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Medicine (Renaissance and Reformation)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Medicine in Renaissance and Reformation Europe was a study in both continuity and change. Overall, the medical landscape was a complex web that incorporated both elite university medicine and a wide-ranging array of vernacular healing traditions, all of which competed with and influenced each other. By the early 16th century, broader trends in Renaissance culture, particularly humanism, had begun to affect university-based medical learning. The humanist scrutiny of classical texts helped lead to a number of changes, including some attempts to amend the knowledge of the ancients; a gradual increase in the perceived value of empirical investigations of the natural world; and the founding of new faculties of anatomy and botany at many universities. At the same time, classical authors such as Galen, Hippocrates, and Aristotle as well as medieval Arabic writers such as Avicenna remained important authorities through the 17th century. This environment produced the likes of Andreas Vesalius, Conrad Gessner, and William Harvey, all of whom combined a mixture of old ideas and new advancements. Meanwhile, an entirely new medical theory based on alchemical principles, led most prominently by the Swiss doctor Paracelsus, presented a challenge to Galenic learned medicine from outside the universities and became particularly popular at the princely courts of Europe. Throughout the period, however, university-trained physicians represented only a small proportion of healers. Far more populous were surgeons, barbers, apothecaries, midwives, and a wide variety of unlicensed healers. Although physicians increasingly attempted to bring the licensing of other practitioners under their control, the broader healing landscape remained essentially unchanged. Patients had a wide variety of healers to choose from, and healers had diverse approaches. Religious and magical forms of healing remained inexorably intertwined with naturalistic remedies, and this balance remained unchanged after the Protestant Reformation, despite changing ideas toward appropriate forms of religious healing. In many cases, the household remained the first recourse in times of illness, and women healers provided important functions in many areas of medicine. At the same time, the rapid urbanization that took place in the Renaissance led to an increased need for public health measures as well as poor relief. Individuals and towns struggled with recurrent bouts of epidemic disease throughout the time period, both acute diseases such as plague and chronic ailments like the French Disease. The latter was believed to come from the New World and represented one of the many effects that the discovery of the new continent had on medicine. An interest in finding new medicinal plants meant that medicine played an active role in commerce, global trade, and colonialism, while a rise in literacy and the invention of the printing press helped increase access to texts, both printed and manuscript. This combination of dynamic change and traditional healing structures makes the Renaissance and Reformation a complex and fascinating epoch in the history of medicine.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. Siraisi 1990 provides a nuanced overview of early Renaissance medicine and is particularly useful for learned medicine. The more recent overviews Lindemann 2010 and Elmer 2004 examine broader questions of medicine, health, and illness in society. All three works can be used as introductory textbooks at the undergraduate and graduate level, and the last can be paired with the source book Elmer and Grell 2004. The essays in Conrad, et al. 1995 are extensive studies, while Park 1997 and Cook 2006 give shorter overviews. Porter 1997 is a general overview of the entire history of medicine for the nonspecialist. Brockliss and Jones 1997 focuses specifically on France, but it is a comprehensive and in-depth study useful to anyone interested in Renaissance medicine.
  8.  
  9. Brockliss, Lawrence, and Colin Jones. The Medical World of Early Modern France. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
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  11. An extensive study of French medicine from the 16th through the 18th centuries. Examines cultural and intellectual trends and their place within the wider social arena. Discourages thinking of popular and learned medicine as separate entities.
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  13. Conrad, Lawrence I., Michael Neve, Vivian Nutton, Roy Porter, and Andrew Wear. The Western Medical Tradition, 800 BC to AD 1800. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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  15. Contains introductory essays spanning the period covered by the book. Of particular note are the essays by Vivian Nutton, “Medicine in Medieval Western Europe, 1000–1500” (pp. 139–206) and Andrew Wear, “Medicine in Early Modern Europe, 1500–1700” (pp. 215–362).
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  17. Cook, Harold J. “Medicine.” In The Cambridge History of Science, Vol. 3, Early Modern Science. Edited by Katharine Park and Lorraine Daston, 407–434. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  18. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521572446Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19. Overview of learned medicine in the 16th and 17th centuries.
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  21. Elmer, Peter, ed. The Healing Arts: Health, Disease, and Society in Europe, 1500–1800. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2004.
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  23. A collection of topical essays that provides a cumulative overview of the history of medicine in this time period. Examines both intellectual and cultural trends as well as social context. Intended to be used as a textbook, it can be paired with Elmer and Grell 2004.
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  25. Elmer, Peter, and Ole Peter Grell, eds. Health, Disease, and Society in Europe, 1500–1800: A Source Book. Manchester, UK: University of Manchester Press, 2004.
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  27. Contains excerpts from both primary and secondary sources covering a broad range of medical topics. Can be used alongside Elmer 2004.
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  29. Lindemann, Mary. Medicine and Society in Early Modern Europe. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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  31. A survey of medicine that can be used very effectively as a textbook. Organized topically rather than chronologically, it examines medicine and its place in the broader intellectual, social, and cultural arena. Originally published in 1999.
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  33. Park, Katharine. “Medicine and the Renaissance.” In Western Medicine: An Illustrated History. Edited by Irvine Loudon, 66–79. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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  35. A brief but excellent overview of medical learning and practice. Focuses particularly on the early Renaissance.
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  37. Porter, Roy. The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present. London: HarperCollins, 1997.
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  39. A broad survey of the overall history of medicine aimed at a popular audience. Chapters 8 and 9 cover the Renaissance and the New Science.
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  41. Siraisi, Nancy. Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
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  43. A detailed survey of medical learning in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance. Can be used effectively as a textbook.
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  45. Collections of Essays
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  47. These works bring together scholarly essays on a variety of topics to present a comprehensive picture of Renaissance and Reformation medicine. Wear, et al. 1985 is a classic work on the Renaissance in learned medicine in the 16th century and is a companion volume to French and Wear 1989 on the 17th century. Webster 1979; French, et al. 1998; de Blécourt and Usborne 2004; Pelling and Mandelbrote 2005; and Leong and Rankin 2011 all cover a broad range of intellectual, social, and cultural themes. Grell and Cunningham 1993 and Marland and Pelling 1996 emphasize the context of religion but also contain essays on other topics.
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  49. de Blécourt, Willem, and Cornelie Usborne, eds. Cultural Approaches to the History of Medicine: Mediating Medicine in Early Modern and Modern Europe. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
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  51. Essays examine the meaning of medicine in a variety of media, including gynecological treatises, almanacs, letters, and medical treatises. Focuses mainly on the 18th century with some essays on earlier periods.
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  53. French, Roger, Jon Arrizabalaga, Andrew Cunningham, and Luis García-Ballester, eds. Medicine from the Black Death to the French Disease. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998.
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  55. A collection of essays on the long 15th century in the history of medicine.
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  57. French, Roger, and Andrew Wear, eds. The Medical Revolution of the Seventeenth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
  58. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511897078Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  59. Essays on the history of medicine from 1630 to 1730. The contributions are situated within the context of 17th-century political, religious, and social change.
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  61. Grell, Ole Peter, and Andrew Cunningham, eds. Medicine and the Reformation. London: Routledge, 1993.
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  63. A collection of essays on various aspects of medicine in Reformation and Counter-Reformation Europe.
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  65. Leong, Elaine, and Alisha Rankin, eds. Secrets and Knowledge in Medicine and Science, 1500–1800. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2011.
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  67. Essays examining a broad range of topics related to the use of secrets and recipes in early modern science and medicine.
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  69. Marland, Hilary, and Margaret Pelling, eds. The Task of Healing: Medicine, Religion, and Gender in England and the Netherlands, 1450–1800. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Erasmus, 1996.
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  71. Essays focus on varied aspects of medicine and healing in northern Europe; several of the essays address questions of professional boundaries and status in the practice of medicine.
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  73. Pelling, Margaret, and Scott Mandelbrote, eds. The Practice of Reform in Health, Medicine, and Science, 1500–2000: Essays for Charles Webster. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
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  75. Eighteen essays by prominent scholars surveying a broad range of topics in the history of medicine. Over half of the essays focus on the 16th and 17th centuries.
