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- INTRODUCTION
- After an overview of the systems analysis phase, this
- chapter describes requirements modeling techniques
- and team-based methods that systems analysts use
- to visualize and document new systems. The chapter
- then discusses system requirements and factfinding
- techniques, which include interviewing,
- documentation review, observation, surveys and
- questionnaires, sampling, and research.
- Chapter 4 includes a Video Learning Session that
- shows you how to use a functional decomposition
- diagram (FDD) to model business functions and
- processes.
- Introduction
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 141
- CHAPTER INTRODUCTION CASE: Mountain View College Bookstore
- Background: Wendy Lee, manager of college services at Mountain View College, wants a new
- information system that will improve efficiency and customer service at the three college
- bookstores.
- In this part of the case, Tina Allen (systems analyst) and David Conroe (student intern)
- are talking about requirements modeling tasks and concepts.
- Participants: Tina and David
- Location: Tina’s office, Monday morning, October 3, 2011
- Project status: The project has advanced to the systems analysis phase. Now, Tina and David will work on
- modeling, fact-finding, and the documentation they need to build a requirements model for
- the proposed bookstore information system.
- Discussion topics: Modeling, team-based development strategies, fact-finding techniques, and documentation
- Tina: Before I tell you about the project,
- look at this Dilbert cartoon. You’ll
- like it!
- David: It’s funny, but scary too. Hope it
- doesn’t apply to us!
- Tina: Me too. That’s why we have to
- do a good job of requirements
- modeling.
- David: So, what do we do next?
- Tina: We need to create a model of the
- new system. We call this a requirements
- model, because it will
- include all the outputs, inputs, processes,
- and controls for the new
- system. The model will consist of
- various diagrams, charts, and documentation.
- David: How will we use the model when
- we’re done?
- Tina: We’ll study it carefully and review it frequently with system users.
- David: Who are the users?
- Tina: Users might include bookstore staff, students, faculty members, and the college business office. External users
- might include textbook publishers and suppliers of bookstore merchandise. The main thing is to work with
- users every step of the way. We’ll perform fact-finding, and we’ll document everything carefully. Here’s a task
- list to get us started:
- DILBERT: © Scott Adams/Dist. by United Feature Syndicate, Inc.
- FIGURE 4-1 Typical requirements modeling task list.
- SYSTEMS ANALYSIS PHASE
- OVERVIEW
- The overall objective of the systems analysis
- phase is to understand the proposed project,
- ensure that it will support business requirements,
- and build a solid foundation for system
- development. In this phase, you use
- models and other documentation tools to
- visualize and describe the proposed system.
- Systems Analysis Activities
- The systems analysis phase includes the four
- main activities shown in Figure 4-2: requirements
- modeling, data and process modeling,
- object modeling, and consideration of development
- strategies.
- Although the waterfall model shows
- sequential SDLC phases, it is not uncommon
- for several phases (or certain tasks within a
- phase) to interact during the development process,
- just as they would in an adaptive model.
- For example, this occurs whenever new facts
- are learned or system requirements change
- during the modeling process. Figure 4-2 shows
- typical interaction among the three modeling
- tasks: requirements modeling, data and process
- modeling, and object modeling.
- REQUIREMENTS MODELING This chapter describes requirements modeling, which
- involves fact-finding to describe the current system and identification of the requirements
- for the new system, such as outputs, inputs, processes, performance, and security.
- Outputs refer to electronic or printed information produced by the system. Inputs refer
- to necessary data that enters the system, either manually or in an automated manner.
- Processes refer to the logical rules that are applied to transform the data into meaningful
- information. Performance refers to system characteristics such as speed, volume,
- capacity, availability, and reliability. Security refers to hardware, software, and procedural
- controls that safeguard and protect the system and its data from internal or
- external threats.
- DATA AND PROCESS MODELING In Chapter 5, Data and Process Modeling, you will
- continue the modeling process by learning how to represent graphically system data and
- processes using traditional structured analysis techniques. As you learned in Chapter 1,
- structured analysis identifies the data flowing into a process, the business rules that transform
- the data, and the resulting output data flow.
