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  1. As the fourth largest continent in the world, South America extends from the tropics in the north to just 600 miles from Antarctica in the south. In this unit, we will explore the many components that help make up the very diverse continent of South America. The countries of South America vary in their histories, cultures, economies, industries, and standards of living. South America has nearly every type of climate, from dry deserts to lush rain forests, and a variety of fascinating cultures and cities, from the modern capital Brasília to the ancient ruins of Machu Picc
  2.  
  3. South America, the planet's 4th largest continent, includes twelve countries and three major territories.
  4.  
  5. The countries of South America ...
  6.  
  7. Argentina
  8. Bolivia
  9. Brazil
  10. Chile
  11. Colombia
  12. Ecuador
  13. Guyana
  14. Paraguay
  15. Peru
  16. Suriname
  17. Uruguay
  18. Venezuela
  19. The territories of South America ...
  20.  
  21. Galapagos Island (Ecuador)
  22. Falkland Island (United Kingdom)
  23. French Guiana (France)
  24. South America is the southern continent of the Western Hemisphere. The continent of South America encompasses an area of approximately 6.8 million square miles. The most northern point of the continent is Punta Gallinas, Colombia, and the southern tip is Cape Horn, Chile. As we learned in the previous unit, South America is linked to North America by the Panama Canal. South America touches the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean as well as the Caribbean Sea.
  25.  
  26. South America embraces every climatic zone—tropical rainy, desert, high alpine—and vegetation varies accordingly. With the exception of Brazil and Ecuador, the population of most South American countries is concentrated around the capitals. As is the case with Central America, there is a lot of rural poverty. Although Brazil, Argentina, and Venezuela have made great strides toward industrialization, most countries in South America remain largely agrarian and are plagued by high inflation problems, social inequalities, and political instability.hu.
  27.  
  28. South America is an incredibly geographically diverse continent. The Amazon River and the surrounding river basin is the largest tropical rain forest in the world. The Andes Mountains are some of the most interesting landforms on the planet and stretch the entire length of the western seaboard. The Amazon River brings the waters from the melting glaciers of the Andes across the continent to the Atlantic Ocean. The Andes region is seismically active and prone to earthquakes and although volcanoes are present, such as Cotopaxi located along “volcano boulevard”, they are mostly inactive.
  29.  
  30. South America is a continent of superlatives! As we have already learned, the Amazon River is the second longest river in the world and the Amazon rain forest is largest rain forest in the world. Lake Titicaca, on the Peru-Bolivia border, is the largest of the continent's lakes and the world’s highest navigable lake. The Atacama Desert has such limited moisture that it is considered the driest place on earth. Cerro Tololo, located high in the Andes Mountains, is the world’s second largest observatory in the world. Angel Falls in Venezuela is the world’s highest waterfall.
  31.  
  32. South America is also internationally renowned for some of the remnants of the Incan civilization. Machu Picchu, considered the lost city of the Incas, is visited by thousands of tourists from all over the world every year. In 2008, Machu Picchu was voted one of the 7 Wonders of the Modern World.
  33.  
  34. The political turmoil present in most of South America is directly linked to the mostly downtrodden economy of the region. Beginning in the 17th century, the exploitation of the continent's resources and the development of its industries were the result of foreign investment and initiative, especially that of Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. Since World War II the nations of South America have sought greater economic independence and there has been an increasingly strained relationship between many nations of South America and the United States.
  35.  
  36. An early obstacle to industrial growth in South America was the scarcity of coal. The continent therefore predominantly relied on its petroleum reserves, most notably in Venezuela and also in Argentina, Colombia, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador, as a source of fuel. Today, due to years of investment, hydropower is the primary source of most of the continent’s electricity.
  37.  
