Jan Hus (Renaissance and Reformation)

Introduction

Jan Hus is the most famous leader of the Czech Reformation of the 15th century and one of the most prominent figures executed as a religious dissident in the early modern period. Hus was most likely born in the town of Husinec in Bohemia around 1372, but little is known about his life prior to his entry into University of Prague in 1390. Hus became a master of the university in 1396 and was a proponent of John Wyclif’s ecclesiastical and political theories. After King Vaclav of Bohemia granted control of the university to the pro-Wyclif Czechs on the faculty in 1409, Hus was elected rector. Most of his work focused on the church. He became a priest in 1401 and was soon appointed the preacher in the Bethlehem Chapel, a private chapel established to promote religious reform. Hus was a popular preacher who was openly critical of priests and bishops who violated their vows of poverty and chastity. One of his most important works was on the subject of simony, but Hus fell out of favor with the archbishop and king when he attacked the sale of indulgences. In 1412 three of his students were executed for protesting against indulgences, and Hus was forbidden to preach. That year he was forced into exile in southern Bohemia where he wrote several of his most influential works, including his opus De ecclesia (On the church). He drew heavily on Wyclif’s work of the same name, but Loserth’s thesis that Hus simply plagiarized Wyclif has been successfully challenged by most 20th-century scholars. Hus argued that since the institutional church is an imperfect reflection of the true invisible church, interdicts and excommunications do not affect a person’s salvation. Hus openly questioned the authority of the papacy, especially in light of the papal schism that began in 1378, and he insisted that popes are the vicars of Christ only to the degree that they lived according to the teaching and example of Jesus. He was invited to discuss his views at the Council of Constance (1414–1417), which condemned him on thirty points of heresy. He and his writings were burned in 1415. Four years later his followers rebelled against Emperor Sigismund, launching thirty years of warfare in Bohemia. Hus has been variously interpreted as a heresiarch, patriotic hero, leader of a revolution, a forerunner of the Protestant Reformation, and a medieval church reformer. A separate article addresses the Czech Reformation, including the Hussite revolution.

Hus in Context

Hus was more than a philosopher and theologian; he was the leader of a popular revolt against certain aspects of feudal culture. Some of the most useful studies of Hus and the Czech Reformation in the late 20th century have been part of larger studies of late medieval and early modern religious and social dissent. One of the persistent questions in Hus scholarship is whether he should be viewed in terms of medieval reform movements, late medieval religious dissent, or as an early Protestant reformer. An argument can be made for viewing the entire early modern period of 1400–1750 as an age of religious reform within Western Christianity. In English language scholarship, much of the interest has been on the role of Wyclif’s thought in the Czech Reformation, but in German and Czech scholarship the interest has focused on late medieval society in central Europe. Much of this research was informed by 20th-century social and political histories of feudalism and the early modern period. These include examinations of the role of the nobility in Bohemia in the 15th century and the role that literacy played in political and religious revolt.

General Overviews

The classic studies of Palacký 1836–1867 and Sedlák 1913–1919 provide much of the original source material and present Hus in the broader context of Bohemian history. Macek 1966 is a good starting place for examining the historical context of Hus, while Klassen 1998 offers a very succinct account of the Hussite movement that reflects broad research in modern research on Hus. Boehm and Fajt 2005 looks at Prague as the heart of the Czech reformation from the time of Emperor Charles to the end of the Hussite Wars. Lambert 2002 and Leff 1967 survey religious dissent in the late Middle Ages, especially “apostolic poverty” movements. Though older, Leff’s study is more comprehensive and grounded in the writings of the dissenters themselves. His analysis of the difference between the Hussites and Lollards in England is insightful.

Boehm, Barbara Drake, and Jiří Fajt, eds. Prague: The Crown of Bohemia, 1347–1437. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.
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Collection of essays addressing various aspects of religious, political, and social life in Prague during the period of the Czech Reformation.
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Klassen, John. “Hus, the Hussites and Bohemia.” In The New Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. 7. Edited by Christopher Allmand, 367–391. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521382960Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Provides an overview of the Hussite movement from the perspective of medieval history.
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Lambert, Malcolm. Medieval Heresy: Popular Movements from the Gregorian Reform to the Reformation. 3d ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002.
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An introduction to the varieties of religious dissent and religious reform movements in the Catholic Church prior to the Protestant Reformation, including the Hussites.
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Leff, Gordon. Heresy in the Later Middle Ages: The Relation of Heterodoxy to Dissent, c. 1250–c. 1450. 2 vols. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1967.
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Remains the classic study of medieval religious dissent, especially the apostolic poverty movements. Leff compares the failed Wyclifite reformation in England and the successful Hussite reformation in Bohemia and Moravia.
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Macek, Josef. “Jean Hus et son époque.” Historica 13 (1966): 51–80.
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Overview of the Hussite era in central Europe with a focus on social and economic history.
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Palacký, František. Geschichte von Böhmen. 5 vols. Prague: Kronberger and Weber, 1836–1867.
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This classic works of Czech scholarship that inaugurated the modern era of critical historical scholarship written by Czechs. Palacký considered Hus one of the central figures of Czech history, not only for his resistance to foreign religious domination but also for his role in the development of the Czech language.
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Sedlák, Jan. Studie a texty k náboženským dějinám českým. 2 vols. Olomouc, Czechoslovakia: Matice, 1913–1919.
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An important collection of original texts and articles on Bohemian religious history.
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Werner, Ernst. Jan Hus: Welt und Umwelt einers Prager Frühreformators. Weimar, Germany: Böhlaus, 1991.
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A general overview of the religious and political environment in which Hus worked, with special attention to the radicalization of Hus’s theology after 1412.
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Late Medieval Context in Bohemia

As Seibt 1994 makes clear, when the emperor Charles IV made Prague his capital city, established a new university, and made the city an archbishopric, Bohemia became one of the most important kingdoms in Europe. The Czech Reformation marked one of the great eras of transition from the Middle Ages to the modern era and merits greater attention by early modern historians. It is helpful to see what was unique about the Bohemian context of Hus, as well as how Bohemia was representative of the late medieval period in Europe generally. Weltsch 1968 examines the reforming work of archbishop Jenstein, which prepared the way for the Hussite movement. Although Oakley 1979 largely ignores Bohemia, this study of the conciliar movement shows that some of Hus’s opponents were also church reformers. Van Engen 2008 argues that there were many options available for reform of the church prior to the Hussite revolution. As Graus 1971 argues, the papal schism that began in 1378 brought political, economic, and religious discontent to a crisis point in central Europe, especially in Bohemia, and was symptomatic of discontent. Kelly 2001 examines the medieval inquisition and heresy trials, which is helpful in understanding what happened to Hus, while Gregory 1999 looks at how the practice of burning heretics at the stake revived the early Christian ideal of martyrdom as a way to witness to one’s faith. Hus is the premier example of this transformation of the executed heretic into a populist martyr.

Graus, František. “The Crisis of the Middle Ages and the Hussites.” Translated by James J. Heaney. In The Reformation in Medieval Perspective. Edited by Steven E. Ozment, 76–103. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971.
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Graus argues that the papal schism of 1378–1415 caused a social and religious crisis in the late Middle Ages because the schism raised doubts about the efficacy of all of the sacraments, especially last rites.
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Gregory, Brad S. Salvation at Stake: Christian Martyrdom in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
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Gregory examines martyrdom as one form of religious violence in the early modern period.
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Kelly, Henry Ansgar. Inquisitions and other Trial Procedures in the Medieval West. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2001.
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Examines the actual legal processes used by the church to deal with dissent, which is very helpful in understanding the reasons Hus was burned at the stake.
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Oakley, Francis. The Western Church in the Later Middle Ages. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979.
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Helpful in understanding the conciliar movement but is somewhat weak on Hus and the Czech Reformation.
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Seibt, Ferdinand. Karl IV: Ein Kaiser in Europa 1346–1378. Munich: DTV, 1994.
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Masterful presentation of the reign of Charles IV, which provides helpful background for understanding Hus’s reform efforts.
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Van Engen, John. “Multiple Options: The World of the Fifteenth-Century Church.” Church History 77 (2008): 257–284.
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This healthy corrective to the idea of monolithic Catholic orthodoxy in the late medieval period presents Hus challenging the church to define as well as reform its doctrines.
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Weltsch, Robert E. Archbishop John of Jenstein 1348–1400: Papalism, Humanism, and Reform in Pre-Hussite Prague. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
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This is one of the very few studies of the bishop who encouraged the early stages of the Czech Reformation and laid the groundwork for Hus’s work.
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Biographies