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  77. Wear, Andrew, Roger K. French, and I. M. Lonie, eds. The Medical Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
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  79. An influential collection of essays by major scholars on Renaissance learned medicine and the influence of humanism.
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  81. Webster, Charles, ed. Health, Medicine, and Mortality in the Sixteenth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
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  83. Classic collection of essays on a broad range of topics in 16th-century medicine.
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  85. Reference Works
  86.  
  87. Thorndike 1923–1958 is a classic work covering a broad range of topics and is still very useful to the modern historian of medicine. Bynum and Porter 1993 provides the only English-language encyclopedia and contains topically oriented articles by a variety of leading scholars. Gerabek, et al. 2007 provides a comprehensive general overview in German of relevant terms, topics, concepts, and people in the history of medicine. Teyssou 2009 gives short biographies of Renaissance medical personnel in French.
  88.  
  89. Bynum, W. F., and Roy Porter, eds. Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine. 2 vols. London: Routledge, 1993.
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  91. Contains broad topical essays examining the traditions of Western medicine.
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  93. Gerabek, Werner E., Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil, and Wolfgang Wegner, eds. Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. 3 vols. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2007.
  94. DOI: 10.1515/9783110976946Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  95. A comprehensive encyclopedia with short entries on the key people and terms in the history of medicine from antiquity to the present. Organized alphabetically by keyword.
  96. Find this resource:
  97. Teyssou, Roger. Dictionnaire des médecins, chirurgiens et anatomistes de la Renaissance. Paris: Harmattan, 2009.
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  99. Biographical details of Renaissance doctors, surgeons, anatomists, and other medical men (and very occasional women), organized alphabetically. Contains an extensive bibliography.
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  101. Thorndike, Lynn. A History of Magic and Experimental Science. 8 vols. New York: Columbia University Press, 1923–1958.
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  103. A broad survey of occult arts and experimental practices from Roman times through the 17th century. Contains a wealth of information relevant to the history of medicine. Volumes 3 through 8 treat the 14th through the 17th centuries.
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  105. Journals
  106.  
  107. A number of journals specialize in the history of medicine and science. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Medical History, and the Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences cover the history of medicine in all periods but frequently have articles on early modern medicine. The same holds true for Social History of Medicine, which, as its name implies, focuses on social history. Early Science and Medicine is the only journal focusing on the premodern period. Isis and the British Journal for the History of Science are both major history of science journals that occasionally have articles on medicine.
  108.  
  109. British Journal for the History of Science. 1962–.
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  111. The journal of the British Society for the History of Science. Publishes articles on all aspects of the history and philosophy of science, technology, and medicine.
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  113. Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 1939–.
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  115. The journal of the American Association for the History of Medicine. Covers social, cultural, and scientific issues in the history of medicine from all time periods and regions.
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  117. Early Science and Medicine. 1996–.
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  119. Covers the history of science, technology, and medicine from ancient times through the 18th century.
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  121. Isis. 1912–.
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  123. Published by the History of Science Society. Covers the history of science, medicine, and technology in all time periods and regions.
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  125. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 1946–.
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  127. Covers all aspects of the history of medicine, with a focus on practitioners’ actions, teachings, and reception.
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  129. Medical History. 1957–.
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  131. Publishes articles on all aspects of health and related sciences, broadly construed, from all time periods.
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  133. Social History of Medicine. 1970–.
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  135. Published by the Society for the Social History of Medicine. Contains articles on all aspects of health, disease, and treatment, with a particular focus on medicine in society.
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  137. Medical Theories
  138.  
  139. The traditional medical theory taught at the medieval universities, based on the writings of Galen, Aristotle, and Avicenna, faced a direct challenge in the 16th century by the chemical medicine of Paracelsus and his followers. Meanwhile, certain aspects of Galenic medicine were being challenged from within by physicians such as Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey. See also Anatomy and Dissection and Gender and Medicine.
  140.  
  141. Learned Medicine
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  143. Medieval scholastic medicine placed a far greater emphasis on theory than on practice and was based on the writings of the ancients, in particular Galen and Aristotle, as well as the 11th-century Arabic physician Avicenna. Renaissance humanism began to influence medicine beginning in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The primary aim of medical humanists was to clean up translation errors by focusing on Greek and Latin texts, although, as Siraisi 1987 demonstrates, Avicenna also remained an authority. French 2003 gives an excellent introductory overview of learned medicine from the point of view of physicians, while García-Ballester 2002 provides a survey of Galenism, including its fate in the Renaissance. Wear, et al. 1985 is an important collection of essays on nearly every aspect of learned medicine in the 16th century, while Maclean 2002 paints a picture of the diversity of Renaissance learning. Siraisi 2007 looks at learned medicine through the lens of historia, an important and understudied genre. Finally, Siraisi 1997 and French 1994 each use the case of an iconic physician to demonstrate key elements of learned medicine in the 16th and 17th centuries, respectively.
  144.  
  145. French, Roger. William Harvey’s Natural Philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  146. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511628245Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147. A study both of Harvey’s natural philosophy and of the central role of medicine in the new experimental sciences of the 17th century.
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  149. French, Roger. Medicine before Science: The Business of Medicine from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  150. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511614989Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151. An introductory overview of doctors and learned medicine with a focus on the European Latin tradition of natural philosophy.
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  153. García-Ballester, Luis. Galen and Galenism: Theory and Medical Practice from Antiquity to the European Renaissance. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2002.
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  155. A survey of Galen’s theories and their use through the Renaissance.
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  157. Maclean, Ian. Logic, Signs, and Nature in the Renaissance: The Case of Learned Medicine. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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  159. A study of medical thought in Europe from about 1530 to 1630. Argues that learned medicine was a dynamic and diverse field.
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  161. Siraisi, Nancy G. Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987.
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  163. A study of the continued importance of Avicenna despite a new focus on the Greeks inspired by medical humanism.
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  165. Siraisi, Nancy G. The Clock and the Mirror: Girolamo Cardano and Renaissance Medicine. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997.
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  167. A study of the effects of Renaissance learning on medicine using the case of physician Girolamo Cardano.
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  169. Siraisi, Nancy G. History, Medicine, and the Traditions of Renaissance Learning. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007.
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  171. An examination of the genre of historia in medical learning.
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  173. Wear, Andrew, Roger K. French, and I. M. Lonie, eds. The Medical Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
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  175. A collection of essays by leading scholars in the field surveying broad array of topics in learned medicine in the Renaissance. Provides one of the most thorough overviews on medical humanism in its various manifestations.
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  177. Paracelsus and Iatrochemistry
  178.  
  179. Pagel 1982 remains the classic study of Paracelsus’s philosophy, while Debus 1966 and Debus 2002 (originally published in 1977) are foundational studies of Paracelsianism. Webster 2008 is the definitive biography. Although Paracelsus was the most famous proponent of alchemical medicine, the field had a number of diverse followers, as shown in Moran 2004, Williams and Gunnoe 2002, Schott and Zinguer 1998, and Pagel 1986. Moran 1991 is an influential case study of the interest in chemical medicine at the courts of Europe, while Clericuzio 2005 demonstrates that Paracelsus’s influence extended even to the traditionally Galenic Renaissance Italy. See also Astrology and Magic.
  180.  
  181. Clericuzio, Antonio. “Chemical Medicine and Paracelsianism in Italy, 1550–1650.” In The Practice of Reform in Health, Medicine, and Science, 1500–2000: Essays for Charles Webster. Edited by Margaret Pelling and Scott Mandelbrote, 59–80. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
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  183. Counters the idea that Paracelsus had little impact in Italy and argues that Paracelsian ideas played a prominent role in Italian medical thought, especially in regards to physiology.
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  185. Debus, Allen G. The English Paracelsians. New York: F. Watts, 1966.
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  187. A study of the reception of Paracelsus in England.
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  189. Debus, Allen G. The Chemical Philosophy: Paracelsian Science and Medicine in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2002.