  38. Although 1/3 of the continent practices subsistence farming, most of the citizens of South America are concentrated around the capital cities of most countries, with the notable exception of Brazil. Although the capital of Brazil, Brasilia, has many inhabitants, Sao Paulo, Brazil is considered to be one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world. In every country in South America, many of the rural poor have flocked to urban areas in search of employment but high unemployment levels have resulted in large pockets of urban poor living in shanty towns.
  39.  
  40. The tumultuous economic situation in most of these countries has resulted in an equally tumultuous political situation. In recent years, many of the countries of South America have elected leaders with decidedly socialist leanings. Unfortunately, although these leaders are elected with the promise of reducing poverty, creating jobs, and improving the overall quality of life in their countries, this has rarely been the case.
  41.  
  42. Between 1200 and 1535 AD, the Inca population lived in the part of South America extending from the Equator to the Pacific coast of Chile. Unlike the Mayan civilization of Central America, the Inca and their legacy is very much prevalent throughout many parts of South America. Watch the following brief Discovery Education video about a modern day celebration with a traditional spirit.
  43.  
  44. To view the video below, click the Play button. To download the transcript for the video, click the green Download Transcript button to the right of the video.
  45.  
  46. The Incas were a distinct people with a distinct language – Quechua - living in a highland center, Cuzco – in the country now known as Peru. They were an ancient people with a voracious appetite for conquest, and although they themselves were the victims of Spanish conquistadors in the 1400s, they managed to avoid extinction. Quechua, the language of the Inca, was imposed on every tribe the Inca conquered so there were some remote villages that were able to escape the reach of the Spanish conquistadors and managed to survive and thrive. In fact, the legacy of the Inca is still felt throughout many parts of South America today.
  47.  
  48. The Inca legacy can be seen today in arts, religion, farming, and even language. Many Peruvian children, for example, are raised with Quechua as their primary language and later learn Spanish when they are old enough to attend school. The Incas were very successful at turning steep mountainsides into terraced farms and these terraced farmlands can still be seen throughout the mountainous countryside. Although most modern Inca families practice Catholicism, they still hold a reverence for nature and natural formations as did their Inca ancestors. People call the tall mountains Apus (pronounced Aah poos) and consider the snow mountains as holy. Most of the modern lives of the Inca are strongly influenced by their Inca heritage.
  49.  
  50. Manco, Incan King, made the following statement to his people when faced with domination by the Spanish conquistadors:
  51.  
  52. “I know that some day by force or deceit, they will make you worship what they worship. When that time comes, when you can no longer resist, do it in front of them, but on the other hand do not forget our ceremonies. And if they tell you to break your shrines, and force you to do so, reveal only what you have to, and keep the rest hidden, close to your hearts.”
  53.  
  54. The Inca Empire was the largest nation on Earth and remains the largest native state to have existed in the western hemisphere. Cuzco, Peru, which emerged as the richest city in the New World, was the center of Inca life and the home of its leaders. The Spanish sought to conquer the Inca because they had heard of their riches and gold. In the Inca civilization, silver and gold were used mainly for aesthetic purposes (mainly decoration). Silver and gold were not used as currency or to pay workers. In fact, most workers were paid for their labor in food and clothes.
  55.  
  56. The Inca were hugely successful at farming the difficult terrain of the Andes Mountains. In fact, it is believed that the Inca had more cultivated land than is currently being farmed. The Inca were also a nation that loved to conquer other nations. They imposed their language on every tribe they conquered. This continuous quest for domination and the continuous spread of their language, Quechua, is why it is believed that the Inca culture has survived to this day.
  57.  
  58. The towns that made up the Inca Empire were protected by fortifications and served by ingenious water supply and drainage systems achieved by the skilled Inca builders who modified mountains, built agricultural hill terraces that stabilized slopes and controlled erosion, and channeled rivers. In addition, the last of the great Inca emperors established splendid stone homes and sanctuaries, including the sacred sanctuary of Machu Picchu, as part of their royal estates where they rested, observed stars, meditated and rejoiced.
  59.  