Much of the literature on Hus is in the form of biographies, but there have been relatively few critical biographies that examine the complexity of Hus’s thought in the context of late medieval Europe. Hus’s personal story is so dramatic and so tragic that it has been hard for writers to maintain objectivity. Even before his arrest, Hus was viewed as a symbol of resistance to unjust authority, and his martyrdom served as a catalyst for various forms of political and religious dissent. In many ways, his execution marked a new era in the history of religious violence in Europe. The question of whether Hus was actually guilty of the crimes he was charged with at the Council of Constance continues to be discussed in academic and ecclesiastical circles. Until the mid-20th century, Catholic historians tended to portray Hus as a heresiarch whose execution was justifiable because he undermined the ecclesiastical and social order. From the early days of the Protestant (especially German) Reformation of the 16th century, Hus was viewed as precursor to Martin Luther. This picture of Hus as a forerunner of the Reformation dominated biographies of Hus in English and German until the mid-20th century. The more contemporary view of Hus is that he should be studied either within the context of the Czech Reformation or the late medieval Catholic Church. With the rise of Czech nationalism in the 19th century, many scholars, most notably Palacký, presented Hus more of a patriot who was opposed to foreign (including papal) control of his homeland than as a religious reformer. Hus did exert a lasting impact on Czech culture through his linguistic work and as a symbol of resistance. Though the anniversary of Hus’s execution (July 6) remains a Czech national holiday, the current scholarly consensus is that nationalism is not the best lens for understanding Hus himself.

Early Biographies

The 500th anniversary of Hus’s execution elicited great interest in his life from Czech and non-Czech scholars. Czech historians of the time emphasized Hus’s nationalism, while non-Czech Protestant historians tended to view him as a precursor to Luther (see Schaff 1915 and Schwarze 1915). The recovery of Hussite texts in the 19th century laid the foundation for a new appreciation of Hus as a medieval theologian and preacher. Lutzow 1909 helped introduce Hus to the English-speaking world and presented him as a “hero of the faith.” Spinka was a professor at the University of Chicago who was immersed in Czech-language scholarship of Hus, and Spinka 1941 presented Hus as both a Protestant saint and Czech nationalist hero. Kratochvil and Vávra 1957 offers a good look into how Hus was presented in Czech popular culture, and it provides photographs of many of the sites associated with Hus.

Kratochvíl, Miloš, and Otakar Vávra. Jan Hus: Film-Libretto. Prague: Artia, 1957.
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Screenplay, photographs, background studies, and commentary related to the epic 1954 biopic of Hus by the esteemed Czech director Otakar Vávra.
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Lutzow, Franz. The Life and Times of Master John Hus. London: J. M. Dent, 1909.
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For many years this was the standard biography of Hus.
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Schaff, David S. John Huss: His Life, Teachings and Death; After Five Hundred Years. New York: Scribner’s, 1915.
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A good critical, but now outdated, work written for the 500th anniversary of Hus’s death, which helped revive interest in Hus in 20th-century English-language scholarship.
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Schwarze, W. N. John Hus, the Martyr of Bohemia: A Study of the Dawn of Protestantism. New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1915.
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Written for the 500th anniversary of the death of Hus, this is a popular and somewhat hagiographic biography of Hus.
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Spinka, Matthew. Jan Hus and the Czech Reform. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1941.
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Examines Hus in the context of the larger Czech Reformation that began in the 14th century. Much of this material is also found in Spinka’s 1968 biography of Hus.
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Modern Biographies

The ecumenical movement of the 20th century helped Hus scholarship advance beyond the dichotomy of Hus as Protestant martyr and Hus as heresiarch, but Hus scholarship such as Vischer 1955 and Necas and Stary 1969 tended to reflect Czech nationalist concerns. Molnár 1973 and Hilsch 1999 are well researched but follow the traditional Protestant understanding of Hus as a “witness of the truth.” The biographies Macek 1961 and Spinka 1968 present him as a complex figure who combined theological acumen with political shrewdness.

Hilsch, Peter. Johannes Hus (um 1370–1415): Prediger Gottes und Ketzer. Regensburg, Germany: Verlag Friedrch Pustet, 1999.
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Covers the familiar ground that Hus’s condemnation for heresy was rooted in his self-identification as a voice for truth.
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Macek, Josef. Jan Hus. Prague: Melantrich, 1961.
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A biography of Hus by one of the great Czech Marxist historians of the mid-20th century.
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Molnár, Amedeo. Jan Hus: Testimone della veritá. Turin, Italy: Claudiana, 1973.
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Published by the Waldensian Church in Italy, Molnár’s book reintroduced Italian scholars to Hus as a religious reformer and theologian rather than as nationalistic hero.
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Necas, Jaroslav, and Vaclav Stary. Master John Hus and the Town of Husinec. Prague: Svepomoc, 1969.
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Brief account of the in southern Bohemia Jan Hus grew up in.
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Spinka, Matthew. John Hus: A Biography. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968.
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This remains the most complete and critical biography of Hus in English. Spinka draws on a wealth of primary and secondary material in Czech to give a detailed and nuanced biography of Hus.
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Vischer, Melchior. Jan Hus: Aufruhr wider Papst und Reich. Frankfurt: Societäts-Verlag, 1955.
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Lacking in scholarly apparatus, but it does include helpful appendices on specific historiographical issues such as whether Hus was rector of the university.
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Primary Texts

Most of Hus’s known works are available in print and manuscript. This includes works in Latin and Czech, and there are several translations of the most important works into English and German. Many of Hus’s manuscripts, including sermons (Císařová-Kolářová 1947) and letters, survive despite the effort of church authorities to destroy them. The most important manuscript collections of Hus material are found in libraries and archives in Prague, but most of his writings have been published. Illyricus 1558 was the first major attempt to publish materials related to Hus and the Hussite movement and remained the primary source for Hus research until Erben 1865–1868 and Palacký 1869. Thompson 1956 is a critical edition of Hus’s most important work, De ecclesia, which notes its relationship to Wyclif’s work of the same name. Modern, critical editions of all known writings of Hus can be found in Ryšánek, et al. 2004–. The most important manuscript collections of Hus material are found in Prague, such as Císařová-Kolářová 1947, Erben 1865–1868, Palacký 1869, and Ryšánek, et al. 2004–. Mladoňovice 1932 is a critical edition of the most important firsthand account of the trial of Hus from a sympathetic perspective.

Císařová-Kolářová, Anna, ed. M. Jan Hus Betlemské Poselství. 2 vols. Prague: Laichter, 1947.
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This is one of the most important collections of the sermons Hus preached at Bethlehem Chapel in Czech.
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Erben, Karel J., ed. Mistra Jana Husi: Sebrané spisy české. 3 vols. Prague: Tempský, 1865–1868.
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An older, but still valuable collection of Hus’s works in Czech. Includes academic, pastoral, and personal writings.
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Illyricus, Matthias Flacius, ed. Historia et monumenta Ioannis Hus atque Hieronymi Pragensis. 2 vols. Nünberg, Germany: Montanus and Neuberus, 1558.
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This is the classic collection of Hus’s writings from the Reformation era. Though obsolete, it provides insight into what scholars knew of Hus prior to the 20th century, which is particularly important when addressing Hus’s reception. (Reprinted in 1715.)
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Mladoňovice, Petr. “Relatio de mag. Joannis Hus causa.” In Fontes rerum bohemicarum. Vol. 8. Edited by Vacláv Novotný. Prague: Nákladem nadání Františka Palackého, 1932.
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This is one of the most detailed firsthand accounts of Hus’s trial.
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Palacký, František. Documenta Mag. Joannis Hus vitam, doctrinam, causam in constantiensi Concilio actam et controversias de religion in Bohemia annis 1403–1418 motas illustrantia. Prague: Tempsky, 1869.
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Collection of original sources, mostly in Latin and Czech, related to the controversy over Hus.
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Ryšánek, Frantisšek, et al., eds. Magistri Iohannes Hus Opera Omnia. Prague: Academy of Sciences, 2004–.
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This is an ambitious project of the Czech Academy of Sciences to publish critical editions of all of Hus’s writings with complete scholarly apparatus. The Latin works were all published by 1988. Since 2004 they are being republished in the Corpus Christianorum series Continuatio Mediaevalis, which makes them widely available in research libraries. Twenty-five volumes anticipated.
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Thompson, S. Harrison, ed. Magistri Johannis Hus Tractatus De Ecclesia. Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 1956.
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Critical edition of De ecclesia.
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English Translations of Original Sources

Only Hus’s most important works have been translated into English. This includes his works on simony (Hus 1953) and ecclesiology (Spinka 1966). Some of his letters (but few of his sermons) have been translated (see Spinka 1972).

