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  1.  
  2. Apache Cassandra
  3. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  4. Jump to navigationJump to search
  5. Apache Cassandra
  6. Cassandra logo
  7. Original author(s) Avinash Lakshman, Prashant Malik
  8. Developer(s) Apache Software Foundation
  9. Initial release July 2008; 11 years ago
  10. Stable release
  11. 3.11.4 / February 11, 2019[1]
  12. Repository
  13. git.apache.org/cassandra.git
  14. Edit this at Wikidata
  15. Written in Java
  16. Operating system Cross-platform
  17. Available in English
  18. Type NoSQL Database, data store
  19. License Apache License 2.0
  20. Website cassandra.apache.org
  21. Apache Cassandra is a free and open-source, distributed, wide column store, NoSQL database management system designed to handle large amounts of data across many commodity servers, providing high availability with no single point of failure. Cassandra offers robust support for clusters spanning multiple datacenters,[2] with asynchronous masterless replication allowing low latency operations for all clients.
  22.  
  23.  
  24. Contents
  25. 1 History
  26. 1.1 Releases
  27. 2 Main features
  28. 2.1 Cassandra Query Language
  29. 2.2 Known issues
  30. 2.2.1 Tombstones
  31. 2.3 Data model
  32. 3 Management and monitoring
  33. 4 Notable applications
  34. 5 See also
  35. 6 References
  36. 7 Bibliography
  37. 8 External links
  38. History
  39. Avinash Lakshman, one of the authors of Amazon's Dynamo, and Prashant Malik initially developed Cassandra at Facebook to power the Facebook inbox search feature. Facebook released Cassandra as an open-source project on Google code in July 2008.[3] In March 2009 it became an Apache Incubator project.[4] On February 17, 2010 it graduated to a top-level project.[5]
  40.  
  41. Facebook developers named their database after the Trojan mythological prophet Cassandra, with classical allusions to a curse on an oracle.[6]
  42.  
  43. Releases
  44. Releases after graduation include
  45.  
  46. 0.6, released Apr 12 2010, added support for integrated caching, and Apache Hadoop MapReduce[7]
  47. 0.7, released Jan 08 2011, added secondary indexes and online schema changes[8]
  48. 0.8, released Jun 2 2011, added the Cassandra Query Language (CQL), self-tuning memtables, and support for zero-downtime upgrades[9]
  49. 1.0, released Oct 17 2011, added integrated compression, leveled compaction, and improved read-performance[10]
  50. 1.1, released Apr 23 2012, added self-tuning caches, row-level isolation, and support for mixed ssd/spinning disk deployments[11]
  51. 1.2, released Jan 2 2013, added clustering across virtual nodes, inter-node communication, atomic batches, and request tracing[12]
  52. 2.0, released September 4, 2013; 5 years ago, added lightweight transactions (based on the Paxos consensus protocol), triggers, improved compactions
  53. 2.1 released Sep 10 2014 [13]
  54. 2.2 released July 20, 2015
  55. 3.0 released November 11, 2015
  56. 3.1 through 3.10 releases were monthly releases using a tick-tock-like release model, with even-numbered releases providing both new features and bug fixes while odd-numbered releases will include bug fixes only.[14]
  57. 3.11 released June 23, 2017 as a stable 3.11 release series and bug fix from the last tick-tock feature release.
  58. Version Original release date Latest version Release date Status[15]
  59. 0.6 2010-04-12 0.6.13 2011-04-18 No longer supported
  60. 0.7 2011-01-10 0.7.10 2011-10-31 No longer supported
  61. 0.8 2011-06-03 0.8.10 2012-02-13 No longer supported
  62. 1.0 2011-10-18 1.0.12 2012-10-04 No longer supported
  63. 1.1 2012-04-24 1.1.12 2013-05-27 No longer supported
  64. 1.2 2013-01-02 1.2.19 2014-09-18 No longer supported
  65. 2.0 2013-09-03 2.0.17 2015-09-21 No longer supported
  66. 2.1 2014-09-16 2.1.21 2019-02-11 Still supported, critical fixes only
  67. 2.2 2015-07-20 2.2.14 2019-02-11 Still supported
  68. 3.0 2015-11-09 3.0.18 2019-02-11 Still supported
  69. 3.11 2017-06-23 3.11.4 2019-02-11 Latest release
  70. Legend:Old versionOlder version, still supportedLatest versionLatest preview version
  71. Main features
  72. Distributed
  73. Every node in the cluster has the same role. There is no single point of failure. Data is distributed across the cluster (so each node contains different data), but there is no master as every node can service any request.