  60. These unique heritage sites have become exposed and vulnerable to a broadening array of damaging pressures such as the growth of urbanized settlements and commercialization, inadequate preservation management systems, and natural disasters including massive mud slides and intermittent significant seismic quakes. To address these pressing issues, the Government of Peru requested the World Bank’s assistance in 2004 towards the development of an initiative which has been designated the “Vilcanota Valley Rehabilitation and Management Project”.
  61.  
  62. "Chile was invented by a poet."
  63. Pablo Neruda
  64. Some people might argue that not only was beautiful Chile invented by a poet, but all of South America! Let’s take a closer look at some of the countries of South America and their fascinating geographical features.
  65.  
  66. Venezuela ... South of the mountains is the Orinoco River basin, a vast plain of savanna grasses known as the Llanos (YAH-nohs). The world’s largest waterfall, Angel Falls, is located south of the Orinoco.
  67.  
  68. Argentina ... Very grassy plains, known as pampas, cover much of northern Argentina. The unrelentingly flat Pampas is Argentina's agricultural heartland and the home of that symbol of romantic nationalism, the gaucho.
  69.  
  70. Chile ... The Andes, running north to south along the west coast, form the world's longest exposed mountain range. Torres del Paine National Park is a Chilean National Park comprising mountains, glaciers, lakes and rivers. The best-known and most spectacular summits in the country are the three Towers of Paine - gigantic granite monoliths shaped by the forces of glacial ice with an estimated elevation of over 8000 feet.
  71.  
  72. Colombia ... Colombia is the only South American country with coastlines on both the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea. Three cordilleras - An extensive chain of mountains or mountain ranges - separate the western coastal lowlands from the eastern jungles.
  73.  
  74. Ecuador ... Ecuador’s name comes from the equator, which divides the country unequally. Ecuador is the smallest Andean country with four distinct regions – the Costa, or coastal plain, the Sierra, or Andean uplands, the Oriente, jungles, and the Galapagos Islands.
  75.  
  76. The Andes Mountains are one of the most distinguishing characteristics of South America. They form the longest and one of the highest mountain ranges in the world. Watch the following tutorial to learn more about this majestic mountain range and its significance to South America.
  77.  
  78. EMERGENTS: In the emergent strata, one can find giant trees that reach far higher than the average canopy height. This zone is home to many birds and insects.
  79. CANOPY: The canopy strata contain the upper parts of the trees - about 65 to 130 feet tall. This leafy environment is full of life in a tropical rainforest and includes insects, birds, reptiles, mammals, and more.
  80. UNDERSTORY: The understory level is a dark, cool environment under the leaves but over the ground. There are short, leafy, mostly non-flowering shrubs, small trees, ferns, and vines (lianas) that have adapted to filtered light and poor soil.
  81. FOREST FLOOR: The forest floor is teeming with animal life, especially insects. The largest animals in the rainforest generally live in this zone – anacondas and jaguars, for example.
  82.  
  83. Tropical rainforests are home to over half the world's species, as well as millions of people. The average annual rainfall is between 80 and 400 inches and temperatures hover consistently around 72 degrees Fahrenheit during the day. Nearly half of the Earth’s original forest cover has already been lost, and each year more than thirty million tropical forest acres are destroyed. Later in this unit, we will explore the repercussions of this massive problem and what can be done to help preserve these intricate and important ecosystems.
  84.  
  85. As in North America, the conquest of South America by Europeans took a heavy toll on the native population. Today, South America has a relatively small population but an incredible wealth of natural resources. In spite of this bounty, much of the continent continues to find itself struggling with economic, social, and environmental problems. The array of natural resources found all over the continent of South America is incredible. In recent years there has been a trend toward “resource nationalization” by the governments of some of the countries. Resource nationalization is the term given to government control of country’s natural resources. International experts have expressed concern over this trend because they believe that it often leads to slower and less productive use of a country’s natural resources. Countries such as Venezuela and Brazil have nationalized oil and natural gas because of its lucrative potential.