Hus, Jan. “On Simony.” Translated by Matthew Spinka. In Advocates of Reform, Library of Christian Classics. Vol. 14. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1953.
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This is an English translation of one of Hus’s most important theological works, which sets forth his argument for thorough reform of the medieval church structure.
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Spinka, Matthew. John Hus’ Concept of the Church. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966.
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This is an English translation of Hus’s De ecclesia with helpful scholarly apparatus.
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Spinka, Matthew. The Letters of John Hus. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1972.
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This is a useful translation of some of Hus’s most important letters, including those he sent from prison in Constance.
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Historiography

As soon as he died, Hus was used as a symbol by his followers and his enemies, which has complicated the process of examining the man himself in the context of the Czech Reformation. There are several historiographical problems related to the study of Hus, such as the question of whether the word “heretic” should be used to describe him (see Kaminsky 1994). Zemen 1977 is an exhaustive bibliography with research on Hus and the Czech Reformation available in American research libraries at the time. David and Holeton 1996–2007 includes several articles in English examining different aspects of Hussite historiography. Kavka 1960 and Machilek 1973 review mid-20th-century Hussite scholarship. Seibt 1987, Seibt 1993, and Werner 1991 examine more recent Hussite scholarship and show how the picture of Hus has become more complicated as knowledge of the late medieval/early Reformation period has increased.

David, Zdeněk V., and David R. Holeton, eds. The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. 6 vols. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 1996–2007.
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This is the most useful collection of articles and papers from the leading scholars specializing in the Hussite era, but it is often hard to access. Many of the contributions are in English, several of them translated by Zdeněk David.
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Kaminsky, Howard. “The Problematics of Later-Medieval ‘Heresy.’” In Husitivi—Reformace—Renesance: Sbornik k 60. narozeninám Frantiŝka Ŝmahela. 3 vols. Edited by Jaroslav Pánek, 133–154. Prague: Historický ústav, 1994.
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“Heresy” is a term used by church officials to condemn a wide variety of beliefs and forms of dissent, but it is not always useful for historians.
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Kavka, František. “The Hussite Movement and the Czech Reformation.” Cahiers d’Histoire Mondiale 5 (1960): 830–856.
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An overview of the Czech Reformation reflecting Czech scholarship in the mid-20th century.
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Machilek, Franz. “Ergebnisse und Aufgaben moderner Hus-Forschung. Zu einer neuen Biographie des Johannes Hus.” Zeitschrift für Ostforschung 22 (1973): 302–330.
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Though dated, this reviews the state of Hus scholarship up to the 1970s.
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Seibt, Ferdinand. Hussitenstudien: Personen, Ereignisse, Ideen einer frühen Revolution. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1987.
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A collection of articles on the entire Hussite movement by one of the premier German historians of the early modern period.
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Seibt, Ferdinand. “Ein neuer Hus.” Communio viatorum 35 (1993): 62–73.
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A presentation of the newer historiography on Hus in the post-Communist era.
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Werner, Ernst. “Jan Hus im Spiegel Moderner Historiographie.” Heresies: Revue d’histoire des dissidences européennes 16 (1991): 37–54.
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Review of how modern historians view Hus as an example of dissent against authority.
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Zemen, Jarold Knox. The Hussite Movement and the Reformation in Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia 1350–1650: A Bibliographical Study Guide. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1977.
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Although outdated, this remains a useful guide to the breadth of Hussite studies that notes what resources are available in American research libraries.
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Early Czech Reformation

Hus was the most prominent intellectual of the Czech Reformation, and he became both the spokesperson and symbol of reform in Bohemia; however, he did not begin the reform movement. Bethlehem Chapel where he preached was founded for the purpose of advancing reform while Hus was still a student. Wyclif’s writings were brought to the University of Prague by Czech students, most notably Jerome of Prague, who studied at the University of Oxford in the late 14th century after the marriage of Anne of Bohemia to King Richard II. Wyclif’s writings were welcomed by professors in Prague because they could be used to support the reform movement that was already underway. Hus was part of a circle of reformers in Prague that included Queen Sophia, but as the reform radicalized some of his earlier supporters turned against him.

Czech Reformation Prior to Hus

Although Hus is by far the most famous figure of the Czech Reformation, the reform of the church in Bohemia began before his birth. Modern scholarship (Kavka 1998 and Mengel 2003) emphasizes that Hus was strongly influenced by the work of a generation of reformers dating from the time of Emperor Charles IV. The most important of these was Milič of Kroměříž (or Milicius de Chremsir) whose writings on the importance of moral reform and the eucharist as weapons against the antichrist were foundational for utraquism in Bohemia (see Morée 1999 and Mengel 2004). Fudge 1993 and Odložilik 1956 emphasized that Hus’s work as preacher at Bethlehem Chapel was within the context of a broad-based popular reform movement in Bohemia.

Fudge, Thomas. “Ansellus Dei and the Bethlehem Chapel in Prague.” Communio Viatorum 35 (1993): 127–161.
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Useful examination of the founding of Bethlehem Chapel as part of the Czech Reformation and the role of its most prominent preacher.
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Kavka, František. “Politics and Culture under Charles IV.” In Bohemia in History. Edited by Mikuáš Tiech, 59–77. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
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Helpful overview of Bohemian politics in the reign of Charles IV prior to Hus’s time.
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Mengel, David C. “Bones, Stones, and Brothels: Religion and Topography in Prague under Emperor Charles IV (1346–78).” PhD diss., University of Notre Dame, 2003.
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An examination of religion in Prague in the era preceding Hus’s time, with special attention to the sex trade in the area known as Venice.
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Mengel, David C. “From Venice to Jerusalem and Beyond: Milič of Kroměříž and the Topography of Prostitution in Fourteenth-Century Prague.” Speculum 79 (2004): 407–442.
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A distillation of the author’s doctoral thesis that focuses on Milič’s attempt to reform prostitution through a convent named Jerusalem that he established for reformed sex workers.
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Morée, Peter C. A. Preaching in Fourteenth-Century Bohemia: The Life and Ideas of Milicius de Chremsir and his Significance in the Historiography of Bohemia. Slavkov, Czech Republic: Eman, 1999.
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One of the few English-language studies of this important popular reform preacher in the era preceding Jan Hus. It is very helpful for understanding the role of sermons in religious and social life in the late Middle Ages.
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Odložilik, Otakar. “The Bethlehem Chapel in Prague: Remarks on its Foundation Charter.” Studien zur Älteren Geschichte Osteuropas 2 (1956): 125–141.
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A look at the foundation of Bethlehem Chapel written around the time that the building was rebuilt as a historical site in Prague.
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Czech Reformers Associated with Hus

As rector of the university and preacher in Bethlehem Chapel, Hus was the most prominent advocate for reform of the church in Bohemia, but as Fudge 1996 demonstrates, many others shared his conviction that the “law of God” should be the basis for religious and social reform. Jerome of Prague (Barnard 1958 and Herold 1995) and Nicholas of Dresden (Kaminsky 1965) were colleagues that were more radical in their criticism of the church than Hus. Doležalová, et al. 2006 shows that Hus’s criticism of indulgences was not unique at the time.