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  191. An overview of alchemy, chemical medicine, and Paracelsianism from the precursors to Paracelsus through his successors. Volume 1 proceeds roughly chronologically from antiquity through Robert Fludd; volume 2 examines Van Helmont and 17th-century developments. Both volumes are contained in one book.
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  193. Moran, Bruce T. The Alchemical World of the German Court: Occult Philosophy and Chemical Medicine in the Circle of Moritz of Hessen (1572–1632). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1991.
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  195. A study of the Paracelsian influences at the court of Landgrave Mortiz of Hessen-Kassel, particularly among Moritz and his physicians.
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  197. Moran, Bruce T. Distilling Knowledge: Alchemy, Chemistry, and the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
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  199. A short overview of early modern alchemy aimed at both academic and popular audiences. Contains a great deal of information about alchemical medicine.
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  201. Pagel, Walter. Paracelsus: An Introduction to Philosophical Medicine in the Era of the Renaissance. 2d ed. Basel, Switzerland: Karger, 1982.
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  203. A comprehensive study of Paracelsus’s ideas.
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  205. Pagel, Walter. From Paracelsus to Van Helmont: Studies in Renaissance Medicine and Science. Edited by Marianne Winder. London: Variorum, 1986.
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  207. A collection of essays by Pagel on various topics related to Paracelsus, chemical medicine, and concepts of disease. Includes several essays on Harvey.
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  209. Schott, Heinz, and Ilana Y. Zinguer, eds. Paracelsus und seine internationale Rezeption in der frühen Neuzeit: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Paracelsismus. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1998.
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  211. Essays by leading scholars on Paracelsus and Paracelsianism in German, French, and English.
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  213. Webster, Charles. Paracelsus: Medicine, Magic and Mission at the End of Time. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.
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  215. The definitive biography of Paracelsus, drawing on extensive manuscript research alongside printed works.
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  217. Williams, Gerhild Scholz, and Charles D. Gunnoe, Jr., eds. Paracelsian Moments: Science, Medicine, and Astrology in Early Modern Europe. Kirksville, MO: Truman State University Press, 2002.
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  219. A collection of essays on Paracelsus, his influence, and his time period.
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  221. Healers and Medical Practice
  222.  
  223. Medical practice in Renaissance Europe was characterized by a great multiplicity of practitioners and approaches to healing. Physicians with a university education comprised only a small minority of medical practitioners and, as Park 1985 demonstrates, were very much embedded in the wider community. Doctors were vastly outnumbered by other licensed healers such as surgeons, barbers, apothecaries, midwives, and many unlicensed healers. Jütte 1991 and Gentilcore 1998 give an excellent sense of this varied healing landscape in Germany and Italy, respectively, and the essays in Marland and Pelling 1996 and Wear 2000 reflect similar themes in England and northern Europe. Pelling 2003 demonstrates the increasingly aggressive attempts by learned physicians to regulate this vast array of healers as well as the continued flourishing of unlicensed or “irregular” practitioners. Gentilcore 2006 provides an in-depth study of Italian charlatans, who were licensed healers in early modern Italy, while Eamon 2010 presents an entertaining study of one highly successful 16th-century Italian empiric.
  224.  
  225. Eamon, William. The Professor of Secrets: Mystery, Medicine, and Alchemy in Renaissance Italy. Washington, DC: National Geographic, 2010.
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  227. A study of the Italian healer and empiric Leonardo Fioravanti, who amassed a large clientele with his experientially based medical remedies. Aimed at a broad audience.
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  229. Gentilcore, David. Healers and Healing in Early Modern Italy. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1998.
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  231. Surveys the entire healing landscape of the kingdom of Naples, with an emphasis on the variety of healers and the overlapping spheres of medical, ecclesiastical, and popular healing.
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  233. Gentilcore, David. Medical Charlatanism in Early Modern Italy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
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  235. A study of healers registered as charlatans in Italy, including their remedies and their relationship to physicians and other practitioners.
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  237. Jütte, Robert. Ärtzte, Heiler, und Patienten: Medizinischer Alltag in der frühen Neuzeit. Munich: Artemis & Winkler, 1991.
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  239. A survey of the variety of healers and the practitioner–patient relationship in Renaissance Germany.
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  241. Marland, Hilary, and Margaret Pelling, eds. The Task of Healing: Medicine, Religion, and Gender in England and the Netherlands, 1450–1800. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Erasmus, 1996.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. Essays focus on various aspects of healers, healing, and the burdens of illness.
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  245. Park, Katharine. Doctors and Medicine in Early Renaissance Florence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.
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  247. An in-depth study of physicians and their place in the medical world of Renaissance Florence.
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  249. Pelling, Margaret. Medical Conflicts in Early Modern London: Patronage, Physicians, and Irregular Practitioners, 1550–1640. Oxford: Clarendon, 2003.
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  251. A study of unlicensed practitioners in the record of the Royal College of Physicians in London, which was charged with regulating the medical profession.
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  253. Wear, Andrew. Knowledge and Practice in English Medicine, 1550–1680. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  254. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511612763Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. A broad study of the social and cultural contexts of disease, medical knowledge, and therapeutics in England.
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  257. Patients
  258.  
  259. The focus on patients in the history of medicine is a relatively new historiographical trend, spurred on in large part by Porter 1985a, which called for more studies from the patient’s perspective. Porter 1985b and Beier 1987 represent a direct response to this call. Pomata 1998 and Rankin 2008 demonstrate the key role patients had in directing their medical care. Stolberg 2003 presents a careful study of patients’ experience of illness based on their letters to physicians.
  260.  
  261. Beier, Lucinda McCray. Sufferers and Healers: The Experience of Illness in Seventeenth-Century England. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987.
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  263. A study of illness from the patient’s perspective in Stuart England using materials from diaries, autobiographies, and medical casebooks as well as printed sources.
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  265. Pomata, Gianna. Contracting a Cure: Patients, Healers, and the Law in Early Modern Bologna. Translated by Gianna Pomata, Rosemarie Foy, and Anna Taraboletto-Segre. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
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  267. A study of contractual agreements between physicians and patients as an indication of expectations of healers as well as concepts of the body, disease, and health.
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  269. Porter, Roy. “The Patient’s View: Doing Medical History from Below.” Theory and Society 14.2 (1985a): 175–198.
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  271. Influential article calling for a new attention to the perspective of patients in the history of medicine.
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  273. Porter, Roy, ed. Patients and Practitioners: Lay Perceptions of Medicine in Pre-Industrial Society. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985b.
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  275. A collection of essays on patients, health, and illness from the ancient world to the 18th century. Contributions focus on the 17th and 18th centuries.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Rankin, Alisha. “Duchess, Heal Thyself: Elisabeth of Rochlitz and the Patient’s Perspective in Early Modern Germany.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 82.1 (2008): 109–144.
  278. DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2008.0037Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. A case study of an ailing 16th-century noblewoman and her approach to illness, healing, practitioners, and the body.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Stolberg, Michael. Homo Patiens: Krankheits- und Körpererfahrung in der Frühen Neuzeit. Cologne: Böhlau, 2003.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. A study of patients’ perceptions of illness and the body, based on letters between doctors and patients in Germany and France.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Fields of Medicine
  286.  
  287. Central areas of knowledge and practice in the Renaissance included many subjects that remain part of medical education today, such as anatomy, surgery, and pharmacy, as well as fields that we now consider occult, such as astrology and magic. All of these areas were important to both learned and lay healing.
  288.  
  289. Anatomy and Dissection
  290.  
  291. Cunningham 1997 and French 1999 are both overviews of Renaissance anatomy that demonstrate the continued importance of ancient teachings. Carlino 1999 emphasizes both continuity from the Middle Ages as well as the role of social and cultural values, a theme also reflected in Park 1994, while Nutton 1993 shows the importance of Lutheran theology to anatomy in Wittenberg. O’Malley 1964 is the classic biography of Vesalius, and Wear 1983 gives an overview of Harvey. Park 2006 presents a new view of dissection and anatomy, placing the female body in a role of central importance. See also Body and Medicine.
  292.  