  74. Supports replication and multi data center replication
  75. Replication strategies are configurable.[16] Cassandra is designed as a distributed system, for deployment of large numbers of nodes across multiple data centers. Key features of Cassandra’s distributed architecture are specifically tailored for multiple-data center deployment, for redundancy, for failover and disaster recovery.
  76. Scalability
  77. Designed to have read and write throughput both increase linearly as new machines are added, with the aim of no downtime or interruption to applications.
  78. Fault-tolerant
  79. Data is automatically replicated to multiple nodes for fault-tolerance. Replication across multiple data centers is supported. Failed nodes can be replaced with no downtime.
  80. Tunable consistency
  81. Cassandra is typically classified as an AP system, meaning that availability and partition tolerance are generally considered to be more important than consistency in Cassandra,[17] Writes and reads offer a tunable level of consistency, all the way from "writes never fail" to "block for all replicas to be readable", with the quorum level in the middle.[18]
  82. MapReduce support
  83. Cassandra has Hadoop integration, with MapReduce support. There is support also for Apache Pig and Apache Hive.[19]
  84. Query language
  85. Cassandra introduced the Cassandra Query Language (CQL). CQL is a simple interface for accessing Cassandra, as an alternative to the traditional Structured Query Language (SQL).
  86. Eventual Consistency
  87. Cassandra manages eventual consistency of reads, upserts and deletes through Tombstones.
  88. Cassandra Query Language
  89. Cassandra introduced the Cassandra Query Language (CQL). CQL is a simple interface for accessing Cassandra, as an alternative to the traditional Structured Query Language (SQL). CQL adds an abstraction layer that hides implementation details of this structure and provides native syntaxes for collections and other common encodings. Language drivers are available for Java (JDBC), Python (DBAPI2), Node.JS (Helenus), Go (gocql) and C++.[20]
  90.  
  91. Below an example of keyspace creation, including a column family in CQL 3.0:[21]
  92.  
  93. CREATE KEYSPACE MyKeySpace
  94. WITH REPLICATION = { 'class' : 'SimpleStrategy', 'replication_factor' : 3 };
  95.  
  96. USE MyKeySpace;
  97.  
  98. CREATE COLUMNFAMILY MyColumns (id text, Last text, First text, PRIMARY KEY(id));
  99.  
  100. INSERT INTO MyColumns (id, Last, First) VALUES ('1', 'Doe', 'John');
  101.  
  102. SELECT * FROM MyColumns;
  103. Which gives:
  104.  
  105. id | Last | First
  106. ----+------+------
  107. 1 | Doe | John
  108.  
  109. (1 rows)
  110. Known issues
  111. Up to Cassandra 1.0, Cassandra was not row level consistent,[22] meaning that inserts and updates into the table that affect the same row that are processed at approximately the same time may affect the non-key columns in inconsistent ways. One update may affect one column while another affects the other, resulting in sets of values within the row that were never specified or intended. Cassandra 1.1 solved this issue by introducing row-level isolation.[23]
  112.  
  113. Tombstones
  114. Tombstones are known to cause performance degradation up to severe consequence levels.[24]
  115.  
  116. Data model
  117. Cassandra is wide column store, and, as such, essentially a hybrid between a key-value and a tabular database management system. Its data model is a partitioned row store with tunable consistency.[18] Rows are organized into tables; the first component of a table's primary key is the partition key; within a partition, rows are clustered by the remaining columns of the key.[25] Other columns may be indexed separately from the primary key.[26]
  118.  
  119. Tables may be created, dropped, and altered at run-time without blocking updates and queries.[27]
  120.  
  121. Cassandra cannot do joins or subqueries. Rather, Cassandra emphasizes denormalization through features like collections.[28]
  122.  
  123. A column family (called "table" since CQL 3) resembles a table in an RDBMS (Relational Database Management System). Column families contain rows and columns. Each row is uniquely identified by a row key. Each row has multiple columns, each of which has a name, value, and a timestamp. Unlike a table in an RDBMS, different rows in the same column family do not have to share the same set of columns, and a column may be added to one or multiple rows at any time.[29]
  124.  
  125. Each key in Cassandra corresponds to a value which is an object. Each key has values as columns, and columns are grouped together into sets called column families. Thus, each key identifies a row of a variable number of elements. These column families could be considered then as tables. A table in Cassandra is a distributed multi dimensional map indexed by a key. Furthermore, applications can specify the sort order of columns within a Super Column or Simple Column family.
  126.  