- OBJECT MODELING Chapter 6 discusses object modeling, which is another popular
- modeling technique. While structured analysis treats processes and data as separate
- components, object-oriented analysis (O-O) combines data and the processes
- that act on the data into things called objects. These objects represent actual
- people, things, transactions, and events that affect the system. During the system
- FIGURE 4-2 The systems analysis phase consists of requirements modeling,
- data and process modeling, object modeling, and consideration of development
- strategies. Notice that the systems analysis tasks are interactive, even though
- the waterfall model generally depicts sequential development.
- Data and
- Process
- Modeling
- Requirements
- Modeling
- Development
- Strategies
- Object
- Modeling
- Systems Analysis Phase Tasks
- VIDEO
- LEARNING
- SESSIONS
- To learn more about
- data flow diagrams,
- visit the
- Management
- Information Systems
- CourseMate Web
- site at www.
- cengagebrain.
- com and navigate to
- the Video
- Learning Sessions
- for this book. These
- sessions can help
- you understand key
- concepts, practice
- your skills, and
- check your work.
- Joint Application Development
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 143
- development process, analysts often use both modeling methods to gain as much
- information as possible.
- DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES In Chapter 7, Development Strategies, you will consider
- various development options and prepare for the transition to the systems design phase
- of the SDLC. You will learn about software trends, acquisition and development alternatives,
- outsourcing, and formally documenting requirements for the new system.
- The deliverable, or end product, of the systems analysis phase is a system requirements
- document, which is an overall design for the new system. In addition, each activity within
- the systems analysis phase has an end product and one or more milestones. As you learned
- in Chapter 3, project managers use various tools and techniques to coordinate people,
- tasks, timetables, and budgets.
- Systems Analysis Skills
- You will need strong analytical and interpersonal skills to build an accurate model of the
- new system. Analytical skills enable you to identify a problem, evaluate the key elements,
- and develop a useful solution. Interpersonal skills are especially valuable to a systems
- analyst who must work with people at all organizational levels, balance conflicting needs
- of users, and communicate effectively.
- Because information systems affect people throughout the company, you should consider
- team-oriented strategies as you begin the systems analysis phase.
- Team-Based Techniques: JAD, RAD, and Agile Methods
- The IT department’s goal is to deliver the best possible information system, at the lowest
- possible cost, in the shortest possible time. To achieve the best results, system developers
- view users as partners in the development process. Greater user involvement usually
- results in better communication, faster development times, and more satisfied users.
- The traditional model for systems development was an IT department that used
- structured analysis and consulted users only when their input or approval was needed.
- Although the IT staff still has a central role, and structured analysis remains a popular
- method of systems development, most IT managers invite system users to participate
- actively in various development tasks.
- As you learned in Chapter 1, team-based approaches have been around for some time.
- A popular example is joint application development (JAD), which is a user-oriented technique
- for fact-finding and requirements modeling. Because it is not linked to a specific
- development methodology, systems developers use JAD whenever group input and interaction
- are desired.
- Another popular user-oriented method is rapid application development (RAD).
- RAD resembles a condensed version of the entire SDLC, with users involved every step
- of the way. While JAD typically focuses only on fact-finding and requirements determination,
- RAD provides a fast-track approach to a full spectrum of system development
- tasks, including planning, design, construction, and implementation.
- Finally, as you learned in Chapter 1, agile methods represent a recent trend that
- stresses intense interaction between system developers and users. JAD, RAD, and agile
- methods are discussed in the following sections.
- JOINT APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT
- Joint application development (JAD) is a popular fact-finding technique that brings
- users into the development process as active participants.
- To learn more about
- interpersonal skills,
- visit the Management
- Information Systems
- CourseMate Web
- site at www.
- cengagebrain.
- com, navigate to On
- the Web Links for
- this chapter, and
- locate the
- Interpersonal
- Skills link.
- User Involvement
- Users have a vital stake in an information system, and they should participate fully in
- the development process. Until recent years, the IT department usually had sole responsibility
- for systems development, and users had a relatively passive role. During the
- development process, the IT staff would collect information from users, define system
- requirements, and construct the new system. At various stages of the process, the IT staff
- might ask users to review the design, offer comments, and submit changes.