  293. Carlino, Andrea. Books of the Body: Anatomical Ritual and Renaissance Learning. Translated by John Tedeschi and Anne C. Tedeschi. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Examines the teaching of anatomy at universities as well as wider attitudes toward the body and dissection in Renaissance Italy. Argues that the discipline of anatomy was slow to change due to both intellectual and cultural factors. First published in Italian in 1994.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Cunningham, Andrew. The Anatomical Renaissance: The Resurrection of Anatomical Projects of the Ancients. Brookfield, VT: Scolar Press, 1997.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. An overview of the history of anatomy from ancient times to the Renaissance. Argues that major Renaissance figures in anatomy were attempting to revive the teachings of the ancients, not overthrow them.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. French, Roger. Dissection and Vivisection in the European Renaissance. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1999.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Examines learned attitudes toward dissection and vivisection through the Scientific Revolution.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Nutton, Vivian. “Wittenberg Anatomy.” In Medicine and the Reformation. Edited by Ole Peter Grell and Andrew Cunningham, 11–32. London: Routledge, 1993.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Examines attempts to unite the teaching of anatomy with Lutheran theology at the University of Wittenberg.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. O’Malley, Charles D. Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. Biography of Vesalius that includes plates of his work.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Park, Katherine. “The Criminal and the Saintly Body: Autopsy and Dissection in Renaissance Italy.” Renaissance Quarterly 47.1 (1994): 1–33.
  314. DOI: 10.2307/2863109Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Demonstrates that cutting into the body had very different moral meanings in Renaissance Italy depending on the context.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Park, Katherine. Secrets of Women: Gender, Generation, and the Origins of Human Dissection. New York: Zone, 2006.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. A study of autopsies and dissections of female (and in many cases saintly) bodies in medieval and Renaissance Italy. Demonstrates the centrality of the female body to the fields of anatomy and dissection.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Wear, Andrew. “William Harvey and the ‘Way of Anatomists.’” History of Science 21.53 (1983): 223–249.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Demonstrates the ways in which Harvey’s methodology united empiricism with Aristotelian philosophy.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Surgery
  326.  
  327. Gurlt 1898 is a classic overview that still has value for modern scholars. Nutton 1985 is an important study of the genre of learned surgery, while Park 1998 provides a window on lower-class surgical specialists. Dumaître 1986 is a valuable study of the French surgeon Ambroise Paré. Dobson and Walker 1979 provides a brief survey of the profession of barber surgery in London.
  328.  
  329. Dobson, Jessie, and R. Milnes Walker. Barbers and Barber-Surgeons of London: A History of the Barbers’ and Barber-Surgeons’ Companies. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications for the Worshipful Company of Barbers, 1979.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Short overview of London barbers aimed at a broad audience.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Dumaître, Paule. Ambroise Paré: Chirurgien de quatre rois de France. Paris: Perrin, 1986.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Comprehensive overview of the life of the 16th-century French surgeon Ambroise Paré.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Gurlt, Ernst Julius. Geschichte der Chirurgie und ihrer Ausübung: Volkschirurgie, Alterthum, Mittelalter, Renaissance. 3 vols. Berlin: Hirschwald, 1898.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Thorough history of surgery from ancient times through the Renaissance. Includes sections on the various countries of Europe as well as on different surgical procedures.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Nutton, Vivian. “Humanist Surgery.” In The Medical Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century. Edited by Andrew Wear, Roger K. French, and I. M. Lonie, 75–99. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Examines learned surgery in southern Europe and argues that, in many places, the gulf between physicians and surgeons was not as wide as has often been depicted.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Park, Katharine. “Stones, Bones and Hernias: Surgical Specialists in Fourteenth- and Fifteenth-Century Italy.” In Medicine from the Black Death to the French Disease. Edited by Roger French, Jon Arrizabalaga, Andrew Cunningham, and Luis García-Ballester, 110–130. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Examines the importance of itinerant surgical specialists in early Renaissance Italy.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Natural History and Pharmacy
  350.  
  351. Arber 1986 is the classic overview of medieval and Renaissance herbals, while the essays in Stannard 1999 present an updated and more contextual study of herbs, herbals, and medicinal recipes. Reeds 1991 examines the study of botany at the universities, and Ogilvie 2006 looks at the broader learned field of Renaissance natural history. Palmer 1985 is an influential study of pharmaceutical theory and practice. Garbellotti and Henderson 2008 presents recent research on pharmacy and pharmacists. Shaw and Welch 2011 provides a detailed study of one Florentine apothecary shop, while Strocchia 2011 is a study of nuns who ran apothecaries in late Renaissance Florence.
  352.  
  353. Arber, Agnes R. Herbals: Their Origin and Evolution: A Chapter in the History of Botany, 1470–1670. 3d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. An overview of various Renaissance herbals. Originally published in 1912.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Garbellotti, Marina, and Henderson, John, eds. Special Issue: Teoria e practica medica: Rimedi e farmacopee in età moderna. Medicina e Storia 8.15 (2008).
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Six articles in Italian and English focusing on pharmacy in 16th- and 17th-century Italy, Germany, and Austria.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Ogilvie, Brian. The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.
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  363. A careful study of the learned field of natural history and herbalism in the Renaissance.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Palmer, Richard. “Pharmacy in the Republic of Venice in the Sixteenth Century.” In The Medical Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century. Edited by Andrew Wear, Roger K. French, and I. M. Lonie, 100–117. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. A close look at pharmaceutical remedies, materia medica, and the professional purview of the pharmacist.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Reeds, Karen. Botany in Medieval and Renaissance Universities. New York: Garland, 1991.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. A careful survey of medical botany as taught at European universities.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Shaw, James E., and Evelyn S. Welch. Making and Marketing Medicine in Renaissance Florence. Clio Medica 89. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2011.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Careful study of apothecaries and their function in Renaissance Florence based on a case study of one pharmacy, the Speziale al Giglio.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Stannard, Jerry. Herbs and Herbalism in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Edited by Katherine E. Stannard and Richard Kay. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1999.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Essays surveying various topics related to medieval herbs, recipe literature, and the Renaissance revival of the classical herbal tradition.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Strocchia, Sharon T. “The Nun Apothecaries of Renaissance Florence: Marketing Medicines in the Convent.” Renaissance Studies 25.5 (2011): 627–647.
  382. DOI: 10.1111/j.1477-4658.2011.00721.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Examines convent pharmacy, particularly apothecary shops run by nuns in Renaissance Florence.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Preventive Medicine
  386.  
  387. Medicine did not simply involve caring for the sick: Preventive medicine, also called hygiene or regimen, was a crucial part of health care. The regulation of the six Galenic nonnaturals, particularly diet, was important in both sickness and health. Cavallo 2011 argues that daily routines and recipes to preserve health actually increased in the late Renaissance. Albala 2002 provides an overview of the importance of diet and food. Gil Sotres 1998 and Mikkeli 1999 are helpful overviews of hygiene in early modern Europe, while Nicoud 2007 presents an excellent survey of regimen in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance.
  388.  
  389. Albala, Ken. Eating Right in the Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Examines Renaissance dietary literature and the importance of food to ideas about health.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Cavallo, Sandra. “Secrets to Healthy Living: The Revival of the Preventive Paradigm in Late Renaissance Italy.” In Secrets and Knowledge in Medicine and Science, 1500–1800. Edited by Elaine Leong and Alisha Rankin, 191–212. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2011.
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  395. Argues that late Renaissance Italy saw an increasing focus on preventive medicine, thereby disputing the notion that Renaissance medical secrets and recipes were focused mainly on cures.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Gil Sotres, Pedro. “The Regimens of Health.” In Western Medical Thought from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Edited by Mirko D. Grmek, 291–318. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Focuses on medieval regimens, but the ideas are very relevant to Renaissance medicine.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Mikkeli, Heikki. Hygiene in the Early Modern Medical Tradition. Helsinki: Finnish Academy of Science and Letters, 1999.