  86.  
  87. Venezuela has the largest proven oil reserves in the western hemisphere and is one of the founding members of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries). Brazil’s recent oil and natural gas discoveries could possibly surpass Venezuela’s, and since Brazil worked hard to make their country energy independent – meaning they don’t need to import natural energy resources – they could stand to make a lot of money from exporting any excess. However, when international prices are high the country does well, but when they are low, the entire country suffers.
  88.  
  89. When most people think of natural resources and the economy of South America, many people might think about coffee and bananas. Although it is true that Ecuador is the world’s largest exporter of bananas, and coffee is a very important Andean export, they are really only the start to this regions resource laden area. In the Andes region, natural attractions fuel a growing ecotourism economy. Although the country of Bolivia is quite poor, it receives a steady stream of international tourists because of its incredible natural beauty.
  90.  
  91. The Brazilian city of Sao Paulo is the leading industrial producer of South America as well as a major financial center. The country of Chile is known for its copper supplies. In fact, no other place in the world has copper in a greater quantity. As you have already learned, Colombia is the only South American country who touches both the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Due to its expansive coastlines, fishing is an important natural resource in the region. Unfortunately, Colombia also has a wealth of natural resources including coffee, emeralds, and coal, but due to drug cartels and guerrilla groups, many parts of the country are out of government control.
  92.  
  93. The biosphere is a global ecosystem that can be broken down into regional or local ecosystems, or biomes. Organisms in the biosphere are classified into trophic levels and communities. Rainforests are considered the most important and also the most threatened ecosystem on the planet. The Amazon jungle is the largest remaining expanse of tropical rainforest on Earth, most of which is located in Brazil.
  94.  
  95. Changes in ecosystem functioning and the structure of vegetation – such as massive deforestation – impact atmospheric conditions not only in South America but all over the globe. Interactions and feedbacks between the biosphere and atmosphere constitute an important component of the climate system.
  96.  
  97. The hydrosphere includes all liquid and frozen surface waters, groundwater held in soil and rock, and atmospheric water vapor. All of these waters are in constant motion through the water cycle – or hydrologic cycle. As we learned previously, although the components of the hydrosphere are continually changing, the total water budget balance remains the same. The delicate balance of all of Earth’s spheres is critical in all regions of the world.
  98.  
  99. Over one million earthquakes happen worldwide every year. Some are so slight they are unfelt; others last for minutes that seem like forever and can cause major changes in the landscape. Many of these earthquakes happen in South America, due to the Nazca and South American plates of the circum-Pacific belt. The location of South America on these tectonic plates is also the source of many volcanoes. Volcanic eruptions, in turn, can cause additional hazardous conditions such as debris flows, earthquakes, floods, landslides, and wild fires.
  100.  
  101. The greatest earthquake ever recorded in the world occurred in Chile in 1960 with a recorded magnitude of 9.5. Great foreshocks sent people out of their homes and into the streets before the actual earthquake occurred which ultimately mitigated the loss of life. This earthquake even caused a devastating tsunami felt thousands of miles away. A tsunami is like an earthquake under water. When the sea floor shifts due to movement of tectonic plates a tsunami can result.
  102.  
  103. The existing culture of South America is the result of the intermingling of centuries of varied experiences and people. The culture of the indigenous people, such as the Inca, mixes with the history of the European conquerors and the African slaves to create a rich cultural compilation that draws on all of these pieces and parts to influence the language, the religion, and the people of the unique cultures of South America.
  104.  
  105. Religion is a dominant aspect in societies all over the world. On every continent religion is a highly stressed element of culture. People on both the North and South American continents agree that religion plays an important role in their lives. Many components of the native religion practiced by the Inca around the 15th century continue to be practiced today. In South America 90% of the population practices Christianity, predominantly Roman Catholicism.