  127. Management and monitoring
  128. Cassandra is a Java-based system that can be managed and monitored via Java Management Extensions (JMX). The JMX-compliant nodetool utility, for instance, can be used to manage a Cassandra cluster (adding nodes to a ring, draining nodes, decommissioning nodes, and so on).[30] Nodetool also offers a number of commands to return Cassandra metrics pertaining to disk usage, latency, compaction, garbage collection, and more.[31]
  129.  
  130. Since Cassandra 2.0.2 in 2013, measures of several metrics are produced via the Dropwizard metrics framework,[32] and may be queried via JMX using tools such as JConsole or passed to external monitoring systems via Dropwizard-compatible reporter plugins.[33]
  131.  
  132. Notable applications
  133.  
  134. This section may contain indiscriminate, excessive, or irrelevant examples. Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (October 2016)
  135. According to DB-Engines ranking, Cassandra is the most popular wide column store,[34] and in September 2014 became the 9th most popular database.[35]
  136.  
  137. Apple uses 100,000 Cassandra nodes, as revealed at Cassandra Summit San Francisco 2015,[36] although it has not elaborated for which products, services or features.
  138. AppScale uses Cassandra as a back-end for Google App Engine applications[37]
  139. BlackRock uses Cassandra in their Aladdin investment management platform[38][39]
  140. CERN used Cassandra-based prototype for its ATLAS experiment to archive the online DAQ system's monitoring information[40]
  141. Cisco's WebEx uses Cassandra to store user feed and activity in near real time.[41]
  142. Constant Contact uses Cassandra in their email and social media marketing applications.[42] Over 200 nodes are deployed.
  143. Digg, a social news website, announced on Sep 9th, 2009 that it is rolling out its use of Cassandra[43] and confirmed this on March 8, 2010.[44] TechCrunch has since linked Cassandra to Digg v4 reliability criticisms and recent company struggles.[45] Lead engineers at Digg later rebuked these criticisms as red herring and blamed a lack of load testing.[46]
  144. Discord switched to Cassandra to store billions of messages from MongoDB in November, 2015[47]
  145. Formspring uses Cassandra to count responses, as well as store social graph data (followers, following, blockers, blocking) for 26 Million accounts with 10 million responses a day[48]
  146. Globo.com uses Cassandra as a back-end database for their streaming services[49]
  147. Grubhub uses Cassandra as their primary persistent data store for their backend services.[50]
  148. Mahalo.com used Cassandra to record user activity logs and topics for their Q&A website[51][52]
  149. Netflix uses Cassandra as their back-end database for their streaming services[53][54]
  150. Nutanix appliances use Cassandra to store metadata and stats.[55]
  151. Ooyala built a real-time analytics engine using Cassandra[56]
  152. Openwave uses Cassandra as a distributed database and as a distributed storage mechanism for their messaging platform[57]
  153. OpenX is running over 130 nodes on Cassandra for their OpenX Enterprise product to store and replicate advertisements and targeting data for ad delivery[58]
  154. Rackspace uses Cassandra internally.[59]
  155. Reddit switched to Cassandra from memcacheDB on March 12, 2010[60] and experienced some problems in May of that year due to insufficient nodes in their cluster.[61]
  156. RockYou uses Cassandra to record every single click for 50 million Monthly Active Users in real-time for their online games[62]
  157. SoundCloud uses Cassandra to store the dashboard of their users[63]
  158. Uber uses Cassandra to store around 10,000 features in their daily updated company-wide Feature Store for low-latency access during live model predictions[64]
  159. Urban Airship uses Cassandra with the mobile service hosting for over 160 million application installs across 80 million unique devices[65]
  160. See also
  161. Free and open-source software portal
  162. Bigtable - Original distributed database by Google
  163. Distributed database
  164. Distributed hash table (DHT)
  165. Dynamo (storage system) - Cassandra borrows many elements from Dynamo
  166. Scylla - a distributed data store written in C++ that's API-compatible with Cassandra
  167. References
  168. "Apache Cassandra Downloads".
  169. Casares, Joaquin (2012-11-05). "Multi-datacenter Replication in Cassandra". DataStax. Retrieved 2013-07-25. Cassandra’s innate datacenter concepts are important as they allow multiple workloads to be run across multiple datacenters…
  170. Hamilton, James (July 12, 2008). "Facebook Releases Cassandra as Open Source". Retrieved 2009-06-04.
  171. "Is this the new hotness now?". Mail-archive.com. 2009-03-02. Archived from the original on 25 April 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-29.
  172. "Cassandra is an Apache top level project". Mail-archive.com. 2010-02-18. Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-29.
