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\title{Understanding the fundamentals of attacks}
\subtitle{What is happening when someone writes an exploit?}
\date{\today}
\author{Halvar Flake / Thomas Dullien}
\institute{The /home owners association}
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		- Reverse engineering \& vuln-dev since 1998}\\ \\
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		- 2004-2011: Small company in Bochum}\\ \\
		\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		- Offensive and defensive customers}\\ \\
		\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		- 2011-2015: Defensive work at Google}\\ \\
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		- Since Nov 2016: Offensive research at Google P0}\\
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		- North Korea accused of hacking Sony ...}\\ \\
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		- Russia accused of meddling in US elections}\\ \\
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		- Governments are imitating hacking culture}\\ \\
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		- People are getting hacked left, right, and center}\\
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\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}

\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large Need to inventory privileged code}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (4.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	\begin{itemize}
		\item Userspace code
		\item Kernel code
		\item BIOS code, EFI stuff
		\item CPU Microcode
		\item \dots
	\end{itemize}
	}
};

\node[text width=10cm] at (9.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	\begin{itemize}
		\item Harddisk firmware
		\item NIC firmware
		\item Intel ME firmware
		\item GPU firmware
		\item Keyboard firmware
		\item USB controller firmware
		\item \dots
	\end{itemize}
	}
};

\draw[decorate,thick,decoration={brace,amplitude=5mm,mirror}]
	(1, -2.5) -- (10, -2.5) node[midway,below=5mm] {
		\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large	\;\;
	Check Origin!}}
	node[midway,yshift=-5mm,below=5mm] {
		\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large	\;\;
	Check that origin affirms this code is theirs!}};

\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}


\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large Problems Inventorizing Code}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (5.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	\begin{itemize}
		\item No standard way of getting firmware from a device.
		\vspace{3mm}
		\item The few places where there is a way, the existing firmware gets to decide
				what to answer.
		\vspace{3mm}
		\item Needed: Non-updateable, pure hardware path to dump all firmwares.
	\end{itemize}
	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}


\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node (harddisk) at (1.5, 3.75) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		Harddisk FW
	}
};

\node (nic) at (1.5, 3.25) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		NIC FW
	}
};

\node (bios) at (1.5, 2.75) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		BIOS Flash
	}
};

\node (me) at (1.5, 2.25) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		Intel ME
	}
};

\node (os) at (1.5, 1.75) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		Minimal OS
	}
};

\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm] (datapath) at (6.5, 2.5) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Non-updateable pure hardware path to dump memory
	}
};

\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm] (hasher) at (6.5, 0) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Hardware-implemented hash calculation (actual wires)
	}
};


\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm] (screen) at (4.5, -3) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Simplest possible screen to display numbers
	}
};

\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm] (radio) at (9.5, -3) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Simplest possible transmitter to transmit device ID, hash
	}
};

\draw[thick,decorate,->] (hasher) -- (radio);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (hasher) -- (screen);

\draw[thick,decorate,->] (datapath) -- (hasher);

\draw[thick,decorate,->] (harddisk) --  (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (nic) -- (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (bios) -- (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (me) -- (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (os) -- (datapath);

\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}


\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node (harddisk) at (1.5, 3.75) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		Harddisk FW
	}
};

\node (nic) at (1.5, 3.25) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		NIC FW
	}
};

\node (bios) at (1.5, 2.75) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		BIOS Flash
	}
};

\node (me) at (1.5, 2.25) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		Intel ME
	}
};

\node (os) at (1.5, 1.75) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		Minimal OS
	}
};

\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm] (datapath) at (6.5, 2.5) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Non-updateable pure hardware path to dump memory
	}
};

\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm] (hasher) at (6.5, 0) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Hardware-implemented hash calculation (actual wires)
	}
};


\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm] (screen) at (4.5, -3) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Simplest possible screen to display numbers
	}
};

\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm] (radio) at (9.5, -3) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Simplest possible transmitter to transmit device ID, hash
	}
};