Barnard, Paul P. “Jerome of Prague, Austria and the Hussites.” Church History 27 (1958): 3–22.
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One of the few articles in English on Hus’s collaborator Jerome of Prague, with particular attention to his work in Austria.
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Doležalová, Eva, Jan Hrdina, František Ŝmahel, and Zdeněk Uhlíř. “The Reception and Criticism of Indulgences in the Late Medieval Czech Lands.” In Promissory Notes on the Treasury of Merits: Indulgences in Late Medieval Europe. Edited by R. N. Swanson, 101–145. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
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Places Hus’s criticism of indulgences in the larger context of the reception and rejection of indulgences in Bohemia and Moravia.
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Fudge, Thomas. “The Law of God: Reform and Religious Practice in Late Medieval Boehmia.” The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. Vol. 1. Edited by Zdeněk David and David R. Holeton, 49–72. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 1996.
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Central to the preaching of Hus and of the Czech Reformation generally was the notion that God’s law as revealed in Scripture and the writings of the church fathers has priority over canon law, but this should not be confused with the approach taken to “sola scriptura” by reformers in the 16th century.
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Herold, Vilém. “Der Streit zwischen Hieronymus von Prag und Johann Gerson.” In Societé et Eglise: Textes et discussions dans les universities d’Europe central pendant le moyen âge tardif. Edited by Sophie Wlodek. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1995.
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Discussion of Jean Gerson’s opposition to the Czech reformation, especially the activities of Jerome of Prague who attempted to export the reform movement beyond Bohemia.
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Kaminsky, Howard, Dean Loy Bilderback, Imre Boba, and Patricia N. Rosenberg, ed. and trans. “Master Nicholas of Dresden: The Old Color and the New: Selected Works Contrasting the Primitive Church and the Roman Church” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 55 (1965): 5–93.
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An investigation of the role played by German theologians assembled at the Inn of the Black Rose in radicalizing preaching in the Bethlehem Chapel after 1409.
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Conflict with Church Authorities

Most of the interest in Hus and his writings for the past 500 years has been because of the dramatic conflict with religious and political authorities that resulted in his execution. Modern scholarship has shown that this was not a simple story of either “a witness for the truth” opposing corruption or a heretic seeking to divide the church. Hus was neither a Protestant nor the leader of an alternative form of Christianity (such as the Cathars). Early in his career he was closely aligned with powerful figures in Bohemia, including King Vaclav, Queen Sophia, and Archbishop Jensen, but from 1409 to 1412 he became more radical as his theological opponents increased their opposition to his preaching and writing after the departure of German faculty from the University of Prague. It is impossible to understand Hus without recognizing that conflict within the church had increased after the failure of the Council of Pisa to solve the papal schism. The Council of Constance was called by Emperor Sigismund to address many areas of conflict and division within Christendom, including the ecclesiastical conflict in Bohemia swirling around Hus. Modern scholarship emphasizes that the cardinals (Gerson and Zabarella) most responsible for the condemnation of Hus were themselves significant theologians and reformers.

Bohemia

Hus was deeply involved in the political and religious life of Bohemia, particularly in the city of Prague, and initially the king supported the reform efforts of the masters at the University of Prague (see Seibt 1987 and Šmahel 1984). However, the more Hus attacked Bohemian clergy for violations of their vows, the more opposition he generated. His conflict with church officials began with conflict over teaching Wyclif in the university, but it escalated when Hus attacked the sale of indulgences in the realm (Spinka 1976). It was Bohemian church officials who pressed for Hus to be condemned at the Council of Constance. Holeton 1994 and Molnár 1965 demonstrate that Hus grew increasingly strident in his opposition to ecclesiastical authority and alienated some of his most powerful early supporters as he and his followers claimed direct authority from the Bible and Jesus Christ. Vooght 1960 provides the most detailed investigation into whether Hus’s teachings were actually heretical according to the standards of the early 15th century, concluding that Hus was condemned primarily for his rejection of the church’s authority to define dogma.

de Vooght, Paul. L’Heresie de Jean Huss. Leuven, Belgium: Bureau de la Revue, 1960.
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This is the classic revisionist study of Hus’s theology, written by a Catholic historian. De Vooght reexamines the charges leveled against Hus from the context of late medieval Catholic theology rather than Tridentine orthodoxy and concludes that Hus was less heretical than his followers or Wyclif.
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Holeton, David R. “Revelation and Revolt in Late Medieval Bohemia.” Communio Viatorum 36 (1994): 29–45.
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The Bible played a critical role in political revolt in the Hussite era as the followers of Hus claimed divine sanction for their rejection of papal authority.
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Molnár, Amedeo. “Hus et son appel à Jesus-Christ.” Communio viatorum 8 (1965): 95–104.
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In the final stages of his trial, Hus increasingly appealed his case directly to Christ rather than accepting the judgment of earthly authorities.
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Seibt, Ferdinand. “Johannes Hus und der Abzug der deutschen Studenten aus Prag 1409.” In Hussitenstudien: Personen, Ereignisse, Ideen einer frühen Revolution. Edited by Ferdinand Seibt, 1–16. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1987.
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An investigation of the events leading up to the decree of Kutna Hora in 1409 that resulted in the mass departure of German students and faculty from the University of Prague. Some of those who left for German and Austrian universities agitated against Hus and helped secure his condemnation.
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Šmahel, František. “The Kuttenberg Decree and the Withdrawal of the German Students from Prague in 1409: A Discussion.” History of Universities 4 (1984): 153–166.
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Discussion of the ongoing historical debate over the meaning and significance of the decree of Kutna Hora, including the role of Jan Hus as the leader of the Czech masters.
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Spinka, Matthew. “John Hus’ Conflict over Papal Indulgences.” Studies in Czechoslovak History 1 (1976): 1–14.
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Not only does this examine the controversy that led to Hus’s excommunication and condemnation, it helps place Luther’s debate on indulgences in a larger context.
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Council of Constance

Prague was one of the most important cities in the Holy Roman Empire, and the turmoil swirling around Hus’s preaching could not be confined to Bohemia. Some of his writings threatened papal authority at a time when the church was trying to put an end to the papal schism that had begun in 1378. Emperor Sigismund called for a council to meet in Constance to settle the schism in order to unify the Holy Roman Empire in face of the Turkish threat (see Baum 1993 and Brandmüller 1991–1997). Franzen 1965 examines some of the historiographical issues related to the Council of Constance, which was one of the largest and most controversial councils in the history of the Catholic Church. It appears that Hus expected an academic debate on church dogma, but instead he was arrested and tried for heresy. After interviewing Hus, the accusations against him were substantively revised so that he would not be condemned for positions he did not hold, but his arrest and trial remain controversial subjects. Seibt 1993 examines the debates about Hus and the Council of Constance that have raged among historians. Some of the cardinals who condemned Hus were themselves reformers who hoped to circumscribe papal power as Hlaváĉ and Patschovsky 1996 demonstrate.

Baum, Wilhelm. Kaiser Sigismund: Hus, Konstanz und Türkenkriege. Graz, Austria: Stzria, 1993.
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A useful investigation into the reign of Emperor Sigismund with a particular focus on his role in the Council of Constance and why he consented to the execution of Hus despite his guarantee of “safe passage” to the council.
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Brandmüller, Walter. Das Konzil von Konstanz 1414–1418. 2 vols. Paderborn, Germany: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1991–1997.
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One of the most exhaustive presentations of the council, which places the Hus’s condemnation in the larger context of the council’s attempt to heal divisions in the church and face the threat of Turkish invasion.
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Franzen, August. “The Council of Constance: Present State of the Problem.” Translated by Theodore L. Westow. In Concilium: Historical Problems of Church Renewal. Vol. 7. Edited by Roger Aubert and Anton G. Weiler, 29–68. Glen Rock, NJ: Paulist, 1965.
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Discussion of the continuing controversy over the Council of Constance in the era of the Second Vatican Council.
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Hlaváĉ, ivan, and Alexander Patschovsky, eds. Reform vom Kirche und Reich zur Zeit der Konsiliaen von Konstanz (1414–1418) and Basel (1431–1449). Konstanz, Germany: Universitätsverlag, 1996.
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Detailed discussion of the many approaches to the reform of church and state in the 15th century, especially the conciliar movement.
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Seibt, Ferdinand. Jan Hus: Das Konstanzer Gericht im Urteil der Geschichte. Fürth: Flacius Verlag, 1993.
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How historians have viewed Hus’s treatment at the Council of Constance.
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Sources on the Council of Constance and the Trial of Hus

Some of the primary texts related to the Council of Constance have been published in critical editions (Goll 1873–1932), and a few have appeared in English translation (see Loomis 1961 and Tanner 1990). The trial of Hus was one of the most dramatic and important aspects of the council, but it also dealt with such pressing issues as the papal schism. Spinka 1965 examines the history of the council and gives an English translation of Mladoňovice’s sympathetic eyewitness account of Hus’s last days. Less celebrated, but also important for understanding the Hussite revolution, was the trial of Jerome of Prague (see Šmahel 2005) who was executed by the council in 1416.