  106.  
  107. There are more Christians in South America than in North America. There are still significant traces of Quechua throughout the belief systems of many South Americans. When the Spanish conquered the Andean nations, they were accompanied by Roman Catholic missionaries who were intent on converting the native people. (Today, the largest number of Roman Catholics can be found in the country of Brazil.) To aid them in this mission, the missionaries used the language of Quechua to preach Christianity to the indigenous people.
  108.  
  109. The main object of worship in the Quechua religion is the sun. The following list identifies some of the most important gods and goddesses worshiped by the ancient Inca civilization.
  110.  
  111. INTI - Sun god. Inti's image is a golden disk with a human face surrounded by bright rays. Every day Inti soars across the sky to the western horizon, plunges into the sea, and swims under the earth back to the east. Inti's sons are Wirakocha, Pachacomac, and Manco Capac.
  112. MAMA QUILLA - Goddess of the moon. Protector of married women. Her image is a silver disc with a human face.
  113.  
  114. MANCO CAPAC - The son of Inti, also a solar god. The youngest of four brothers, Manco Capac defied the eldest brother who greedily demanded all of creation for himself. Sealing the eldest brother forever in a cave, Manco Capac murdered another and frightened the third into fleeing, never to be seen again. Thus gaining power over all the world, Manco Capac founded the city of Cuzco and was worshipped as the Son of the Sun.
  115.  
  116.  
  117. KONIRA WIRAKOCHA - The great god Wirakocha diguised as a traveler in rags. A trickster, a prankster. No one knew who he was, and the people he passed called him names. Yet as he walked, he created. With a word he made the fields and terraced hillsides. Dropping a reed blossom, he made water flow.
  118.  
  119. VIRACOCHA - Literally, Sea-Foam. The Creator. The teacher of the world. After the Great Flood, which covered even the highest mountains and destroyed all life, Virococha molded new people out of clay at Tia Huanaco.
  120.  
  121.  
  122. IMAHMANA VIRACOCHA and TOCAPO VIRACOCHA - Son of the creator Viracocha. After the Great Flood and the Creation, Viracocha sent his son Imaymana Viracocha together with his brother Tocapo Viracocha to visit the tribes and see if they still followed the commandments they had been given. As they went, Imaymana and Tocapo gave names to all the trees, flowers, fruits and herbs, and taught the people which of these could be eaten, which could cure, and which could kill.
  123.  
  124. PACHAMAC - God of the earth, creator god. Prior to the Incan conquest, the Peruvians worshipped Pachamac as the supreme being. For political purposes, the Incas were forced to adopt Pachamac into their own pantheon, but his position was never very secure. The great Inca Atahualpa treated Pachamac's priests with cold indifference, explaining to the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro that the god's oracle had made three ruinously inaccurate prophecies. The Great Sun King even incited the Spaniards to defile and loot the god's temple. They accepted the invitation enthusiastically.
  125.  
  126. SUPAI - God of death. A god of insatiable greed. The Incas sacrificed over a hundred children a year to Supai and still he would not leave them alone.
  127. Few women have had as dramatic an impact on an entire nation as did Eva Perón. Eva Perón worked tirelessly for the poor of Argentina and did whatever she could to help their plight. Watch the following tutorial to learn more about the life and contributions of Eva Perón.
  128.  
  129. Modern culture in South America is primarily influenced by native cultures of the people, European culture brought by conquistadors, and the United States culture on television. Culture includes both formal and informal expressions of people and includes things such as literature and art as well as music, dance, religion, and other customs. Modern day cowboys such as the gaucho pictured above are examples of modern culture strongly influenced by the history of the region. These men, also known as vaqueiros, huasos, and llaneros, are still an integral part of the ranching areas of Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil.
  130.  