- Today, users typically have a much more active role in systems development. IT professionals
- now recognize that successful systems must be user-oriented, and users need
- to be involved, formally or informally, at every stage of system development.
- One popular strategy for user involvement is a JAD team approach, which involves a
- task force of users, managers, and IT professionals that works together to gather information,
- discuss business needs, and define the new system requirements.
- JAD Participants and Roles
- A JAD team usually meets over a period of days or weeks in a special conference room
- or at an off-site location. Either way, JAD participants should be insulated from the distraction
- of day-to-day operations. The objective is to analyze the existing system, obtain
- user input and expectations, and document user requirements for the new system.
- The JAD group usually has a project leader, who needs strong interpersonal and
- organizational skills, and one or more members who document and record the results
- and decisions. Figure 4-3 describes typical JAD participants and their roles. IT staff
- members often serve as JAD project leaders, but that is not always the case. Systems
- analysts on the JAD team participate in discussions, ask questions, take notes, and provide
- support to the team. If CASE tools are available, analysts can develop models and
- enter documentation from the JAD session directly into the CASE tool.
- A typical JAD session agenda is shown in Figure 4-4. The JAD process involves
- intensive effort by all team members. Because of the wide range of input and constant
- interaction among the participants, many companies believe that a JAD group produces
- the best possible definition of the new system.
- To learn more about
- JAD, visit the
- Management
- Information Systems
- CourseMate Web
- site at www.
- cengagebrain.
- com, navigate to
- On the Web Links
- for this chapter, and
- locate the JAD link.
- FIGURE 4-3 Typical JAD participants and roles.
- JAD PARTICIPANT ROLE
- JAD project leader Develops an agenda, acts as a facilitator, and leads the JAD session
- Top management Provides enterprise-level authorization and support for the project
- Managers Provide department-level support for the project and understanding
- of how the project must support business functions and requirements
- Users Provide operational-level input on current operations, desired changes,
- input and output requirements, user interface issues, and how the project
- will support day-to-day tasks
- Systems analysts and Provide technical assistance and resources for JAD team members on
- other IT staff members issues such as security, backup, hardware, software, and network
- capability
- Recorder Documents results of JAD sessions and works with systems analysts
- to build system models and develop CASE tool documentation
- Rapid Application Development
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 145
- JAD Advantages and Disadvantages
- Compared with traditional methods, JAD is more expensive and can be cumbersome if
- the group is too large relative to the size of the project. Many companies find, however,
- that JAD allows key users to participate effectively in the requirements modeling process.
- When users participate in the systems development process, they are more likely to feel a
- sense of ownership in the results, and support for the new system. When properly used,
- JAD can result in a more accurate statement of system requirements, a better understanding
- of common goals, and a stronger commitment to the success of the new system.
- RAPID APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT
- Rapid application development (RAD) is a team-based technique that speeds up
- information systems development and produces a functioning information system.
- Like JAD, RAD uses a group approach, but goes much further. While the end product
- of JAD is a requirements model, the end product of RAD is the new information system.
- RAD is a complete methodology, with a four-phase life cycle that parallels the
- traditional SDLC phases. Companies use RAD to reduce cost and development time,
- and increase the probability of success.
- RAD relies heavily on prototyping and user involvement. The RAD process allows
- users to examine a working model as early as possible, determine if it meets their needs,
- and suggest necessary changes. Based on user input, the prototype is modified and the
- interactive process continues until the system is completely developed and users are satisfied.
- The project team uses CASE tools to build the prototypes and create a continuous
- stream of documentation.
- RAD Phases and Activities
- The RAD model consists of four phases: requirements planning, user design, construction,
- and cutover, as shown in Figure 4-5. Notice the continuous interaction between the
- user design and construction phases.
- To learn more about
- RAD, visit the
- Management
- Information Systems
- CourseMate Web
- site at www.
- cengagebrain.
- com, navigate to
- On the Web Links
- for this chapter, and
- locate the RAD link.
- REQUIREMENTS PLANNING The requirements planning phase combines elements of
- the systems planning and systems analysis phases of the SDLC. Users, managers, and IT
- staff members discuss and agree on business needs, project scope, constraints, and system
- requirements. The requirements planning phase ends when the team agrees on the
- key issues and obtains management authorization to continue.