Fillastre, Guillaume. Gesta concilii Constanciensis. The Council of Constance: The Unification of the Church. New York: Columbia University Press, 1961.
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This is a translation of the Latin account of the acts of the Council of Constance by the Cardinal of the see of St. Mark. It provides an insider’s perspective on the complex negotiations between the cardinals and Emperor Sigismund during the council.
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Goll, Jaroslav. Fontes rerum bohemicarum. 8 vols. Prague, 1873–1932.
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One of the most important collections of Czech historical texts, which includes writings from Hus’s supporters and detractors in Bohemia.
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Loomis, Louise R., ed. The Council of Constance: The Unification of the Church. Records of Civilization, Sources and Studies Series 63. New York: Columbia University Press, 1961.
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This includes English translations of three important accounts of the Council of the Constance by participants in the council.
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Šmahel, František. “The Acta of the Constance Trial of Master Jerome of Prague.” In Text and Controversy from Wyclif to Bale: Essays in Honour of Anne Hudson. Edited by Helen Barr and Ann M. Hutchinson, 323–334. Turnhout, Begium: Brepols, 2005.
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Though less celebrated than Hus’s trial, the trial of Jerome of Prague on similar charges by the Council of Constance merits consideration. The Hussites viewed Jerome as a witness to the truth who was also unfairly condemned.
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Spinka, Matthew. John Hus at the Council of Constance. New York: Columbia University Press, 1965.
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This is an English translation of Petr Mladoňovice’s eyewitness account of Hus’s trial. It includes helpful scholarly material, including a discussion of the charges brought against Hus by the council.
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Tanner, Norman P., ed. Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils. 2 vols. London: Sheed and Ward, 1990.
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Provides English translations of the official statements of the church councils, including Constance.
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Hus and the Hussite Revolution, 1415–1434

For centuries the scholarly interest in Hus focused primarily on his reform efforts and conflict with the church, but what happened after his death may be the most important of his story. Modern research has made it clear that Hus’s role in the political revolution was primarily as a catalyst and symbol. Had he not been executed by the Council of Constance, there might not have been a rebellion in 1419. Compared to the Protestant reformers of the 16th century, Hus was both political and theologically conservative, but Hussite theology and political theory grew more radical in the years immediately after his condemnation. The history of the Czech Reformation and Hussite revolution is examined in more detail in a separate bibliography, but some of the most important studies are included here. The Czech rebels are generally called “Hussites” because they were in some way followers of Hus; but they quickly split into two main camps after Hus’s death. The Utraquists were closest to the program of Hus, whom they viewed as a saint and theological authority. They tried to reach an agreement with the papacy, but the Taborites were much more radical and violent than Hus. The Taborites have attracted the most interest by modern historians.

Histories of the Revolution

The Hussite Revolution was a complex and bloody affair. It has attracted a lot of interest from political and military historians because the Hussites in Bohemia defeated five crusades launched against them. Despite its age, Kaminsky 1967 remains one of the most balanced treatments of the Hussite revolution that examines the complex relationships of the various Hussite factions and demonstrates the role that philosophical and religious ideas played in the revolt. Kaminsky 1966 examines in detail the events leading to the defenestration of Prague, especially the role of the radical priest Zelivsky. Šmahel 2002 is one of the most comprehensive studies of the political, religious, and military dimensions of the revolution and its effect on central Europe. Fudge 1998 is less detailed but is particularly helpful in showing the role that Hus played as symbol for the revolutionaries. Macek 1965 remains one of the better presentations of a Marxist interpretation of the revolution, and Šmahel 1985 examines the question of whether the Hussite revolution was the beginning of a series of European revolutions in the modern period or a medieval anomaly that had little impact on the modern era. Pauly and Reinert 2006 examines the troubled reign of Emperor Sigismund whose coronation as King of Bohemia precipitated the Hussite wars. Klassen 1978 shows how some of the Bohemian nobility used the revolution to reduce the power of the monarch and increase their authority over their subjects. By the end of the Hussite wars, the peasants in Bohemia had lost power and status.

Fudge, Thomas. The Magnificent Ride: The First Reformation in Hussite Bohemia. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998.
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This is one of the best studies in English of the early period of the Czech reformation. Fudge shows that Hus’s role as a symbol was more important than his specific theological ideas.
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Kaminsky, Howard. “The Prague Insurrection of 30 July 1419.” Mediaevalia et Humanistica 17 (1966): 106–126.
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A detailed examination of the events that culminated in the first defenestration of Prague, which launched the violence of the revolution.
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Kaminsky, Howard. A History of the Hussite Revolution. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967.
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This remains the most comprehensive and even-handed treatment of the complex history of the Hussite revolution and Czech reformation. Kaminsky is particularly helpful in explaining the differences between Hus’s theology and that of the radicals in the movement.
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Kejř, Jiří. The Hussite Revolution. Translated by Till Gottheinerová. Prague: Orbis, 1988.
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A good history of the entire Hussite revolution, but the focus is on the period after the death of Hus.
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Klassen, John. The Nobility and the Making of the Hussite Revolution. New York: Columbia University Press, 1978.
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Klassen investigates the privotal role played by the Czech nobility in the Hussite revolution and how they used religious reform to increase their authority in their own domains.
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Macek, Josef. The Hussite Movement in Bohemia. Translated by Vilèm Fried and Ian Milner. Prague: Orbis, 1965.
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Macek analyzes the Hussite movement from a Marxist perspective. The Hussite nobility and upper classes tended to support the limited reforms of the Utraquists, while the lower classes, including many clerics, pushed for radical social reform that included the Communist experiment of Tabor.
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Pauly, Michel, and François Reinert, eds. Sigismund von Luxemburg: Ein Kaiser in Europa. Mainz, Germany: Philipp von Zabern Verlag, 2006.
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A collection of articles exploring different aspects of the reign of Emperor Sigismund who was unsuccessful in his attempt to stop the Hussite movement.
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Šmahel, František. La revolution Hussite, une anomalie historique. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1985.
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A collection of some of Šmahel’s most important essays on Hus and his followers.
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Šmahel, František. Die Hussitische Revolution. 3 vols. Hannover, Germany: Hahnische Buchhandlung, 2002.
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Essentially the German version of Husitiská revoluce, which is a study of the Hussite revolution from one of the preeminent Czech historians of the 20th century. Šmahel notes Hus’s increasing radicalism in his call to restructure society according to the teachings of Christ and the importance of Hus’s “exile” in southern Bohemia for the rise of the Taborites in 1419.
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Relationship of Hus’s Theology to Political Reform and Revolution

Theology had political implications in the early modern period, and that was particularly true during the Czech Reformation. Reform of church finances and canon law were closely connected to economic and judicial reform generally; therefore heresy could be a potent form of political rebellion, as Kalivoda 1976 and Fridenthal 1972 argue. Kejř 1987 examines how Hus addressed legal issues, including capital punishment. But as Fudge 1995 shows, it has been difficult to determine just what role Hus’s own rather conservative theology played in the revolution that broke out in 1419. Kaminsky 1963 explores the revolutionary implications of Wyclif’s theology, which played a key role in Hus’s preaching. Šmahel 1994 demonstrates a connection between literacy among the commoners and rebellion, while Royt 2005 examines the role that artwork played in translating reform ideology into populist rebellion. It has been helpful to contrast the Hussite revolution with the failed Lollard movement in England, which was inspired in part by Wyclif’s writings (see Hudson 1988). Šmahel 1999 argues that the Czech Reformation ultimately failed because social conditions were not right.