  131. South America has a very diverse population, with many ethnic groups and different ancestries. Only in two countries, do the Amerindians make up the majority of the population – Peru and Bolivia. In the rest of the Continent, most of the Native American descendants are of mixed race ancestry. Some countries, such as Argentina, have an incredible European immigrant population. Argentina, much like the United States, is often referred to as a melting pot.
  132.  
  133. This diverse population throughout South America has had quite an influence on music, art, and literature throughout the continent. Modern immigration has also impacted the current culture of the continent. Nueva Cancion is a modern style of music in South America that combined traditional Latin American folk music with modern rhythm and politicized lyrics. Pablo Neruda, known as the “people’s poet,” wrote extensively about South America. He was a poet, writer, diplomat, political activist, and Nobel Prize winner. He wrote about the people, places, and important features of his native Chile as well as poems about love and beauty. He was a prolific writer and is still revered by all of South America.
  134.  
  135. North, South, and Central America have similarities and differences in the areas of social and economic characteristics. Social characteristics such as traditions, religion, movies, and leisure activities and economic characteristics such as natural resources, employment, and goods and services, are good areas for comparison.
  136.  
  137. Use this Venn Diagram to compare characteristics of North, South, and Central America. The part of the diagram that overlaps in the middle are the characteristics shared by both North and South America or shared by South and Central America or characteristics shared by all!
  138.  
  139. Here are a few characteristics that you can enter into the Venn Diagram where you believe they are most appropriate. Can you think of any other characteristics to add regarding the similarities and differences between these three regions of the world?
  140.  
  141. High literacy rates
  142. Low birth rates
  143. Corrupt governments
  144. Aztec
  145. Rural poverty
  146. Quechua
  147. Indigenous population decimated
  148. Christianity
  149. Ecotourism
  150. European immigrants
  151. Urban shanty towns
  152. Industrialized
  153. Multiple climates
  154. Socialist leaders
  155.  
  156. Government subsidized farms
  157. Capitalism
  158. Inca
  159. Nationalized resources
  160. Border issues
  161. Agrarian
  162. Subsistence farming
  163. Maya
  164.  
  165.  
  166. Many parrots you commonly see being kept as pets originate in South America. But how did they get to the United States? It is estimated that over 50,000 parrots, including beautiful macaws, are illegally smuggled over the border into the U.S. every year. This is an example of poaching – just one of the ways humans are negatively impacting the environment of South America. In this section, we will explore poaching as well as other ways people impact the environment – both negatively and positively.
  167.  
  168. When you think about human impact on the environment, what words come to mind? Do you think of pollution or global warming? What about positive impacts like harnessing wind or solar energy? In South America, when you think about human impact on the environment, it is important to think about the land as well as the animals impacted by human activity. Human activity is the number one cause of the current rapid loss of biodiversity in South America. Poaching and deforestation have led to an increase in endangered species as well as an inability to sustain agricultural development in the region.
  169.  
  170. Poaching ... Poaching can apply to the illegal hunting, fishing, or eating of animals or plants. Poaching does not apply to domestic animals – only those found in the wild. A poacher is someone who illegally sells animals or animal parts or plants for a profit. Poaching applies to animals being hunted without a license, animals hunted without following proper hunting protocol, or animals or plants hunted on restricted or protected lands.
  171.  
  172. Endangered species ... An animal or plant is considered to be an endangered species if it is in danger of extinction in the immediate future. Extinction means that the plant or animal is gone forever from this world. A threatened species is one that is in danger of becoming endangered in the immediate future – it is currently on a path toward extinction. The giant otter, the gray whale, and the black rhino are all currently on the Endangered Species List for South America. The United States and South America have been working together to help protect threatened and endangered species on both continents. In 1973, President Nixon passed the U.S. Endangered Species Act to help protect plants and animals in this country. Part of the goal of protecting plants and animals is determining where these animals live and thrive. Critical habitats are areas of designated land that includes “all areas essential to the conservation” of the target endangered or threatened species. The hope is that by determining where these plants and animals thrive, these habitats can be protected and ultimately the animal and plants will not become extinct.