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  403. A survey of hygiene from the 16th through the 18th centuries. Focuses particularly on the place of hygiene in medical learning.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Nicoud, Marilyn. Les régimes de santé au Moyen Âge: Naissance et diffusion d’une écriture médicale, XIIIe–XVe siècle. Rome: École française de Rome, 2007.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. An in-depth study of regimens of health from the 13th through the 15th centuries.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Astrology and Magic
  410.  
  411. Scholars have only recently begun to take seriously the important role astrology played in both learned and popular medicine. Grafton 1999 is the first in-depth exploration of medical astrology, based on the case of a famous Italian physician, Girolamo Cardano, and Kassell 2005 takes a similarly nuanced approach in examining a British practitioner, Simon Forman. Newman and Grafton 2001 contains a number of essays on medical astrology, while Rutkin 2006 provides an overview of Renaissance astrology that includes medicine. Azzolini 2005 demonstrates that medical astrology was a highly political affair at the courts of Italy, while Curth 2007 shows that it was also influential in English popular medicine.
  412.  
  413. Azzolini, Monica. “Reading Health in the Stars: Politics and Medical Astrology in Renaissance Milan.” In Horoscopes and Public Spheres: Essays on the History of Astrology. Edited by Günther Oestmann, H. Darrel Rutkin, and Kocku von Stuckrad, 183–206. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2005.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. A study of the importance of medical astrology to both medical practice and politics.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Curth, Louise Hill. English Almanacs, Astrology, and Popular Medicine, 1550–1700. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2007.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Examines the popular print genre of almanacs and their medical significance.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Grafton, Anthony. Cardano’s Cosmos: The Worlds and Works of a Renaissance Astrologer. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Examines the physician and vibrant personality Girolamo Cardano, with a particular focus on the potentials and perils of Renaissance astrology.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Kassell, Lauren. Medicine and Magic in Elizabethan London: Simon Forman: Astrologer, Alchemist, and Physician. Oxford: Clarendon, 2005.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. A study of empirical practitioner Simon Forman, known for his practice of astrological medicine in 17th-century England.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Newman, William R., and Anthony Grafton, eds. Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Contains essays by leading scholars, several of which address medical astrology.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Rutkin, H. Darrel. “Astrology.” In The Cambridge History of Science, Vol. 3: Early Modern Science. Edited by Katharine Park and Lorraine Daston, 541–561. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  434. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521572446Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. A brief overview of Renaissance astrology that includes medical astrology.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Diseases and Conditions
  438.  
  439. Individuals suffered from a huge variety of complaints in Renaissance Europe, but historical scholarship has tended to focus on epidemic diseases and on madness. See also Gender and Medicine and Body and Medicine.
  440.  
  441. Plague
  442.  
  443. The deadly Black Death that struck Europe in the mid-14th century and the recurring bouts of plague that continued through the 17th century have been the subject of a great deal of scholarship. Biraben 1975–1976 is an influential and comprehensive study of the waves of plague in Europe, while Benedictow 2004 provides a synthesis of the first wave of plague in 1346–1353, often called the Black Death. Cohn 2002 focuses on the history of the disease itself and questions the traditional assumption that the waves of plague in Europe were caused by modern bubonic plague. Slack 1985, Carmichael 1986, and Calvi 1989 are all important studies of the social impact of plague, while Herlihy 1997 makes a broader argument about plague’s effects on European economic, cultural, and social history. Horrox 1994 is a superb collection of primary sources on the plague.
  444.  
  445. Benedictow, Ole J. The Black Death, 1346–1353: The Complete History. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2004.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. A comprehensive study of the Black Death. Argues that the death rate of plague was far higher than previous estimates.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Biraben, Jean-Noël. Les hommes et la peste en France et dans les pays européens et méditerranéens. Paris: Mouton, 1975–1976.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Exhaustive study of the plague in Europe, with a particular focus on France.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Calvi, Giulia. Histories of a Plague Year: The Social and the Imaginary in Baroque Florence. Translated by Dario Biocca and Bryant T. Ragan, Jr. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Examines how the 1630–1633 wave of plague affected daily life in Florence.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Carmichael, Ann G. Plague and the Poor in Renaissance Florence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Uses death registers to examine the increasing impact of plague epidemics on poor rather than wealthy residents of Florence in the 14th and 15th centuries.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Cohn, Samuel K., Jr. The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe. London: Arnold, 2002.
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  463. Argues against the traditional rat–flea–human transmission of the plague in Renaissance Europe and against the idea that the Black Death and modern bubonic plague were one and the same.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Herlihy, David. The Black Death and the Transformation of the West. Edited by Samuel K. Cohn, Jr. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Argues that the devastation left by the first wave of plague through Europe led to economic, social, and political progress.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Horrox, Rosemary, ed. The Black Death. Manchester, UK: University of Manchester Press, 1994.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Excellent collection of primary sources about the plague.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Slack, Paul. The Impact of Plague in Tudor and Stuart England. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Depicts the impact of plague epidemics on communities in Tudor–Stuart England. Revised edition of a work first published in 1985 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul).
  476. Find this resource:
  477. French Disease and Leprosy
  478.  
  479. The French Disease (syphilis) and leprosy were both chronic conditions that involved unsightly skin lesions and carried a social stigma, although in their particulars they were very different. Leprosy was seen as one of the most horrific diseases of medieval Europe, closely tied to ideas of immorality and sexual license. Its sufferers were ostracized and forced into begging. The French Disease arrived in Naples in 1496, perhaps introduced from the New World, and quickly became a scourge throughout Europe. Although it also carried strong moral undertones due to the recognition that it could be sexually transmitted, it affected a wider range of people, including many of the upper classes. Nevertheless, it was often linked to leprosy, particularly in the early years after its introduction. Special hospitals were created for patients suffering from both diseases. Arrizabalaga, et al. 1997 is the definitive work on the French Disease in Renaissance Europe, while Quétel 1990 brings the story up to the present day. Stein 2009 (first published in German in 2003) provides an excellent case study of the French Disease in early modern Augsburg. Demaitre 2007 is the only monograph-length work on leprosy that includes the Renaissance, while Bergman 1996 gives a sense of the social stigma the disease continued to carry in the late 15th century.
  480.  
  481. Arrizabalaga, Jon, John Henderson, and Roger French. The Great Pox: The French Disease in Renaissance Europe. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. A detailed study of contemporary understandings of and reactions to the French Disease following its appearance in Europe in 1496. Covers the introduction of the disease and controversies around its name; the spread of syphilis; its symptoms and treatments; and the social, cultural, and political dimensions of the illness.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Bergman, Fred. “Hoping Against Hope? A Marital Dispute about the Medical Treatment of Leprosy in the Fifteenth-Century Hanseatic Town of Kampen.” In The Task of Healing: Medicine, Religion, and Gender in England and the Netherlands, 1450–1800. Edited by Hilary Marland and Margaret Pelling, 23–48. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Erasmus, 1996.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. The reaction of a married couple to a diagnosis of leprosy. Demonstrates the social consequences of the disease.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Demaitre, Luke E. Leprosy in Premodern Medicine: A Malady of the Whole Body. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. A comprehensive history of leprosy in Europe from 1300 to 1700, with a focus on France, Germany, and the low countries.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Quétel, Claude. History of Syphilis. Translated by Judith Braddock and Brian Pike. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. A history of syphilis from the Renaissance through the 20th century. Focuses in particular on the social meanings.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Stein, Claudia. Negotiating the French Pox in Early Modern Germany. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2009.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. A case study of the French Disease in 16th- and 17th-century Augsburg. Argues that the French Disease cannot be equated with modern syphilis.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Madness
  502.  
  503. The history of madness in Renaissance Europe is a fairly recent subject of interest. MacDonald 1981 and Bynum, et al. 1985 present some of the earliest attempts to historicize the subject. Midelfort 1999 gives an in-depth study of madness in Germany, while Midelfort 1994 presents an easily accessible account of German aristocrats affected by mental illness. Porter 2002 is a broad survey that has a few chapters relevant to the Renaissance and Reformation.
  504.  