- USER DESIGN During the user design phase, users interact with systems analysts and
- develop models and prototypes that represent all system processes, outputs, and inputs.
- The RAD group or subgroups typically use a combination of JAD techniques and
- CASE tools to translate user needs into working models. User design is a continuous,
- Requirements
- Planning
- User
- Design Construction
- Cutover
- Cutover Tasks
- • Data conversion
- • Full-scale testing
- • System changeover
- • User training
- Construction Tasks
- • Program and
- application
- development
- • Coding
- • Unit, integration,
- and system testing
- Requirements Planning
- Tasks
- • Users, managers, and IT
- staff agree upon business
- needs, project scope, and
- systems requirements
- • Obtain approval to
- continue
- User Design Tasks
- • Interact with users
- • Build models and
- prototypes
- • Conduct intensive
- JAD-type sessions
- FIGURE 4-5 The four phases of the RAD model are requirements planning, user design, construction,
- and cutover. Notice the continuous interaction between the user design and construction phases.
- Agile Methods
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 147
- interactive process that allows users to understand, modify, and eventually approve a
- working model of the system that meets their needs.
- CONSTRUCTION The construction phase focuses on program and application development
- tasks similar to the SDLC. In RAD, however, users continue to participate and
- still can suggest changes or improvements as actual screens or reports are developed.
- CUTOVER The cutover phase resembles the final tasks in the SDLC implementation
- phase, including data conversion, testing, changeover to the new system, and user training.
- Compared with traditional methods, the entire process is compressed. As a result,
- the new system is built, delivered, and placed in operation much sooner.
- RAD Objectives
- The main objective of all RAD approaches is to cut development time and expense by
- involving users in every phase of systems development. Because it is a continuous
- process, RAD allows the development team to make necessary modifications quickly,
- as the design evolves. In times of tight corporate budgets, it is especially important to
- limit the cost of changes that typically occur in a long, drawn-out development
- schedule.
- In addition to user involvement, a successful RAD team must have IT resources, skills,
- and management support. Because it is a dynamic, user-driven process, RAD is especially
- valuable when a company needs an information system to support a new business function.
- By obtaining user input from the beginning, RAD also helps a development team design a
- system that requires a highly interactive or complex user interface.
- RAD Advantages and Disadvantages
- RAD has advantages and disadvantages compared with traditional structured analysis
- methods. The primary advantage is that systems can be developed more quickly with significant
- cost savings. A disadvantage is that RAD stresses the mechanics of the system itself
- and does not emphasize the company’s strategic business needs. The risk is that a system
- might work well in the short term, but the corporate and long-term objectives for the system
- might not be met. Another potential disadvantage is that the accelerated time cycle
- might allow less time to develop quality, consistency, and design standards. RAD can be an
- attractive alternative, however, if an organization understands the possible risks.
- AGILE METHODS
- In Chapter 1, you learned that agile methods attempt to develop a system incrementally,
- by building a series of prototypes and constantly adjusting them to user requirements.
- As the agile process continues, developers revise, extend, and merge earlier versions into
- the final product. An agile approach emphasizes continuous feedback, and each incremental
- step is affected by what was learned in the prior steps.
- As agile methods become more popular, a large community of agile-related software
- and services has evolved. For example, Visual Paradigm offers Agilian, which includes a
- set of agile modeling tools, as shown in Figure 4-6 on the next page. The Agilian modeling
- toolset includes support for many modeling tools, such as the Unified Modeling
- Language, entity-relationship diagrams, data flow diagrams, and business process
- modeling, among others.
- Some agile developers prefer not to use CASE tools at all, and rely instead on whiteboard
- displays and arrangements of movable sticky notes. This approach, they believe,
- reinforces the agile strategy: simple, rapid, flexible, and user-oriented.
- Scrum is another agile approach. The name is derived from the rugby term scrum
- (Figure 4-7), where team members prepare to lunge at each other to achieve their objectives.