\draw[thick,decorate,->] (hasher) -- (radio);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (hasher) -- (screen);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (datapath) -- (hasher);
\draw[thick,decorate,->,color=red] (harddisk) --  (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->,color=red] (nic) -- (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->,color=red] (bios) -- (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->,color=red] (me) -- (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->,color=red] (os) -- (datapath);

\node[draw,thick, decorate, color=red, text width=3cm] (label) at (1.5, 0) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Needs standardized interface.
	}
};

\draw[thick,decorate,color=red] (label) -- (datapath);

\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}




\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node (harddisk) at (1.5, 3.75) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		Harddisk FW
	}
};

\node (nic) at (1.5, 3.25) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		NIC FW
	}
};

\node (bios) at (1.5, 2.75) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		BIOS Flash
	}
};

\node (me) at (1.5, 2.25) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		Intel ME
	}
};

\node (os) at (1.5, 1.75) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
		Minimal OS
	}
};

\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm, color=red] (datapath) at (6.5, 2.5) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Non-updateable pure hardware path to dump memory
	}
};

\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm, color=red] (hasher) at (6.5, 0) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Hardware-implemented hash calculation (actual wires)
	}
};


\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm, color=red] (screen) at (4.5, -3) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Simplest possible screen to display numbers
	}
};

\node[draw,thick, decorate, text width=4cm, color=red] (radio) at (9.5, -3) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Simplest possible transmitter to transmit device ID, hash
	}
};

\draw[thick,decorate,->] (hasher) -- (radio);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (hasher) -- (screen);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (datapath) -- (hasher);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (harddisk) --  (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (nic) -- (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (bios) -- (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (me) -- (datapath);
\draw[thick,decorate,->] (os) -- (datapath);

\node[draw,thick, decorate, color=red, text width=3cm] (label) at (1.5, 0) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Should be a standardized component.
	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}




\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large What now?}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (5.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	\begin{itemize}
		\item We have a tamper-resistant way of obtaining hashes of code
			   in the device.
		\vspace{3mm}
		\item We need a mechanism for vendors to ``affirm'' binaries:
				``Yes, this is our binary and we stand by it.''
	\end{itemize}
	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}




\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large Status quo?}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (5.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Code Signatures are a bad way to affirm provenance of code.
	\begin{itemize}
		\item Signing keys may be stolen and used for years without anybody
			   noticing.
		\vspace{3mm}
		\item Vendors may be compelled to secretly sign something that is then
		      only deployed on few machines.
	\end{itemize}
	\vspace{5mm}

	Code signatures in their current form cannot be trusted.	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}


\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large What's needed?}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (5.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	\begin{itemize}
		\item Code signing transparency.
		\item Public distributed ledger.
		\item Append-only, tamperproof.
		\item Hashes of all code by all vendors need to be placed in public
				ledger.
		\item ``My name is X and I endorse this binary.''
	\end{itemize}
	\vspace{5mm}

%	Code signatures in their current form cannot be trusted.
	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}



\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large What else?}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (5.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	\begin{itemize}
		\item We have hashes now.
		\item And a public ledger to check that the vendor ``claims'' them.
		\item How to address third-party code being backdoored?
	\end{itemize}
	\vspace{5mm}

	Transitive trust is the silent killer of security.
	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}



\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[node distance=2cm, overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large Detour: Trust graphs}};

\node[draw,thick, decorate] (computer) at (5.5, -3) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Your computer
	}
};

\node[visible on=<2->,draw,thick, decorate, above =.5cm of computer.north] (Adobe) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Adobe
	}
};

\node[visible on=<2->,draw,thick, decorate, left =.5cm of Adobe.west] (ms) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	MS
	}
};
\node[visible on=<2->,draw,thick, decorate, left =.5cm of ms.west] (nVidia) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	nVidia
	}
};
\node[visible on=<2->,draw,thick, decorate, right =.5cm of Adobe.east] (Google) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Google
	}
};
\node[visible on=<2->,draw,thick, decorate, right =.5cm of Google.east] (HP) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	HP
	}
};
\draw[visible on=<2->,thick, decorate,->] (nVidia) -- (computer);
\draw[visible on=<2->,thick, decorate,->] (ms) -- (computer);
\draw[visible on=<2->,thick, decorate,->] (Adobe) -- (computer);
\draw[visible on=<2->,thick, decorate,->] (Google) -- (computer);
\draw[visible on=<2->,thick, decorate,->] (HP) -- (computer);