  505. Bynum, W. F., Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd, eds. The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry. 2 vols. London: Tavistock, 1985.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. A collection of essays on the history of madness from ancient times to the 20th century.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. MacDonald, Michael. Mystical Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety, and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Uses the casebooks of the 17th-century English astrological physician Richard Napier to examine patients treated for madness and mental disturbance.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Midelfort, H. C. Erik. Mad Princes of Renaissance Germany. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1994.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. A series of case studies of 16th-century German princes and princesses with mental disturbances. Examines both medical treatments and political ramifications.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Midelfort, H. C. Erik. A History of Madness in Sixteenth-Century Germany. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. Extensive study of madness in 16th-century Germany, including medical, legal, social, and cultural aspects.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Porter, Roy. Madness: A Brief History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. A broad survey of the social, cultural, and medical history of madness from ancient times through the 20th century.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Gender and Medicine
  526.  
  527. Studies in this section address the way concepts of gender affected ideas of health and disease. To date, most of this scholarship focuses on women. Maclean 1980 provides a careful overview of medical ideas about women, while Green 2008 demonstrates the increasing attempts to make gynecology a theoretical field of medicine best addressed by learned physicians. Pelling 1996 argues that physicians had to work hard to evade the feminine connotations of caretaking associated with medical practice. Research on gender-specific diseases revolves around the issue of women and chastity, which was seen as a social and moral necessity but a medical problem due to the pent-up humors that resulted. Dixon 1995 provides an overview of the sexualized depiction of women and disease from the art historical perspective. King 2004 examines green sickness, which was considered a condition related to virginity. Sexual release through marriage was seen as the proper remedy for both ailments. See also Women Healers, Childbirth and Midwifery, and Body and Medicine.
  528.  
  529. Dixon, Laurinda S. Perilous Chastity: Women and Illness in Pre-Enlightenment Art and Medicine. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. A study of the medical dangers of chastity as portrayed in artworks from the 16th through the 18th centuries.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Green, Monica H. Making Women’s Medicine Masculine: The Rise of Male Authority in Pre-Modern Gynaecology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. A meticulous study of gynecological literature in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Argues that gynecology became increasingly more dominated and directed by learned men.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. King, Helen. The Disease of Virgins: Green Sickness, Chlorosis, and the Problems of Puberty. London: Routledge, 2004.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. A study of a condition involving amenorrhea, pale coloring, lack of appetite, and lethargy, which was seen as a disease particular to girls at puberty.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Maclean, Ian. The Renaissance Notion of Woman: A Study in the Fortunes of Scholasticism and Medical Science in European Intellectual Life. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
  542. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511562471Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. A short but densely packed survey of learned ideas about women in the Renaissance based on scholarly texts. Chapter 3 (“Medicine, Anatomy, Physiology”) provides an excellent overview of the topic, and chapter 2 (“Theology, Mystical, and Occult Writings”) is also relevant.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Pelling, Margaret. “Compromised by Gender: The Role of the Male Medical Practitioner in Early Modern England.” In The Task of Healing: Medicine, Religion, and Gender in England and the Netherlands, 1450–1800. Edited by Hilary Marland and Margaret Pelling, 101–133. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Erasmus, 1996.
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  547. Points out the strong connections between healing and the traditional female role of caregiving. In order to assert their masculinity, Pelling argues, male physicians accentuated their medical learning.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Women Healers
  550.  
  551. The involvement of women in many areas of healing has been a quickly growing field of Renaissance medical history. The scholarship in this section explores the breadth of women’s practice outside of midwifery, which is addressed in the following section. Broomhall 2004 as well as Cabré Pairet and Gomez 1999 and Fissell 2008 demonstrate that women participated in nearly all areas of healing. Pollock 1993 provides a major contribution by highlighting the status of gentlewomen healers as well as women’s use of medicinal recipes. Several essays in Hunter and Hutton 1997 draw on these themes, as does Rankin 2007, which also relates the healing activities of one noblewoman to the broader field of empirical investigation. Strocchia 2011 examines convent medicine and the role nuns played in running apothecary shops in Renaissance Florence. See also Gender and Medicine, Childbirth and Midwifery, and Secrets and Recipes.
  552.  
  553. Broomhall, Susan. Women’s Medical Work in Early Modern France. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2004.
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  555. Explores the many and varied areas in which women were active in healing in 16th-century France.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Cabré Pairet, Montserrat, and Teresa Ortiz Gomez, eds. Special Issue: Mujeres y salud: Prácticas y saberes. Dynamis 19 (1999).
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. A special issue on “Women and Health: Practice and Knowledge,” with important articles in both Spanish and English. Articles mainly focus on aspects of women’s medical practice.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Fissell, Mary E., ed. Special Issue: Women, Health, and Healing in Early Modern Europe. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 82.1 (2008).
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. Contains key articles on many aspects of women and healing, including women healers and patients, domestic medicine, women’s medical authority, and the female body.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Hunter, Lynette, and Sarah Hutton, eds. Women, Science, and Medicine, 1500–1700: Mothers and Sisters of the Royal Society. Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1997.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. A collection of essays examining women, science, and medicine in England. The essays involving medicine focus on domestic medicine and medicinal recipes (Lynette Hunter), older women healers (Margaret Pelling), and midwifery (Adrian Wilson).
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Pollock, Linda A. With Faith and Physic: The Life of a Tudor Gentlewoman: Lady Grace Mildmay, 1552–1620. London: Collins & Brown, 1993.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. An examination of Mildmay’s manuscripts, which include both devotional and medicinal writings. One section of the book examines Mildmay’s charitable healing activities.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Rankin, Alisha. “Becoming an Expert Practitioner: Court Experimentalism and the Medical Skills of Anna of Saxony (1532–1585).” Isis 98.1 (2007): 23–53.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. A study of German noblewoman Anna of Saxony and her medical practice.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Strocchia, Sharon T. “The Nun Apothecaries of Renaissance Florence: Marketing Medicines in the Convent.” Renaissance Studies 25.5 (2011): 627–647.
  578. DOI: 10.1111/j.1477-4658.2011.00721.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Examines convent pharmacy, particularly apothecary shops run by nuns in Renaissance Florence.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Childbirth and Midwifery
  582.  
  583. The practice of midwifery and childbirth customs varied greatly across Europe. Marland 1993 is a classic collection of essays that gives a good sense of the regional diversity, and Wiesner-Hanks 1986 provides an important study of midwives and medical licensing in Germany. Perkins 1996 is an often-cited biography of the 17th-century French midwife Louise Bourgeois, while McTavish 2005 presents a complex study of authority in the birthing room in France. Musacchio 1999 is an influential examination of the material culture of childbirth in Renaissance Italy. Evenden 2000 is an important study of midwives in London, while Wilson 1995 is the definitive investigation of male birth attendants in England. See also Women Healers and Body and Medicine.
  584.  
  585. Evenden, Doreen. The Midwives of Seventeenth-Century London. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  587. A careful study of midwifery in 17th-century London based on archival materials. Argues that midwives were better trained and more respected than previously assumed.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Marland, Hilary, ed. The Art of Midwifery: Early Modern Midwives in Europe. London: Routledge, 1993.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. A collection of essays examining midwifery across Europe. Highlights both local differences and change over time.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. McTavish, Lianne. Childbirth and the Display of Authority in Early Modern France. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
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  595. Examines deliberate attempts by male and female midwives to establish authority in the birthing chamber in early modern France and demonstrates that both held unstable positions.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Musacchio, Jacqueline M. The Art and Ritual of Childbirth in Renaissance Italy. New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1999.
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. An examination of the material culture of childbirth in Renaissance Italy. Draws on objects, images, and texts in order to situate childbirth in its sociocultural environment.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Perkins, Wendy. Midwifery and Medicine in Early Modern France: Louise Bourgeois. Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 1996.
  602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. An account of the life of Louise Bourgeois, a midwife to French royalty, as well as a study of her medical advice and case histories.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. “Early Modern Midwifery: A Case Study.” In Women and Work in Preindustrial Europe. Edited by Barbara A. Hanawalt, 94–113. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986.