- The systems development version of Scrum involves the same intense interaction,
- though more mental than physical. In a Scrum session, agile team members play specific
- roles, including colorful designations as pigs or chickens. These roles are based on the
- old joke about the pig and chicken who discuss a restaurant where ham and eggs would
- be served. However, the pig declines, because that role would require a total commitment,
- while for the chicken, it would only be a contribution.
- In the agile world, the pigs include the product owner, the facilitator, and the development
- team; while the chickens include users, other stakeholders, and managers. Scrum
- sessions have specific guidelines that emphasize time blocks, interaction, and team-based
- activities that result in deliverable software.
- To learn more
- about agile methods,
- visit the
- Management
- Information Systems
- CourseMate Web
- site at www.
- cengagebrain.
- com, navigate to
- On the Web
- Links for this chapter,
- and locate the
- Agile Methods link.
- FIGURE 4-6 Visual Paradigm’s Agilian includes many types of agile modeling tools.
- Modeling Tools and Techniques
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 149
- Agile Method Advantages and Disadvantages
- Agile, or adaptive, methods are very flexible and efficient in dealing with change. They
- are popular because they stress team interaction and reflect a set of community-based
- values. Also, frequent deliverables constantly validate the project and reduce risk.
- However, some potential problems exist. For example, team members need a high
- level of technical and interpersonal skills. Also, a lack of structure and documentation
- can introduce risk factors. Finally, the overall project may be subject to significant
- change in scope as user requirements continue to evolve during the project.
- FIGURE 4-7 In a rugby scrum, team members prepare to lunge at each other to achieve their objectives.
- CASE IN POINT 4.1: NORTH HILLS COLLEGE
- North Hills College has decided to implement a new registration system that will allow
- students to register online, as well as in person. As IT manager, you decide to set up a JAD
- session to help define the requirements for the new system. The North Hills organization
- is fairly typical, with administrative staff that includes a registrar, a student support and services
- team, a business office, an IT group, and a number of academic departments. Using
- this information, you start work on a plan to carry out the JAD session. Who would you
- invite to the session, and why? What would be your agenda for the session, and what
- would take place at each stage of the session?
- MODELING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
- Models help users, managers, and IT professionals understand the design of a system.
- Modeling involves graphical methods and nontechnical language that represent the system
- at various stages of development. During requirements modeling, you can use various tools
- to describe business processes, requirements, and user interaction with the system.
- In Chapter 1, you learned about CASE tools that offer powerful modeling features.
- CASE tool modeling is discussed in detail in Part B of the Systems Analyst’s Toolkit.
- Systems analysts use modeling and fact-finding interactively — first they build factfinding
- results into models, then they study the models to determine whether additional
- fact-finding is needed. To help them understand system requirements, analysts use functional
- decomposition diagrams, business process models, data flow diagrams, and
- Unified Modeling Language diagrams. Any of these diagrams can be created
- with CASE tools or standalone drawing tools if desired.
- Functional Decomposition Diagrams
- A functional decomposition
- diagram (FDD) is a topdown
- representation of a
- function or process. Using
- an FDD, an analyst can
- show business functions
- and break them down into
- lower-level functions and
- processes. Creating an FDD
- is similar to drawing an
- organization chart — you
- start at the top and work
- your way down. Figure 4-8
- shows an FDD of a library
- system drawn with the
- Visible Analyst CASE tool.
- FDDs can be used at several
- stages of systems development.
- During
- requirements modeling,
- analysts use FDDs to model
- business functions and show
- how they are organized into
- lower-level processes. Those processes translate into program modules during application
- development.
- Business Process Modeling
- As you learned in Chapter 1, a business process model (BPM) describes one or more business
- processes, such as handling an airline reservation, filling a product order, or updating
- a customer account. During requirements modeling, analysts often create models that use
- a standard language called business process modeling notation (BPMN). BPMN includes
- various shapes and symbols to represent events, processes, and workflows.
- FIGURE 4-8 FDD showing five top-level functions. The Library
- Operations function includes two additional levels that show processes
- and subprocesses.