Fridenthal, Richard. Ketzer und Rebell. Jan Hus und das Jahrhundert der Revolutionskriege. Munich: R. Piper-Verlag, 1972.
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Presents Hus as a rebel against church authority and the instigator of the first revolution in Europe.
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Fudge, Thomas. “The Night of the Antichrist: Popular Culture, Judgment and Revolution in Fifteenth-Century Bohemia.” Communio Viatorum 37 (1995): 33–45.
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Fudge looks at how the preaching of a scholastic theologian was transformed into a popular uprising against the papacy through popular culture and devotion to “Saint Jan Hus.”
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Hudson, Anne. ‪The Premature Reformation: ‪Wycliffite Texts and Lollard History. Oxford: Clarendon, 1988.
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This is one of the most comprehensive studies of the Lollard movement in England in the late 14th century that was quickly and brutally suppressed. Hudson examines the role that Wyclif’s ideas played in the Lollard rebellion.
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Kalivoda, Robert. Revolution und Ideologie: Der Hussitismus. Translated by Heide Thorwart. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 1976.
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A German translation of Husitská ideologies (Prague: Československá akademie věd, 1961). Kalivoda interprets the Czech Reformation as an early form of Marxist revolution and shows how the theological debates were also debates about social and economic issues.
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Kaminsky, Howard. “Wyclifism as Ideology of Revolution.” Church History 32 (1963): 57–74.
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Wyclif asserted that God grants people authority to rule only in so far as they rule according to God’s laws; therefore, corrupt officials lose their right to govern. Kaminsky shows that this idea could be the basis for political revolution as well as church reform.
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Kejř, Jiří. “Johannes Hus als Rechtsdenker.” In Hussitenstudien: Personen, Ereignisse, Ideen einer frühen Revolution. Edited by F. Seibt. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1987.
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An examination of Hus’s approach to legal questions.
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Royt, Jan. “The Hussite Revolution and Sacred Art.” In Prague: The Crown of Bohemia, 1347–1437. Edited by Barbara Drake Boehm and Jiří Fajt, 112–119. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.
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Examines the role that visual representations played in the dissemination of reform in Bohemia.
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Šmahel, František. “Literacy and Heresy in Hussite Bohemia.” In Heresy and Literacy, 1000–1530. Edited by Peter Biller and Anne Hudson, 237–254. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
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The spread of literacy in Prague and Bohemia meant that radical ideas could be disseminated more quickly than previously, which helps to account for the rapid transition of the Hussite movement from religious reform to political rebellion.
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Šmahel, František. “Causa non grata: Premature Reformation in Hussite Bohemia.” In Christianity in East Central Europe, Late Middle Ages: Proceedings of the Commission internationale d’histoire ecclésiastique comparée, Lublin, 1996. Edited by Pavel Kras and Wojciech Polak, 224–231. Lubin, Poland: Institut Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, 1999.
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If one takes the German and Swiss reformations of the 16th century as the standard of Protestantism and Reformation, then the Czech Reformation appears to have been premature and incomplete because the social conditions were not ripe for revolution.
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English Influences on Hus and the University of Prague

After Anne of Bohemia became Queen of England in 1381 Czechs began studying at the University of Oxford where they copied the philosophical and theological works of John Wyclif (see Molnár 1953). Hus and his close colleagues at the University of Prague drew heavily on Wyclif’s writings the in their criticism of the medieval church (see Betts 1969b and Šmahel 1970). Hus’s most important work, De ecclesia, is taken primarily from Wyclif’s work of the same name (see Benrath 1965). The initial list of “heresies” brought against Hus was primarily taken from Wyclif’s writings, but as Leff 1967–1968 demonstrates there were significant differences between Hus and Wyclif, particularly in terms of the sacraments. Walsh 1987, Herold 1998, and Holeton 1989 show that Hus was more selective in his application of Wyclif than some of his colleagues at the University of Prague.

Benrath, Gustav. “Wyclif und Hus.” Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche 62 (1965): 196–216.
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Addresses Hus’s appropriation of Wyclif’s theology and philosophy in the service of church reform in Bohemia.
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Betts, Reginald Robert. “The Influence of Realist Philosophy on Jan Hus and His Predecessors in Bohemia.” Essays in Czech History (1969a): 42–62.
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Originally published in Slavonic and East European Review 29.73 (June 1951): 402–419.
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Betts, Reginald Robert. “English and Czech Influences on the Hussite Movement.” Essays in Czech History (1969b): 132–159.
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Betts tries to sort out the role of English scholars, including Wyclif and Peter Payne, in the Hussite movement.
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Herold, Vilém. “How Wyclifite was the Bohemian Reformation?” In The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. Vol. 2. Edited by Zdeněk David and David R. Holeton, 23–37. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 1998.
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Demonstrates how Czech reformers selectively appropriated aspects of Wyclif’s thought.
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Holeton, David R. “Wyclif’s Bohemian Fate.” Communio viatorum 32 (1989): 209–222.
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Examines the controversy over Wyclif’s writings that had been brought to Prague by Jerome of Prague.
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Leff, Gordon. “Wycliff and Hus: A Doctrinal Comparison.” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 50 (1967–1968): 387–410.
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Leff contrasts the theology of Wyclif and Hus, demonstrating that Hus was consistently more in line with orthodox Catholic doctrine than Wyclif, which highlights the irony their different fates. Reprinted in Anthony Kenny, Wyclif in his Times (Oxford: Clarendon, 1986).
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Molnár, Enrico Selly. “Anglo-Czech Reformation Contacts.” PhD diss., Iliff School of Theology, 1953.
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An examination of the communication between English and Czech reformers from the time of Anne of Bohemia to the Reformation.
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Šmahel, František. “‘Doctor vangelicus super omnes evangelistas’: Wyclif’s Fortune in Hussite Bohemia.” Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 43 (1970): 16–34.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.1970.tb01646.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
An investigation into the controversy over Wyclif in Prague in the early 15th century with special attention to the condemnation of several of Wyclif’s ideas.
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Walsh, Katherine. “Wyclif’s Legacy in Central Europe in the Late Fourteenth and Early Fifteenth Centuries.” Studies in Church History Subsidia 5 (1987): 397–417.
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Walsh looks at the different ways in which Prague scholars and reformers, including Hus, responded to the philosophy and theology of Wyclif.
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Hus as a Church Reformer

Although much of the 20th-century scholarship on Hus focused on political and economic matters, Hus viewed himself primarily as a pastor, preacher, and theologian. Czech theologians in the 20th century, such as Molnár 1980 (cited under Hus the Preacher and Pastor), proposed that Hus was part of a “first reformation” that included the Waldensians and Anabaptists who sought to reform the church by lifting up the Sermon on the Mount as the standard for orthopraxy. The “second reformation” of Luther and Calvin, in contrast, focused on issues related to orthodoxy. Hus was a product of the Czech Reformation that emphasized the value of translating the Bible and liturgy into modern languages. Not surprisingly, much of the research on Hus’s theology and philosophy has focused on his understanding of the nature of the church and church authority, especially his criticism of papal supremacy. Much of the research on Hus has focused on his appropriation of Wyclif’s theology, and it has been shown in de Vooght 1960 (cited under Hus the Preacher and Pastor) and others that he rejected Wyclif’s more overtly heretical ideas particularly in relationship to the sacraments. Hus’s theology is also addressed in works listed elsewhere in this article, most notably Molnár 1973 (cited under Modern Biographies), Vooght 1960 (cited under Bohemia), and Spinka 1966 (cited under English Translations of Original Sources).

Hus the Preacher and Pastor

Hus preached thousands of sermons in Czech, most of which focused more on personal spirituality and morality than political and economic reform. His sermons were used as preaching guides for generation of Czech Protestant preachers (see Vidmanová 1976). Hus also published several works explaining Christian doctrine to lay persons, which Crews 1975 examines in detail. These also served as theological textbooks for Czech students. For the most part his pastoral work remained within the framework of medieval Catholicism, but Werner 1989 argues that his understanding of the word of God and the Eucharist were formative for the development of Protestantism. Hus has been credited with many things commonly associated with Protestantism, including the lay chalice and use of the vernacular in worship; but according to Atwood 2009 his contribution to the history of Protestantism has been overstated. It was one of his students, Jacobellus de Stříbro, who reintroduced the practice of allowing lay persons to drink from the chalice in the mass (see Molnár 1963 and de Vooght 1972).