  173.  
  174. Deforestation ... As we have learned in previous units, deforestation is the process by which large areas of land are cleared for cattle grazing, mono-crops, roads, buildings, or other reasons. Deforestation is one of the main causes for the growing numbers of threatened, endangered, or extinct animals.
  175.  
  176. Sustainable Development ... Sustainable development is the catch phrase for the future of South America. Sustainable development is defined as using resources well so that human needs can be met while preserving the environment now and in the future.
  177.  
  178. First developed by the Romans, latifundias are large plantation-style estates. Latifundias took root in Spain and the practice was then transferred to the New World when Spain and Portugal established colonial rule. Latifundias continue to be an integral component of Latin American politics as well as the economy and social structure. Latifundias generally produce only one crop which, as we learned in the previous units, creates something known as green deserts. Latifundias also established a model for elite behavior and class structure. Over half of the total farm acreage in South America is held in the form of huge landed estates. Control of these estates means political power due to the importance of agriculture in terms of employment throughout South America. Many people see the continuing existence of the latifundia system as a major obstacle to development in South America because these large landed estates, in essence, deny many people access to land.
  179.  
  180. Minifundias, on the other hand, are small estates – usually less than 50 acres. Although minfundias constitute a large number of the farms in South America, they actually account for less than 4% of the land under cultivation. Minifundias are generally purely subsistence farms that support only the families farming the area and really produce no economic surplus. Some of the minifundias have come into existence due to inheritance laws breaking up large farming estates among heirs.
  181.  
  182. As we have learned earlier in this unit, Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina are three countries in South America hugely impacted by the presence of oil within their borders. Although Venezuela currently leads the trio in terms of oil reserves and is a founding member of OPEC, Brazil is poised to overtake Venezuela in terms of oil reserves by 2013 due to its aggressive offshore drilling exploration undertaken by Petrobras, the nation’s major oil company. While pursuing an aggressive offshore drilling strategy, the country of Brazil was also working hard to make its country energy independent and has become the world’s largest consumer of plant-based biofuels. Although Brazil has made large offshore oil discoveries in recent years, it generally takes about ten years for that oil to reach the market.
  183.  
  184. For many years, Venezuela has led the region in terms of oil. Venezuela is the fourth biggest supplier of oil to the United States and, in fact, has provided oil for free to poor people in the United States to booster the international perception of the country and its leader. Venezuela receives over 50% of its income from oil revenues due to the fact that all oil resources are state-owned. An important benefit to state-owned resources has been increased social programs instituted to help the poor as well as virtually free oil for the residents of the country. Unfortunately, when the cost of a barrel of oil is over $100 the nation does incredibly well, but when the cost of a barrel of oil plummets to $30 a barrel the entire nation suffers.
  185.  
  186. This overdependence on oil to support the economy is part of what is known as the paradox of plenty. Oil not only creates very few jobs, but it also destroys jobs in other sectors of the economy and eliminates other productive activity. Oil dependent countries tend to be surprisingly poor. Nationalization of resources tends to turn away multi-national corporations from investing in the region as well. This trend toward resource nationalization is indicative of the competing political alternatives vying for control across South America. Following the economic collapse in the United States and throughout “first-world” industrialized nations, leftist presidents in countries such as Venezuela and Bolivia are taking advantage of the popular discontent throughout their nations to challenge the authority of traditional ruling elites. Time will tell what this means for the oil industry and other natural resources throughout South America.
  187.  
  188. For additional information on leftist leaders of countries in Latin America, you can click on the interactive link below.
  189.  
  190. Click here to access the link to The Washington Post "Latin America's New Leftists” to take a closer look at countries in Latin America currently being led by a leftist or populist leader.
  191.  
  192. What do you think this might mean for the future of these countries? Do you think more countries in South America will head in this direction? (If the link is broken, use the following key words to locate it with an online search engine: Latin America Politics interactive map.)