\node[visible on=<3->,draw,thick, decorate, above =1.5cm of Adobe.north] (zlib) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	zlib
	}
};
\node[visible on=<3->,draw,thick, decorate, left = .5cm of zlib.west] (kernel) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	kernel.org
	}
};
\node[visible on=<3->,draw,thick, decorate, right =.5cm of zlib.east] (libtiff) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	libtiff
	}
};

\draw[visible on=<4->,thick, decorate,->] (libtiff) -- (Adobe);
\draw[visible on=<4->,thick, decorate,->] (libtiff) -- (HP);
\draw[visible on=<4->,thick, decorate,->] (zlib) -- (Google);
\draw[visible on=<4->,thick, decorate,->] (zlib) -- (nVidia);
\draw[visible on=<4->,thick, decorate,->] (kernel) -- (Google);
\draw[visible on=<4->,thick, decorate,->] (kernel) -- (nVidia);
\draw[visible on=<4->,thick, decorate,->] (kernel) -- (HP);



\node[visible on=<5->,draw,thick, decorate, above =1.5cm of zlib.north] (AMI) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	AMI Bios
	}
};
\node[visible on=<5->,draw,thick, decorate, left = .5cm of AMI.west] (Phoenix) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Phoenix
	}
};
\node[visible on=<5->,draw,thick, decorate, right =.5cm of AMI.east] (Broadcom) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Broadcom
	}
};
\node[visible on=<5->,draw,thick, decorate, right =.5cm of Broadcom.east] (Apple) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Apple
	}
};

\draw[visible on=<6->,thick, decorate,->] (Apple) -- (Google);
\draw[visible on=<6->,thick, decorate,->] (Apple) -- (Adobe);
\draw[visible on=<6->,thick, decorate,->] (Adobe) -- (Apple);
\draw[visible on=<6->,thick, decorate,->] (zlib) -- (Apple);
\draw[visible on=<6->,thick, decorate,->] (AMI) -- (ms);
\draw[visible on=<6->,thick, decorate,->] (Phoenix) -- (ms);
\draw[visible on=<6->,thick, decorate,->] (AMI) -- (kernel);


\draw[visible on=<7->,thick, decorate,->] (ms) -- (Phoenix);
\draw[visible on=<7->,thick, decorate,->] (ms) -- (AMI);
\draw[visible on=<7->,thick, decorate,->] (ms) -- (Broadcom);
\draw[visible on=<7->,thick, decorate,->] (Google) -- (Broadcom);
\draw[visible on=<7->,thick, decorate,->] (Apple) -- (Broadcom);
\draw[visible on=<7->,thick, decorate,->] (Apple) -- (libtiff);
\draw[visible on=<7->,thick, decorate,->] (AMI) -- (Apple);
\draw[visible on=<7->,thick, decorate,->] (Broadcom) -- (AMI);
\draw[visible on=<7->,thick, decorate,->] (kernel) -- (AMI);
\draw[visible on=<7->,thick, decorate,->] (kernel) -- (Phoenix);
\draw[visible on=<7->,thick, decorate,->] (nVidia) -- (Phoenix);

\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}





\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[node distance=2cm, overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large Detour: Trust graphs}};

\node[draw,thick, decorate] (computer) at (5.5, -3) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Your computer
	}
};
\begin{scope}[shift={(5,0.5)}]
\def \n {20}
\def \radius {2.4cm}
\def \margin {4} % margin in angles, depends on the radius
\foreach \s in {1,...,\n}
{
  \node[draw, thick, decorate, rectangle] (\s) at ({360/\n * (\s - 1)}:\radius) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\tiny\s}};
  \draw[->, decorate, thick, ->] ({360/\n * (\s - 1)+\margin}:\radius)
    arc ({360/\n * (\s - 1)+\margin}:{360/\n * (\s)-\margin}:\radius);
}