- VIDEO LEARNING SESSION: FUNCTIONAL DECOMPOSITION
- DIAGRAMS (FDDS)
- Video Learning Sessions can help you understand key concepts, practice your skills, and check your
- work. To access the sessions, visit the Management Information Systems CourseMate Web site at
- www.cengagebrain.com and navigate to the Video Learning Sessions for this book. This
- session is about functional decomposition diagrams (FDDs). You’ll learn about FDDs and why they
- are important, how to use FDDs to model business functions and processes, and how to use CASE
- tools to create FDDs.
- ms, ed
- TOOLKIT TIME
- The CASE tools in
- Part B of the
- Systems Analyst’s
- Toolkit can help you
- document business
- functions and processes,
- develop
- graphical models,
- and provide an overall
- framework for
- information system
- development. To
- learn more about
- these tools, turn to
- Part B of the
- four-part Toolkit that
- follows Chapter 12.
- Modeling Tools and Techniques
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 151
- When you create a business process model
- using a CASE tool such as Visible Analyst, your
- diagram automatically becomes part of the overall
- model. In the example shown in Figure 4-9,
- using BPMN terminology, the overall diagram is
- called a pool, and the designated customer areas
- are called swim lanes. Integrating BPM into the
- CASE development process leads to faster
- results, fewer errors, and reduced cost. Part B of
- the Systems Analyst’s Toolkit describes business
- process modeling in more detail.
- Data Flow Diagrams
- Working from a functional decomposition
- diagram, analysts can create data flow diagrams
- (DFDs) to show how the system stores, processes,
- and transforms data. The DFD in
- Figure 4-10 describes adding and removing
- books, which is a function shown in the Library
- Management diagram in Figure 4-8. Notice that
- the two shapes in the DFD represent processes,
- each with various inputs and outputs. Additional levels
- of information and detail are depicted in other, related
- DFDs. Data and process modeling is described in detail
- in Chapter 5.
- Unified Modeling Language
- The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a widely used
- method of visualizing and documenting software systems
- design. UML uses object-oriented design concepts, but it is
- independent of any specific programming language and
- can be used to describe business processes and requirements
- generally.
- UML provides various graphical tools, such as use case
- diagrams and sequence diagrams. During requirements
- modeling, a systems analyst can utilize the UML to represent
- the information system from a user’s viewpoint. Use
- case diagrams, sequence diagrams, and other UML concepts
- are discussed in more detail in Chapter 6, along with
- other object-oriented analysis concepts. A brief description
- of each technique follows.
- USE CASE DIAGRAMS During requirements modeling, systems analysts and users
- work together to document requirements and model system functions. A use case
- diagram visually represents the interaction between users and the information
- system. In a use case diagram, the user becomes an actor, with a specific role that
- describes how he or she interacts with the system. Systems analysts can draw use
- case diagrams freehand or use CASE tools that integrate the use cases into the
- overall system design.
- Figure 4-11 shows a simple use case diagram for a sales system where the actor is a
- customer and the use case involves a credit card validation that is performed by the
- system. Because use cases depict the system through the eyes of a user, common business
- FIGURE 4-9 Using the Visible Analyst CASE tool, an analyst can create
- a business process diagram. The overall diagram is called a pool, and the
- two separate customer areas are called swim lanes.
- FIGURE 4-10 A library system DFD shows how books
- are added and removed.
- To learn more about
- the Unified Modeling
- Language, visit the
- Management
- Information Systems
- CourseMate Web
- site at www.
- cengagebrain.com,
- navigate to On the
- Web Links for this
- chapter, and locate
- The Unified Modeling
- Language link.
- FIGURE 4-11 Use case diagram of a sales system,
- where the actor is a customer and the use case involves
- a credit card validation.
- FIGURE 4-13 Use case diagram of a student records system.
- FIGURE 4-12 A table documents the credit card validation use case shown in Figure 4-11.
- Name of Use Case: Credit card validation process
- Actor: Customer
- Description: Describes the credit card validation process
- Successful Completion: 1. Customer clicks the input selector and
- enters credit card number and expiration date
- 2. System verifies card
- 3. System sends authorization message
- Alternative: 1. Customer clicks the input selector and
- enters credit card number and expiration date
- 2. System rejects card
- 3. System sends rejection message
- Precondition: Customer has selected at least one item and
- has proceeded to checkout area
- Postcondition: Credit card information has been validated
- Customer can continue with order
- Assumptions: None
- language can be used to describe the transactions.