  193.  
  194. Human impact on the environment doesn’t have to be negative! Look at Peru, for instance.
  195.  
  196. Read this supplemental article about MIT professor, Amy Smith, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
  197.  
  198. (If the link is broken, use the following key words to locate it in an online search engine: Popular Mechanics Peru Technology).
  199.  
  200. She has been working steadily with teams of students and researchers to help the people of Peru (and other developing nations) positively impact their environment. The overall mission of these scientists is to fight global poverty and improve living standards through low-cost, accessible inventions. This idea is part of a growing movement called appropriate technology. Small villages in developing nations don’t need and can’t use big inventions. The more complex the technology, the more potential problems it can have!
  201.  
  202. The following video is narrated by a former Peace Corps volunteer who spent two years living in Peru with a focus on helping small business development with an added emphasis on information technology. The video link pertains to about his experiences introducing a small community to the computers and the internet.
  203.  
  204. The current endangered and threatened species crisis is unique mainly due to the rapid nature of the continuous loss of biodiversity. Human beings are the single biggest cause of species extinction. Some scientists believe that this rapid trend in reducing biodiversity began when the earliest people inhabited the earth, while others believe it is only since 1600 – when human population growth exploded and the levels of resource consumption began to skyrocket.
  205.  
  206. It is believed that for every species alive today, there are 1000 species that are no longer in existence on this planet. Fossils give anthropologists and historians most of their information about this diversity of species because most of these extinctions occurred before humans evolved. Although extinctions are a natural part of life and a process that has occurred repeatedly throughout history, the concern is that although extinctions are a natural occurrence, simultaneously biodiversity had been increasing. Only recently has the earth experienced a loss of biodiversity. In some instances, such as the Andean bear, the animal is an endangered species due to habitat loss in addition to the fact that they are being killed for their fur and meat. In other instances, the impact is simply habitat based. In the country of Peru, scientists predict that if carbon emissions stay at their current levels, the glaciers of the Andes Mountains might be gone within twenty years. The impact on plant and animal species would be incredible, in addition to the impact on agriculture and daily life of millions of people dependent on the runoff from these glaciers.
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  208. Loss of biodiversity is not only occurring on land. Ocean ecosystems have been negatively impacted by human actions as well. Excessive carbon in the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels over the last two centuries has caused increased acidity in our oceans, which is threatening ecosystems, sea creatures, and their food supplies. Recently, Google Earth has added an interesting feature – Google Ocean – with the intent of helping people explore the undersea environment in the hopes of helping more of our seas gain the protection they need. People will be able to see photos and sometimes even video of endangered species.
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  210. You can check out the new features of Google Earth Ocean by clicking on the supplemental link below.
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  212. Promoting sustainable development in South America is an incredibly important goal. Millions of people in the developing world face economic, educational, and health hurdles. Overpopulation is one of the many issues facing the region. High population growth generally coincides with low education levels and poor health care. Overpopulation diminishes resources in a country and increases poverty. Overpopulation in South America even impacts the United States due to the increased migration of citizens looking for a better life and a way out of the poverty of their home country.
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  214. Sustainable development in South America is also important due to the fact that we, as a nation, consume many products from the region. While it might be easy to look the other way as helicopters dump pesticides on banana plantations or coastal areas are undergoing severe overfishing, the fact is that these practices will impact our nation eventually. The United States will pay the costs with health related issues or higher prices due to lack of supply. If resources become depleted and other ecosystems are adversely affected, our nation has the potential to suffer as well. In this age of globalization, many people believe that we, as a worldwide community, have a responsibility to get involved and help promote sustainable development around the globe.
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  216. Countries need sustainable development. This is development that meets the needs of the present population without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. As this animation illustrates, unsustainable development leads down a descending spiral that negatively impacts the environment, human health, and future development.
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