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. A study of midwives in 15th- and 16th-century Nuremberg. Focuses particularly on training and licensing and demonstrates that good midwives were valued individuals.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Wilson, Adrian. The Making of Man-Midwifery: Childbirth in England, 1660–1770. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Studies the increasing presence of male attendants at normal births in England.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Body and Medicine
  614.  
  615. Scholarship on the body in medicine has largely concentrated on the topics of gender, sexuality, sex difference, and the female body. An important exception is Kuriyama 1999, which provides a comparative study of the body in the Greek and Chinese medical traditions. Laqueur 1990 is a seminal—but controversial—study of sex difference, the central argument of which is refuted in Park 1997. King 1998 provides a study of the female body in learned Hippocratic medicine, while Gowing 2003 and Fissell 2004 examine women’s bodies in popular medicine and culture. Park 2006 is a groundbreaking study of the female body’s central role in the history of dissection. See also Learned Medicine, Anatomy and Dissection, Women Healers, and Childbirth and Midwifery.
  616.  
  617. Fissell, Mary E. Vernacular Bodies: The Politics of Reproduction in Early Modern England. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. Examines changing attitudes toward the female body and its reproductive functions in English vernacular print literature.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Gowing, Laura. Common Bodies: Women, Touch, and Power in Seventeenth-Century England. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.
  622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. A study of popular ideas about women’s bodies. Argues for a wider definition of the body that includes both medicine and broader beliefs.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. King, Helen. Hippocrates’ Woman: Reading the Female Body in Ancient Greece. London: Routledge, 1998.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. Examines the use of Hippocrates to legitimize various interpretations of the female body from the 16th century on.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Kuriyama, Shieghisa. The Expressiveness of the Body and the Divergence of Greek and Chinese Medicine. New York: Zone, 1999.
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. Beautifully written book on the differing perspectives of similar bodily phenomena in the Western and Chinese medical traditions.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Laqueur, Thomas W. Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990.
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  635. A seminal and still controversial work on the history of the body from antiquity to modernity. Argues that ancient and medieval scholars believed in a “one-sex” model of the body, in which biological sex was a single continuum that manifested itself in two genders.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Park, Katharine. “The Rediscovery of the Clitoris.” In The Body in Parts: Fantasies of Corporeality in Early Modern Europe. Edited by David Hillman and Carla Mazzio, 171–193. New York: Routledge, 1997.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. Examines the complexities of medical writings on the clitoris in 16th-century France. Argues that controversies about the clitoris demonstrate the impossibility of reducing ideas about the body to a “one-sex” mode.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Park, Katherine. Secrets of Women: Gender, Generation, and the Origins of Human Dissection. New York: Zone, 2006.
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  643. A study of autopsies and dissections of female (and in many cases saintly) bodies in medieval and Renaissance Italy. Uses case studies of specific women to trace changes in anatomy and ideas of the female body from the early 14th through the 16th centuries. Emphasizes both the importance of autopsies and of the female body in the history of anatomy and dissection.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Religion
  646.  
  647. Religion was omnipresent in all areas of medical practice, and the extent to which the Reformation changed medicine remains a complicated topic. The essays in Grell and Cunningham 1993; Grell and Cunningham 1997; and Grell, et al. 1999 survey the medical scene in Reformation and Counter-Reformation Europe. Wear 1996 and Grell and Cunningham 1996 give an overview of religion and medicine in 17th-century England. Kusukawa 1995 is a specific study of Lutheran medicine and natural philosophy as proposed by reformer Philip Melanchthon. Meanwhile, Pomata 1999 and Park 2006 both focus on gender in Catholic forms of healing, including saints and miracle cures.
  648.  
  649. Grell, Ole Peter, and Andrew Cunningham, eds. Medicine and the Reformation. London: Routledge, 1993.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. Eight essays by renowned scholars examine the impact of the Protestant Reformation across Europe.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Grell, Ole Peter, and Andrew Cunningham, eds. Religio Medici: Medicine and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1996.
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  655. A collection of essays framed by the backdrop of religious and political change in 17th-century England. Demonstrates the diversity and complexity of medical thought in this period.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Grell, Ole Peter, and Andrew Cunningham, eds. Health Care and Poor Relief in Protestant Europe, 1500–1700. London: Routledge, 1997.
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  659. Essays survey institutional, religious, and social aspects of health care and poor relief in northern Europe.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Grell, Ole Peter, Andrew Cunningham, and Jon Arrizabalaga, eds. Health Care and Poor Relief in Counter-Reformation Europe. London: Routledge, 1999.
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  663. A collection of essays examining charity and poor relief in southern Europe from about 1550 to 1750.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Kusukawa, Sachiko. The Transformation of Natural Philosophy: The Case of Philip Melanchthon. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  666. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511598524Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. Examines Melanchthon’s attempts to reform the teaching of natural philosophy along Lutheran principles. Includes significant sections on medicine.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Park, Katherine. Secrets of Women: Gender, Generation, and the Origins of Human Dissection. New York: Zone, 2006.
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. A study of autopsies and dissections of female bodies in medieval and Renaissance Italy. Several chapters examine dissections carried out on nuns, and in some cases by nuns, to explore the idea of the female body as a locus for physical signs of sainthood.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Pomata, Gianna. “Practicing between Heaven and Earth: Women Healers in Seventeenth-Century Bologna.” Dynamis 19 (1999): 119–214
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. Contrasts the low status of women healers in 17th-century Bologna with the prominent role female saints and convents played in religious healing.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Wear, Andrew. “Religious Beliefs and Medicine in Early Modern England.” In The Task of Healing: Medicine, Religion, and Gender in England and the Netherlands, 1450–1800. Edited by Hilary Marland and Margaret Pelling, 145–171. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Erasmus, 1996.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. A survey of religious attitudes toward medical care in 17th-century England.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Poor Relief and Public Health
  682.  
  683. Disease and poverty was a constant problem in the Renaissance, especially in urban areas, as exemplified in Carmichael 1986 (cited under Plague) and Pelling 1998. A number of institutional and professional attempts were made to provide help for the poor. Henderson 2006 gives an exhaustive study of the Renaissance hospital in Italy, which provided charitable care for the poor, and Cipolla 1976 and Carmichael 1986 examine the actions of civic public health boards. The essays in Grell and Cunningham 1997 and Grell, et al 1999 (both cited under Religion) survey the variety of ways in which poor relief was carried out in Reformation and Counter-Reformation Europe.
  684.  
  685. Cipolla, Carlo M. Public Health and the Medical Profession in the Renaissance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
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  687. Contains two separate essays: The first studies the health boards in northern Italy from the 14th through the 18th centuries, and the second examines the broad purview of physicians in 17th-century Tuscany.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Henderson, John. The Renaissance Hospital: Healing the Body and Healing the Soul. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006.
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. A study of both the medical and spiritual mission of hospitals in Renaissance Italy, particularly Florence. Includes a close examination of medical remedies.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Pelling, Margaret, ed. The Common Lot: Sickness, Medical Occupations, and the Urban Poor in Early Modern England. London: Longman, 1998.
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  695. Ten separate essays examining illness, healing, and poverty in Tudor and Stuart England, with a particular emphasis on the urban environment, gender, old age, and medical work
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Texts and Images
  698.  
  699. Studies in this section place texts—print, manuscript, and visual—at the center of their investigations, as scholars have begun to examine the effects that each medium of communication had on medical knowledge and practice. The essays in Furdell 2005 provide an overview of the varying kinds of texts of interest to early medicine. The topic of publishing, print, and book ownership has produced a number of important works, including Jones 1996, Furdell 2002, and Fissell 2004. Finally, Kusukawa 2012 represents an important new study of the use of images in medical texts.
  700.  
  701. Fissell, Mary E. Vernacular Bodies: The Politics of Reproduction in Early Modern England. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703. A study of the way reproduction and the female body are depicted in British printed vernacular texts.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Furdell, Elizabeth L. Publishing and Medicine in Early Modern England. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2002.