Atwood, Craig D. The Theology of the Czech Brethren from Hus to Comenius. University Park: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.
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Primarily a study of the theology of the Unity of the Brethren, but it includes a chapter on Hus and his influence on Czech Protestant theology.
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Crews, C. Daniel. “The Theology of John Hus with Special Reference to His Concepts of Salvation.” PhD diss., University of Manchester, 1975.
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Although difficult to obtain, this is a very useful examination of Hus’s pastoral theology that draws heaving on his exposition of the creeds.
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de Vooght, Paul. Hussiana. Leuven, Belgium: Publications universitaires de Louvain, 1960.
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A companion to the author’s L’Heresie de Jean Huss that includes specialized studies of various aspects of Hus’s ecclesiology and sacramental theology.
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de Vooght, Paul. Jacobellus de Stříbro (ł1429), premier théologien du hussitisme. Leuven, Belgium: Publications universitaires de Louvain, 1972.
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One of the few studies on the theology Hus’s student and successor. In addition to a comparison of the theologies of Hus and Jacobellus, there is a very helpful chapter on the origin of communion “in both kinds” among the Hussites after Hus’s arrest.
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Molnár, Amedeo. “L’évolution de la theologies hussite.” Revue d’histoire et de Philosophie Religieuses 43 (1963): 133–171.
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Molnár examines the development of Czech theology in the 15th century, especially after the death of Hus. Hus’s followers developed his thought in directions that he probably would have been uncomfortable with.
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Molnár, Amedeo. Die Waldenser: Geschichte und europäisches Ausmaß einer Ketzerbewegung. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1980.
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Distinguishes between a “First Reformation” that was focused on reform of church and society based primarily on the Sermon of the Mount and “Second Reformation” that was focused primarily on doctrine. The Waldensians, Hussites, and Anabaptists were part of the first reformation, while the Lutherans, Reformed, and Anglicans represented the second reformation.
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Vidmanová, Anežka. “Hus als Prediger.” Communio viatorum 19 (1976): 65–81.
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During his lifetime Hus was primarily known as a popular and challenging preacher, but this is one of the few articles that examines the content of his sermons.
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Werner, Ernst. “Wort und Sakrament im Identitätsbewusstein des tschechischen Frühreformators Jan Hus (um 1370–1415).” Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, Gesellschaftswissenschaften 13 (1989): 3–26.
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An examination of Hus’s understanding of the Bible, preaching, and the seven sacraments as formative in Christian life.
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Hus’s Ecclesiology and Eschatology

Most of the accusations brought against Hus at the Council of Constance involved ecclesiology (see Patschovsky 1989). Hus was strongly influenced by Wyclif’s idea that the true church is made up of the totality of the predestined, which is to be distinguished from the institutional church visible on earth. As de Vooght 1946 has shown, Hus used Augustine as an authority and consistently denied he was a Donatist, but he did object to the idea that the worthiness of the priest does not affect the efficacy of the sacraments (see Comi 2007). The Czech Reformation generally and Hus in specific believed that the struggle for reform of the church was part of an apocalyptic struggle against the antichrist. Dolejšová 2002 and Molnár 1956 look at how Hus’s theology laid the foundation for the Czech Reformation’s focus on orthopraxy. Mann 2000 and Patapios 2002 investigate Hus’s Eucharistic theology, with particular attention to issue of the lay chalice in the Czech Reformation.

Comi, Armando. Verità e Anticristo: L’eresia de Jan Hus. Bologna, Italy: Pendragon, 2007.
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An Italian study of Hus’s De ecclesia that builds on the earlier work of Amedeo Molnár. Comi gives particular attention to the role that the idea of the antichrist played in Hus’s thought in the context of the papal schism.
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de Vooght, Paul. “La part de saint Augustin dans le De Ecclesia de Jean Huss.” Recherches de Théolgie ancienne et medievale 13 (1946): 304–336.
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An investigation into Hus’s use of Augustine as an authority in his treatise “On the Church.”
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Dolejšová, Ivana. “Eschatological Elements in Hus’s Understanding of Orthopraxis.” In The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. Vol. 4. Edited by Zdeněk David and David R. Holeton, 127–142. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 2002.
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Hus made creative use of Christian apocalypticism to preach that the coming of God’s Kingdom is a result of Christians following the way of Christ with the law of Christ as the final authority in the church.
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Holeton, David R. “The Bohemian Eucharistic Movement in its European Context.” In The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. Vol. 1. Edited by Zdeněk David and David R. Holeton, 23–47. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 1996.
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Examines the important role that the Eucharist played in the Czech reform movement and how Eucharistic understanding developed over time. It was seen as a weapon against the antichrist and soon became a form of popular revolt against canon law.
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Mann, Olivier. “Hus et l’eucharistie: Notes sur la critique Hussite de la Stella clericorum.” In The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. Vol. 3. Edited by David Zdeněk and David R. Holeton, 49–62. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 2000.
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Hus was charged with teaching the heresy of remanance, which was promoted by Wyclif, but he actually taught the orthodox doctrine of transubstantiation. However, he did question the teaching that the worthiness of the priest is unimportant.
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Molnár, Amedeo. “Eschatologická naděje české reformace.” In Od reformace k zitřku. Edited by J. B. Souček, 13–101. Prague: Kalich, 1956.
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An important examination of the role that eschatology played in the Czech reform movement, particularly the figure of the antichrist as a symbol of corruption in the church.
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Patapios, Hieromonk. “Sub utruque specie: The Arguments of John Hus and Jacoubek of Stříbro in Defence of Giving Communion to the Laity under Both Kinds.” Journal of Theological Studies 53 (2002): 503–522.
DOI: 10.1093/jts/53.2.503Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Patapios investigates the origin of the lay chalice in the Czech Reformation, demonstrating that Jacoubek developed Hus’s line of thinking beyond what Hus had envisioned. Though Hus had not advocated for the lay chalice, the Council of Constance condemned the practice around the time it condemned Hus.
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Patschovsky, Alexander. “Ekklesiologie bei Johannes Hus.” In Lebenslehren und Weltentwürfe im Übergang vom Mittelalter zur Neuzeit. Politik—Bildung—Naturkunde—Theologie. Edited by Hartmut Boockmann, Bernd Möller, and Karl Stackmann, 370–399. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1989.
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An examination of Hus’s view of the church as the body of the predestined.
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Reception

Hus is one of the rare figures in European history who remained a vibrant and influential symbol for centuries after his death. There is a rich and controversial history of publication on the meaning of Hus in different time periods and widely varied contexts. Mussolini and Havel claimed Hus as a forebear for their radically different revolutions, and July 6 is a recognized saints’ day in Anglican, Lutheran, and Moravian churches.

Early Modern Period

As Herkommer 1981 and Holeton 1987 have demonstrated Hus was proclaimed a saint and martyr by many of the nobles and common people of Bohemia soon after his execution. The National Church of Bohemia declared July 6 a festival day, and the image of Hus in the flames became a common iconographic motif (see Fudge 2009). The theology of the Utraquist Church was strongly influenced by Hus’s writings, but the more radical Hussites believed that Hus’s courage in face of persecution was more important than his theology. A century after his death, Hus continued to function as a symbol of righteous revolt and saintliness (see Kubíková 2002). In the early days of the Protestant Reformation Martin Luther was sometimes referred to as the “Saxon Hus,” and Protestant polemics presented Hus as a “witness to the truth” and forerunner of Luther (see Haberkern 2009a). Catholic writers presented Hus as a heresiarch and pointed to the Hussite revolution as proof that heresy leads to social turmoil. Sedlo 1943 argues that Hus’s work played a key role in the German Reformation, but by the middle of the 16th century there was little interest in Hus’s actual writings and theology, only interest in his role as martyr.

