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908,
- provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.
- Box 4
- Sometimes, the government found it hard to
- find candidates for editorship of loyalist papers.
- When Sanders, editor of the Statesman that had
- been founded in 1877, was approached, he
- asked rudely how much he would be paid
- for suffering the loss of freedom. The Friend
- of India refused a government subsidy, fearing
- that this would force it to be obedient to
- government commands.
- Box 5
- The power of the printed word is most often
- seen in the way governments seek to regulate
- and suppress print. The colonial government kept
- continuous track of all books and newspapers
- published in India and passed numerous laws to
- control the press.
- During the First World War, under the Defence
- of India Rules, 22 newspapers had to furnish
- securities. Of these, 18 shut down rather than
- comply with government orders. The Sedition
- Committee Report under Rowlatt in 1919 further
- strengthened controls that led to imposition of
- penalties on various newspapers. At the outbreak
- of the Second World War, the Defence of India
- Act was passed, allowing censoring of reports of
- war-related topics. All reports about the Quit India
- movement came under its purview. In August
- 1942, about 90 newspapers were suppressed.
- Source
- Source F
- Gandhi said in 1922:
- ‘Liberty of speech ... liberty of the press ...
- freedom of association. The Government of India
- is now seeking to crush the three powerful
- vehicles of expressing and cultivating public
- opinion. The fight for Swaraj, for Khilafat ...
- means a fight for this threatened freedom
- before all else ...’
- India and the Contemporary World
- 176
- Discuss
- Project
- 1. Why did some people in eighteenth century Europe think that print culture would bring
- enlightenment and end despotism?
- 2. Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example
- from Europe and one from India.
- 3. What were the effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in nineteenth century India?
- 4. Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.
- Find out more about the changes in print technology in the last 100 years. Write about the
- changes, explaining why they have taken place, what their consequences have been.
- Discuss
- Write in brief
- 1. Give reasons for the following:
- a) Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295.
- b) Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.
- c) The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books from
- the mid-sixteenth century.
- d) Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the
- press, and freedom of association.
- 2. Write short notes to show what you know about:
- a) The Gutenberg Press
- b) Erasmus’s idea of the printed book
- c) The Vernacular Press Act
- 3. What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to:
- a) Women
- b) The poor
- c) Reformers
- Write in brief
- Project
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