  173. "The meaning behind the name of Apache Cassandra". Archived from the original on 2016-11-01. Retrieved 2016-07-19. Apache Cassandra is named after the Greek mythological prophet Cassandra. [...] Because of her beauty Apollo granted her the ability of prophecy. [...] When Cassandra of Troy refused Apollo, he put a curse on her so that all of her and her descendants' predictions would not be believed. [...] Cassandra is the cursed Oracle[.]
  174. "The Apache Software Foundation Announces Apache Cassandra Release 0.6 : The Apache Software Foundation Blog". Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  175. "The Apache Software Foundation Announces Apache Cassandra 0.7 : The Apache Software Foundation Blog". Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  176. Eric Evans. "[Cassandra-user] [RELEASE] 0.8.0". Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  177. "Cassandra 1.0.0. Is Ready for the Enterprise". InfoQ. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  178. "The Apache Software Foundation Announces Apache Cassandra™ v1.1 : The Apache Software Foundation Blog". Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  179. "The Apache Software Foundation Announces Apache Cassandra™ v1.2 : The Apache Software Foundation Blog". apache.org. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
  180. Sylvain Lebresne (10 September 2014). "[VOTE SUCCESS] Release Apache Cassandra 2.1.0". mail-archive.com. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
  181. "Cassandra 2.2, 3.0, and beyond". 16 June 2015. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
  182. "Cassandra Server Releases". cassandra.apache.org. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
  183. "Deploying Cassandra across Multiple Data Centers". DataStax. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
  184. "The CAP Theorem - Learn Cassandra". teddyma.gitbooks.io.
  185. DataStax (2013-01-15). "About data consistency". Retrieved 2013-07-25.
  186. "Hadoop Support" article on Cassandra's wiki
  187. "DataStax C/C++ Driver for Apache Cassandra". DataStax. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  188. "CQL". Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  189. "WAT - Cassandra: Row level consistency #$@&%*! - datanerds.io". datanerds.io. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
  190. Lebresne, Sylvain (2012-02-21). "Coming up in Cassandra 1.1: Row Level Isolation". DataStax: always-on data platform | NoSQL | Apache Cassandra. Retrieved 2018-07-18.
  191. Rodriguez, Alain (27 Jul 2016). "About Deletes and Tombstones in Cassandra".
  192. Ellis, Jonathan (2012-02-15). "Schema in Cassandra 1.1". DataStax. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
  193. Ellis, Jonathan (2010-12-03). "What's new in Cassandra 0.7: Secondary indexes". DataStax. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
  194. Ellis, Jonathan (2012-03-02). "The Schema Management Renaissance in Cassandra 1.1". DataStax. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
  195. Lebresne, Sylvain (2012-08-05). "Coming in 1.2: Collections support in CQL3". DataStax. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
  196. DataStax. "Apache Cassandra 0.7 Documentation - Column Families". Apache Cassandra 0.7 Documentation. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
  197. "NodeTool". Cassandra Wiki. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  198. "How to monitor Cassandra performance metrics". Datadog. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  199. "Metrics". Cassandra Wiki. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  200. "Monitoring". Cassandra Documentation. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
  201. DB-Engines. "DB-Engines Ranking of Wide Column Stores".
  202. DB-Engines. "DB-Engines Ranking".
  203. Luca Martinetti: Apple runs more than 100k [production] Cassandra nodes. on Twitter
  204. "Datastores on Appscale". Archived from the original on 2013-09-07. Retrieved 2011-07-07.
  205. "Top Cassandra Summit Sessions For Advanced Cassandra Users".
  206. "Multi-Tenancy in Cassandra at BlackRock".
  207. "A Persistent Back-End for the ATLAS Online Information Service (P-BEAST)".
  208. "Re: Cassandra users survey". Mail-archive.com. 2009-11-21. Archived from the original on 17 April 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-29.
  209. Finley, Klint (2011-02-18). "This Week in Consolidation: HP Buys Vertica, Constant Contact Buys Bantam Live and More". Read Write Enterprise.
  210. Eure, Ian. "Looking to the future with Cassandra".
  211. Quinn, John. "Saying Yes to NoSQL; Going Steady with Cassandra". Archived from the original on 2012-03-07.
  212. Schonfeld, Erick. "As Digg Struggles, VP Of Engineering Is Shown The Door".
  213. "Is Cassandra to Blame for Digg v4's Failures?".