  706. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  707. Examines the book trade and the role it played in medical disputes.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Furdell, Elizabeth L., ed. Textual Healing: Essays on Medieval and Early Modern Medicine. Boston: Brill, 2005.
  710. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  711. A collection of essays surveying a wide range of medical texts from the Middle Ages through the 17th century.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Jones, Peter Murray. “Book Ownership and the Lay Culture of Medicine in Tudor Cambridge.” In The Task of Healing: Medicine, Religion, and Gender in England and the Netherlands, 1450–1800. Edited by Hilary Marland and Margaret Pelling, 49–68. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Erasmus, 1996.
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  715. Argues that medical books had a vibrant audience of laypeople in 16th-century Cambridge. Examines printed books of secrets and their connection to natural knowledge.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Kusukawa, Sachiko. Picturing the Book of Nature: Image, Text, and Argument in Sixteenth-Century Anatomy and Medical Botany. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.
  718. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  719. A study of the ways in which images were produced and understood in Renaissance medicine.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Secrets and Recipes
  722.  
  723. A central genre of Renaissance medical writing was the medicinal recipe. Recipes can be found in almost every kind of medical text: print and manuscript, Latin and vernacular. Authors of medical recipes ranged from learned physicians and apothecaries to noblewomen to a variety of everyday folk. Leong and Pennell 2007 and Wheeler 2009 underscore the centrality of medicinal recipes to medical practice, particularly in the domestic sphere, while Hunter 1997 specifically examines women who published books of medical recipes. Books of recipes overlapped with the wider genre of books of secrets, and indeed the words “secret” and “recipe” were nearly synonymous in many instances. Eamon 1994 is the pathbreaking work on books of secrets in medieval and Renaissance Europe. The essays in Leong and Rankin 2011 demonstrate the impact of medical secrets in a variety of different settings.
  724.  
  725. Eamon, William. Science and the Secrets of Nature: Books of Secrets in Medieval and Early Modern Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. Focuses on the genre of books of secrets as an important influence in early modern science. Contains a good deal of information on medical secrets.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Hunter, Lynette. “Women and Domestic Medicine: Lady Experimenters, 1570–1620.” In Women, Science, and Medicine, 1500–1700: Mothers and Sisters of the Royal Society. Edited by Lynette Hunter and Sarah Hutton, 89–107. Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1997.
  730. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  731. A study of three books of recipes published by women in 17th-century England.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Leong, Elaine, and Sarah Pennell. “Recipe Collections and the Currency of Medical Knowledge in the Early Modern ‘Medical Marketplace.’” In Medicine and the Market in England and Its Colonies, c. 1450–c. 1850. Edited by Mark S. R. Jenner and Patrick Wallis, 132–153. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
  734. DOI: 10.1057/9780230591462Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735. Important study of medicinal recipe collections as a source for medical knowledge.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Leong, Elaine, and Alisha Rankin, eds. Secrets and Knowledge in Medicine and Science, 1500–1800. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2011.
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739. Collection of essays focusing on medical and scientific secrets and recipes.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Wheeler, Jo. Renaissance Secrets, Recipes, and Formulas. London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 2009.
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. Relates a variety of Renaissance recipes, both medicinal and otherwise, based on texts and artifacts from the Victoria and Albert Museum. Includes numerous images.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Sites of Knowledge and Practice
  746.  
  747. Medicine was studied and practiced in a variety of different places in Renaissance Europe. The essays in Park and Daston 2006 survey a variety of sites of medical inquiry. Nutton 1990 and Moran 1991 emphasize the princely courts as an important site of healing, and Nutton 1998 does the same for the German universities. Henderson 2006 provides a careful study of hospital medicine, while Leong 2008 focuses on the household. Finally, Grell, et al. 2010 examines the reputation of a number of European cities as important sites for learned medicine.
  748.  
  749. Grell, Ole Peter, Andrew Cunningham, and Jon Arrizabalaga, eds. Centres of Medical Excellence? Medical Travel and Education in Europe, 1500–1789. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2010.
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. A collection of essays examining the European cities and universities that were best known for their medical learning.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Henderson, John. The Renaissance Hospital: Healing the Body and Healing the Soul. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006.
  754. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  755. An authoritative study of hospitals in Renaissance Italy, particularly Tuscany. Based on detailed archival research, it examines a broad range of topics, including hospital architecture, finances, and patronage in addition to patient care. Emphasizes the dual mission of the hospital to provide care for both body and soul.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Leong, Elaine. “Making Medicines in the Early Modern Household.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 82.1 (2008): 145–216
  758. DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2008.0042Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. Examines the supplies of medicinal remedies kept by English gentlewoman Elizabeth Freke.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Moran, Bruce T., ed. Patronage and Institutions: Science, Technology, and Medicine at the European Court, 1500–1750. Rochester, NY: Boydell, 1991.
  762. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763. A collection of essays on medicine and science at the princely courts of Europe, with a particular emphasis on the importance of patronage.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Nutton, Vivian. “Medicine at the German Universities, 1348–1500: A Preliminary Sketch.” In Medicine from the Black Death to the French Disease. Edited by Roger French, Jon Arrizabalaga, Andrew Cunningham, and Luis García-Ballester, 85–109. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998.
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  767. Traces the founding and development of German universities in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Nutton, Vivian, ed. Medicine at the Courts of Europe, 1500–1837. London: Routledge, 1990.
  770. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. A collection of essays examining court medicine.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Park, Katherine, and Lorraine Daston, eds. The Cambridge History of Science, Vol. 3: Early Modern Science. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  774. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521572446Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. Part II: “Personae and Sites of Natural Knowledge” gives an excellent overview of various sites of natural inquiry. It focuses more broadly on the history of science, but most essays are highly relevant to the history of medicine as well. See in particular William Eamon’s “Markets, Piazzas, and Villages” (pp. 206–223); Alix Cooper’s “Homes and Households” (pp. 224–237); Paula Findlen’s “Anatomy Theaters, Botanical Gardens, and Natural History Collections” (pp. 272–289); and Pamela H. Smith’s “Laboratories” (pp. 290–305).
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Commerce and Global Encounters
  778.  
  779. The importance of commerce, globalization, and colonial expansion to medicine in Renaissance Europe has become an important topic of study. Crosby 1972 is a classic study of the effects of the exchange of germs between the Old World and the New. The essays in Varey, et al. 2000 and Schiebinger and Swan 2005 underscore the great interest on behalf of European physicians in finding new medicinal plants across the globe. Cook 2007 and Jenner and Wallis 2007 paint a broader picture of medicine, commerce, and knowledge. As shown in Shaw and Welch 2011, commerce and the selling of drugs had a crucial role within European cities as well.
  780.  
  781. Cook, Howard. Matters of Exchange: Commerce, Medicine, and Science in the Dutch Golden Age. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.
  782. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  783. Argues for the central role of Dutch commerce in medical and scientific investigation.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Crosby, Alfred W. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972.
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787. Examines the (unequal) exchange of disease, plants, animals, and knowledge across the Atlantic after Columbus’s discovery of the New World.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. Jenner, Mark S. R., and Patrick Wallis, eds. Medicine and the Market in England and Its Colonies, c. 1450–c. 1850. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
  790. DOI: 10.1057/9780230591462Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  791. A collection of essays examining various aspects of the medical marketplace.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Schiebinger, Londa L., and Claudia Swan, eds. Colonial Botany: Science, Commerce, and Politics in the Early Modern World. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
  794. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  795. A collection of essays on European merchants and naturalists on the botany of their colonial holdings. A number of the essays pertain to medical botany.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Shaw, James E., and Evelyn S. Welch. Making and Marketing Medicine in Renaissance Florence. Clio Medica 89. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2011.
  798. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799. Careful study of apothecaries and other sellers of drugs in Renaissance Florence.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Varey, Simon, Rafael Chabrán, and Dora B. Weiner, eds. Searching for the Secrets of Nature: The Life and Works of Dr. Francisco Hernández. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000.
  802. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  803. A collection of essays examining the impact of Francisco Hernández, who traveled through Spanish America with native translators from 1570 to 1577 cataloging medicinal plants.
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