- For example, Figure 4-12 shows a table
- that documents the credit card validation use
- case, and Figure 4-13 shows a student records
- system, with several use cases and actors.
- SEQUENCE DIAGRAMS A sequence diagram
- shows the timing of interactions between
- objects as they occur. A systems analyst might
- use a sequence diagram to show all possible
- outcomes, or focus on a single scenario.
- Figure 4-14 shows a simple sequence diagram
- of a successful credit card validation.
- The interaction proceeds from top to bottom
- along a vertical timeline, while the horizontal
- arrows represent messages from one object
- to another.
- System Requirements Checklist
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 153
- SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS CHECKLIST
- During requirements modeling, systems developers must identify and describe all system
- requirements. A system requirement is a characteristic or feature that must be included
- in an information system to satisfy business requirements and be acceptable to users.
- System requirements serve as benchmarks to measure the overall acceptability of the finished
- system.
- System requirements fall into five general categories: outputs, inputs, processes, performance,
- and controls. Typical examples of system requirements for each category are
- listed below.
- Output Examples
- ✓ The Web site must report online volume statistics every four hours, and hourly
- during peak periods.
- ✓ The inventory system must produce a daily report showing the part number,
- description, quantity on hand, quantity allocated, quantity available, and unit
- cost of all sorted by part number.
- ✓ The contact management system must generate a daily reminder list for all sales reps.
- ✓ The purchasing system must provide suppliers with up-to-date specifications.
- ✓ The sales tracking system must produce a daily fast-moving-item report, listing all
- products that exceed the forecasted sales volume grouped by style, color, size, and
- reorder status.
- ✓ The customer analysis system must produce a quarterly report that identifies
- changes in ordering patterns or trends with statistical comparisons to the previous
- four quarters.
- Input Examples
- ✓ Manufacturing employees must swipe their ID cards into online data collection
- terminals that record labor costs and calculate production efficiency.
- ✓ The department head must enter overtime hours on a separate screen.
- ✓ Student grades must be entered on machine-scannable forms prepared by the
- instructor.
- ✓ Each input form must include date, time, product code, customer number, and
- quantity.
- ✓ Data entry screens must be uniform, except for background color, which can be
- changed by the user.
- ✓ A data entry person at the medical group must input patient services into the
- billing system.
- Process Examples
- ✓ The student records system must calculate the GPA at the end of each semester.
- ✓ As the final step in year-end processing, the payroll system must update employee
- salaries, bonuses, and benefits and produce tax data required by the IRS.
- ✓ The warehouse distribution system must analyze daily orders and create a routing
- pattern for delivery trucks that maximizes efficiency and reduces unnecessary
- mileage.
- ✓ The human resources system must interface properly with the existing payroll
- system.
- ✓ The video rental system must not execute new rental transactions for customers
- who have overdue videos.
- ✓ The prescription system must automatically generate an insurance claim form.
- Performance Examples
- ✓ The system must support 25 users online simultaneously.
- ✓ Response time must not exceed four seconds.
- ✓ The system must be operational seven days a week, 365 days a year.
- ✓ The accounts receivable system must prepare customer statements by the third
- business day of the following month.
- ✓ The student records system must produce class lists within five hours after the
- end of registration.
- ✓ The online inventory control system must flag all low-stock items within one
- hour after the quantity falls below a predetermined minimum.
- Control Examples
- ✓ The system must provide logon security at the operating system level and at the
- application level.
- ✓ An employee record must be added, changed, or deleted only by a member of the
- human resources department.
- ✓ The system must maintain separate levels of security for users and the system
- administrator.
- Future Growth, Costs, and Benefits
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 155
- ✓ All transactions must have audit trails.
- ✓ The manager of the sales department must approve orders that exceed a customer’s
- credit limit.
- ✓ The system must create an error log file that includes the error type, description,
- and time.
- FUTURE GROWTH, COSTS, AND BENEFITS
- In addition to the system requirements, systems analysts must consider scalability, which
- determines how a system will handle future growth and demands, and the total cost of
- ownership, which includes all future operational and support costs.