  214. Vishnevskiy, Stanislav (2017-01-14). "How Discord Stores Billions of Messages". Discord Blog. Retrieved 2019-07-02.
  215. Cozzi, Martin (2011-08-31). "Cassandra at Formspring".
  216. Nunes, Alexandre (2016-06-22). "Cassandra At The Heart Of Globo's Live Streaming Platform".
  217. Blackie, William (2018-07-26). "Cloud infrastructure at Grubhub". Grubhub Bytes. Retrieved 2019-03-29.
  218. "Mahalo.com powered by Apache Cassandra™" (PDF). DataStax.com. Santa Clara, CA, USA: DataStax. 2012-04-10. Retrieved 2014-06-13.
  219. Watch Cassandra at Mahalo.com |DataStax Episodes |Blip Archived 2011-12-10 at the Wayback Machine
  220. Cockcroft, Adrian (2011-07-11). "Migrating Netflix from Datacenter Oracle to Global Cassandra". slideshare.net. Retrieved 2014-06-13.
  221. Izrailevsky, Yury (2011-01-28). "NoSQL at Netflix".
  222. "Nutanix Bible".
  223. Ooyala (2010-05-18). "Designing a Scalable Database for Online Video Analytics" (PDF). DataStax.com. Mountain View CA, USA. Retrieved 2014-06-14.
  224. Mainstay LLC (2013-11-11). "DataStax Case Study of Openwave Messaging" (PDF). DataStax.com. Santa Clara, CA, USA: DataStax. Retrieved 2014-06-15.
  225. Ad Serving Technology - Advanced Optimization, Forecasting, & Targeting |OpenX Archived 2011-10-07 at the Wayback Machine
  226. "Hadoop and Cassandra (at Rackspace)". Stu Hood. 2010-04-23. Retrieved 2011-09-01.
  227. david [ketralnis] (2010-03-12). "what's new on reddit: She who entangles men". blog.reddit. Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-29.
  228. Posted by the reddit admins at (2010-05-11). "blog.reddit -- what's new on reddit: reddit's May 2010 "State of the Servers" report". blog.reddit. Archived from the original on 14 May 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
  229. Pattishall, Dathan Vance (2011-03-23). "Cassandra is my NoSQL Solution but".
  230. "Cassandra at SoundCloud". Archived from the original on 2013-09-05. Retrieved 2013-07-15.
  231. Hermann, Jeremy. "Meet Michelangelo: Uber's Machine Learning Platform".
  232. Onnen, Erik. "From 100s to 100s of Millions".
  233. Bibliography
  234. Carpenter, Jeff; Hewitt, Eben (July 24, 2016). Cassandra: The Definitive Guide (2nd ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 370. ISBN 978-1-4919-3366-4.
  235. Capriolo, Edward (July 15, 2011). Cassandra High Performance Cookbook (1st ed.). Packt Publishing. p. 324. ISBN 1-84951-512-3.
  236. Hewitt, Eben (December 15, 2010). Cassandra: The Definitive Guide (1st ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 300. ISBN 978-1-4493-9041-9.
  237. External links
  238. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Apache Cassandra.
  239. Wikiversity has learning resources about Big Data/Cassandra
  240. Lakshman, Avinash (2008-08-25). "Cassandra - A structured storage system on a P2P Network". Engineering @ Facebook's Notes. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
  241. "The Apache Cassandra Project". Forest Hill, MD, USA: The Apache Software Foundation. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
  242. "Project Wiki". Forest Hill, MD, USA: The Apache Software Foundation. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
  243. Hewitt, Eben (2010-12-01). "Adopting Apache Cassandra". infoq.com. InfoQ, C4Media Inc. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
  244. Lakshman, Avinash; Malik, Prashant (2009-08-15). "Cassandra - A Decentralized Structured Storage System" (PDF). cs.cornell.edu. The authors are from Facebook. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
  245. Ellis, Jonathan (2009-07-29). "What Every Developer Should Know About Database Scalability". slideshare.net. Retrieved 2014-06-17. From the OSCON 2009 talk on RDBMS vs. Dynamo, Bigtable, and Cassandra.
  246. "Cassandra-RPM - Red Hat Package Manager (RPM) build for the Apache Cassandra project". code.google.com. Menlo Park, CA, USA: Google Project Hosting. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
  247. Roth, Gregor (2012-10-14). "Cassandra by example - the path of read and write requests". slideshare.net. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
  248. Mansoor, Umer (2012-11-04). "A collection of Cassandra tutorials". Retrieved 2015-02-08.
  249. Bushik, Sergey (2012-10-22). "A vendor-independent comparison of NoSQL databases: Cassandra, HBase, MongoDB, Riak". NetworkWorld. Framingham, MA, USA and Staines, Middlesex, UK: IDG. Archived from the original on 2014-05-28. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
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