Fudge, Thomas. “Picturing the Death and Life of Jan Hus in the Iconography of Early Modern Europe.” Kosmas: Czechoslovak and Central European Journal 23 (2009): 1–18.
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One of the most important ways that Catholics and Protestants communicated their competing interpretations of Hus as heretic or martyr was through images that often bore little resemblance to historical reality.
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Haberkern, Philip. “After Me There Will Come Braver Men”: Jan Hus and Reformation Polemics in the 1530s.” German History 27 (2009a): 177–195.
DOI: 10.1093/gerhis/ghp001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
How Protestants used the story of Hus’s execution in their criticism of the Catholic Church.
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Haberkern, Philip. “The Presence of the Past: History, Memory, and the Making of St. Jan Hus.” PhD diss., University of Virginia, 2009b.
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A detailed examination of how Hus was used as a symbol of faithful witness to the Gospel in the face of religious persecution.
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Herkommer, Hubert. “Die Geschichte vom Leiden und Sterben des Jan Hus als Ereignis und Erzählung.” In Literature und Laienbildung im Spätmittelalter und in der Reformationszeit. Edited by Ludge Grenzmann and Karl Stackmann, 114–116. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1981.
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How Hus was used in Protestant martyrology.
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Holeton, David R. “‘O Felix Constantia’: The Liturgical Celebration of Saint Jan Hus.” In Hussitenstudien: Personen, Ereignisse, Ideen einer frühen Revolution. Edited by Ferdinand Seibt, 385–403. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1987.
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Drawing on recently discovered liturgical texts celebrating July 6 as the saint day of Jan Hus, Holeton shows how a condemned heretic was made into a Czech saint.
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Holeton, David R. “The Celebration of Jan Hus in the Life of the Churches.” Studia Liturgica 35 (2005): 32–59.
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How various Protestant churches adopted Hus into the catalogue of saints.
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Kubíková, Milena. “The Heretic’s Cap of Hus.” In The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. Vol. 4. Edited by Zdeněk, David and David R. Holeton, 143–150. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 2002.
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The cap that the church used to identify heretics prior to their execution (paper miter with three devils) paradoxically became a symbol of the saintliness of Hus in Czech iconography in the 15th century.
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Sedlo, J. “The Influence of John Hus on Europe to the Time of the Reformation, with Special Reference to Central and Eastern Europe.” PhD diss., University of Edinburgh, 1943.
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An older but still useful examination of Hus’s impact on European thought and politics prior to the Reformation.
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Symbol of Nationalism in Modern Period

Michelis 1988 discusses how Hus became a particularly potent hero for Czech nationalists in the 19th century because he resisted German dominance in Bohemia and was executed on the orders of the German emperor. Morée 2002 examines the role that nationalism played in the controversy between two of the great Bohemian historians of the 19th century, Constantin Höfler and František Palacký. Höfler argued that Hus and his followers represented the threat that Slavs posed to Germany, while Palacký hoped that modern Czechs could fulfill the work begun by Hus. Masaryk 1895 highlighted the importance of Hus as a creator of Czech culture through his moral courage and standardizing of Czech as a written language. In the 20th century nationalists in other countries, most notably the fascists in Italy (see Helan 2002), looked to Hus as a model of a national hero who opposed the church and empire. Mussolini 1929 and Mussolini 2006 used the biography of Hus as inspiration for Italian nationalism. Abrams 2004 and Moreé 2007 argue that eastern European Communists, in contrast, looked to Hus and his more radical followers as proto-Communists who promoted social justice for the poor. They argued that Communism was native to Slavic countries. Ironically, perhaps, in the 1960s anti-Soviet Czech nationalists adopted Hus as a symbol of liberal resistance to totalitarianism. During the “Prague Spring” in the late 1960s a Czech student even immolated himself in front of the Hus monument as a protest against Soviet domination. Hus remains a potent symbol for the modern Czech Republic.

Abrams, Bradley F. The Struggle for the Soul of the Nation: Czech Culture and the Rise of Communism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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Includes an analysis of how Communists successfully convinced the public that they were part of the Hussite heritage.
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Helan, Pavel. “Mussolini Looks at Jan Hus and the Bohemian Reformation.” In The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. Vol. 4, Edited by Zdeněk David and David R. Holeton, 309–316. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 2002.
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An examination of how Italian fascists used Hus as a symbol of nationalistic revolt against the church.
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Masaryk, Tomás G. Česká otázka. Prague, 1895.
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This classic of Czech nationalism by the eventual founder of Czechoslovakia presents Hus as a Czech national hero and identifies the Czech Reformation as the high point of Czech culture.
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Michelis, Laura Ronchi de. “Hus et le movement Hussite de la condemnation de l’hérésie à sa reevaluation slave au milieu du XIX siècle.” Cahiers du Monde russe et soviètique 29 (1988): 323–336.
DOI: 10.3406/cmr.1988.2151Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
An examination of how the condemnation of Hus was interpreted in Slavic countries during the rise of nationalism in the 19th century.
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Morée, Peter C. “Jan Hus as Threat to the German Future in Central Europe: The Bohemian Reformer in the Controversy Between Constantin Höfler and František Palacký.” In The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. Vol. 4, Edited by Zdeněk David and David R. Holeton, 295–308. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 2002.
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During the rise of Czech nationalism in the 19th century, the fate of Germans living in Bohemia was much debated, especially among historians.
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Morée, Peter C. “Not Preaching from the Pulpit, but Marching in the Streets: The Communist Use of Jan Hus.” In The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. Vol. 6, Edited by Zdeněk David and David R. Holeton, 283–296. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 2007.
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Part of the long history of the reception of Hus was the way he functioned as a symbol of political and social radicalism for eastern European Communists in the 20th century.
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Mussolini, Benito. John Huss. Translated by Clifford S. Parker. New York: A. and C. Boni, 1929.
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One of two English translations of Mussolini’s biography of Hus.
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Mussolini, Benito. Giovanni Hus: Il Veridico. Turin, Italy: Arktos, 2006.
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Of interest primarily for what it tells us about the reception of Hus by 20th century nationalists and fascists. Originally published in 1913.
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Continuing Controversy

In recent years critical scholarship has examined the way in which the real-life professor in Prague has been overshadowed by the myth created by his followers. Herold 2001 provides a survey of the many different ways succeeding generations understood Hus either as a saint or heresiarch. Świeźawski 1994 shows that Protestants and Catholics still view Hus differently. In the early 1960s the Second Vatican Council allowed practices, such as vernacular worship and the lay chalice, which Hus and his followers had advocated for over five hundred years. Mols 1961 was one of the most eloquent voices calling for the rehabilitation of Hus’s reputation in the early 1960s, and the relationship of Hus’s theology to the reforms of the Second Vatican Council was still being discussed in the 1980s (see Świeźawski 1986). The election of the first Slavic pope (John Paul II) in 1979 brought new attention to the history of Catholicism in eastern Europe, and Czech bishops asked the Vatican to reexamine Hus’s writings and the records of his trial to determine if he should still be considered a heretic (see Holeček 1998). Although John Paul II apologized for the treatment of Hus and his execution (see Address of the Holy Father to an International Symposium on John Hus), his conviction was not overturned. The year 2015 will mark the 600th anniversary of the execution of Hus, but the question of whether he should be understood as a theologian, pastor, religious reformer, martyr, heretic, political revolutionary, or Czech national hero remains unresolved.

Address of the Holy Father to an International Symposium on John Hus, 17 December 1999.
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Pope John Paul II asked that the case of Jan Hus be reexamined by church officials in the 1990s using all of the tools of modern historiography. In this speech he apologized to the Czech people for the manner of Hus’s execution but did not remove the stigma of his condemnation as a heretic.
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Herold, Vilém. “Jan Hus: A Heretic, a Saint, or a Reformer?” Kosmas: Czechoslovak and Central European Journal 1 (2001): 1–15.
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Examines the competing images of Hus through history.
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Holeček, František J. “The Problems of the Person, the Life and the Work of Jan Hus: The Signficance and Task of a Commission of Czech Bishops’ Conference.” In The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice. Vol. 2. Edited by Zdeněk David and David R. Holeton, 39–47. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 1998.
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At the request of Pope John Paul II Catholic officials in the 1990s reexamined the case of Jan Hus, using the best modern scholarship to see if his condemnation should be removed.
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Mols, Roger. “Réhabilitation de Jean Hus?” Nouvelle revue théologique 83 (1961): 960–966.
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An examination of the case for removing the condemnation of Hus as part of the general reform of Catholicism in the early 1960s.
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Świeźawski, Stefan. “John Huss: Heretic or Precursor of Vatican II?” Translated by Richard T. Davies. Religion in Communist Dominated Areas 25 (1986): 148–152, 166.
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A testament to the continuing relevance of Hus in Catholic discussions of church reform.
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Świeźawski, Stefan. “Jan Hus: A Heretic or a Saint?” Translated by Alexandra Moravec. Religion in Eastern Europe 14 (1994): 36–42.
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A review of the two opposing interpretations of Hus in Catholic and Protestant scholarship.