\foreach \s in {1,2,...,20}
{
	\foreach \k in {3,5,7,...,19} {
		\draw[->, decorate, thick, ->] (\s) -- (\k);
	}
}

\foreach \k in {1,2,...,20} {
	\draw[->, decorate, thick, ->] (\k) -- (computer);
}

\end{scope}

\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}




\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large What's needed?}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (5.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Assume you find malicious code signed by a third party on your machine...
	\begin{itemize}
		\item Is there even a way for you to figure out how it got there?
		\item Is the signer obliged to investigate?
		\item Is there even an auditable trail to establish who committed the
				malicious code to the signers code repo?
	\end{itemize}
	Answer: No on all of the above.
	\vspace{5mm}

%	Code signatures in their current form cannot be trusted.
	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}



\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large What's needed?}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (5.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	What is needed to establish this?
	\begin{itemize}
		\item Signed commits.
		\item Reproducible / deterministic builds.
		\item Public code ledger should
			include hash of sources from which the code was built.

	\end{itemize}
	\vspace{5mm}

%	Code signatures in their current form cannot be trusted.
	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}



\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large What's needed?}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (5.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	\begin{itemize}
	\item	Ideally, the source code from which binaries are built should be in the
	ledger, too.

	\item Given the fear that source code is ``secret sauce'', this is unrealistic.

	\item	So at a minimum, a generic ``right to reverse engineer'' would be needed.
	\end{itemize}
	\vspace{5mm}

%	Code signatures in their current form cannot be trusted.
	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}



\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large Recap}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (5.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Given these engineering changes, we would get:

	\begin{itemize}
		\item Devices where we can establish ``no malicious control'' at points in time.
		\item The ability to diagnose key theft and software backdooring.
	\end{itemize}

	What would this cost us?

	\vspace{5mm}

%	Code signatures in their current form cannot be trusted.
	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}

\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large Recap}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (5.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	What would the costs of these changes be?

	\begin{itemize}
		\item Hardware: Less than 1\$ per device.
		\item Software: Global ledger, less than \$ 1m a year (with staff).
		\item Legal: Changes to RE laws \& standardization.
	\end{itemize}

	Not excessive, in my view?

	\vspace{5mm}

%	Code signatures in their current form cannot be trusted.
	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}


\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
\draw[style=help lines,color=verylightgray] (-.5, -4.5) grid[step=0.5cm] (11.5,4.5);

\node at (5.5, 3.7) {	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\Large Who is doing this?}};

\node[text width=10cm] at (5.5, -0.1) {
	\fontfamily{augie}\selectfont{\large
	Right now, none of the big vendors are doing this.
%	Code signatures in their current form cannot be trusted.

	\begin{itemize}
		\item Microsoft: Does not control hardware, focus on making exploits
				difficult instead (CFG, RFG, VBS).
		\item Android: Does not control hardware, focus on fixing bugs.
		\item Apple: Closest. Gets extra slide.
	\end{itemize}
	}
};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{frame}

\begin{frame}[fragile]
\begin{tikzpicture}[overlay,remember picture, decoration=penciline]
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	\begin{itemize}
		\item The touch bar is already an independent screen.
		\item Does not meet criteria for non-updateability and inspectability, though.
		\item Also: Apple's intransparent culture is probably obstacle to
			adopting a public ledger?
	\end{itemize}

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	Defendable systems can be engineered.
	\vspace{3mm}
	\begin{itemize}
		\item Require long-term thinking, planning, and execution.
		\item Require concerted engineering efforts.
		\item Defenders should think in terms of re-engineering their
				infrastructure to be defendable.
		\item Defenders need to coalesce into larger groups
				that can shape market through buying power.
	\end{itemize}



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