- Scalability
- Scalability refers to a system’s ability to handle increased business volume and transactions
- in the future. Because it will have a longer useful life, a scalable system offers a better
- return on the initial investment.
- To evaluate scalability, you need information about projected future volume for all
- outputs, inputs, and processes. For example, for a Web-based order processing system,
- you would need to know the maximum projected number of concurrent users, the periods
- of peak online activity, the number and types of data items required for each transaction,
- and the method of accessing and updating customer files.
- Even to print customer statements, you need to know the number of active accounts
- and have a forecast for one, two, or five years, because that information affects future hardware
- decisions. In addition, with realistic volume projections, you can provide reliable cost
- estimates for related expenses, such as postage and online charges.
- Similarly, to ensure that a Web-based hotel reservation system is sufficiently scalable,
- you would need to project activity levels for several years of operation. For example,
- you might forecast the frequency of online queries about room availability and estimate
- the time required for each query and the average response time. With that information,
- you could estimate server transaction volume and network requirements.
- Transaction volume has a significant impact on operating costs. When volume exceeds
- a system’s limitations, maintenance costs increase sharply. Volume can change dramatically
- if a company expands or enters a new line of business. For example, a new Internetbased
- marketing effort might require an additional server and 24-hour technical support.
- Data storage also is an important scalability issue. You need to determine how
- much data storage is required currently and predict future needs based on system
- activity and growth. Those requirements affect hardware, software, and network
- bandwidth needed to maintain system performance. You also must consider data
- retention requirements and determine whether data can be deleted or archived on a
- specific timetable.
- Total Cost of Ownership
- In addition to direct costs, systems developers must identify and document indirect
- expenses that contribute to the total cost of ownership (TCO). TCO is especially important
- if the development team is assessing several alternatives. After considering the indirect
- costs, which are not always apparent, a system that seems inexpensive initially
- might actually turn out to be the most costly choice. One problem is that cost estimates
- tend to understate indirect costs such as user support and downtime productivity losses.
- Even if accurate figures are unavailable, systems analysts should try to identify indirect
- costs and include them in TCO estimates.
- TOOLKIT TIME
- The financial analysis
- tools in Part C of
- the Systems Analyst’s
- Toolkit can help you
- analyze project
- costs, benefits, and
- economic feasibility.
- To learn more about
- these tools, turn to
- Part C of the fourpart
- Toolkit that follows
- Chapter 12.
- Microsoft has developed a method for measuring total costs and benefits, called
- Rapid Economic Justification (REJ), which is described in Figure 4-15. According to
- Microsoft, REJ is a framework to help IT professionals analyze and optimize IT investments.
- Notice that the primary emphasis is on business improvement, rather than operational
- efficiency. As the Web site points out, the strategic role of IT investments should
- be included, even when the specific benefits are difficult to quantify.
- FACT-FINDING
- Now that you understand the categories of system requirements, scalability, and TCO,
- the next step is to begin collecting information. Whether you are working on your own
- or as a member of a JAD team, during requirements modeling you will use various factfinding
- techniques, including interviews, document review, observation, surveys and
- questionnaires, sampling, and research.
- Fact-Finding Overview
- Although software can help you to gather and analyze facts, no program actually
- performs fact-finding for you. First, you must identify the information you need.
- Typically, you begin by asking a series of questions, such as these:
- • What business functions are supported by the current system?
- • What strategic objectives and business requirements must be supported by the
- new system?
- • What are the benefits and TCO of the proposed system?
- • What transactions will the system process?
- • What information do users and managers need from the system?
- To learn more
- about REJ, visit the
- Management
- Information Systems
- CourseMate Web
- site at www.
- cengagebrain.
- com, navigate to
- On the Web
- Links for this
- chapter, and locate
- the REJ link.
- FIGURE 4-15 Microsoft developed Rapid Economic Justification (REJ) as a
- framework to help IT professionals analyze and optimize IT investments.
- Fact-Finding
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 157
- • Must the new system interface with legacy systems?
- • What procedures could be eliminated by business process reengineering?
- • What security issues exist?
- • What risks are acceptable?
- • What budget and timetable constraints will affect system development?
- To obtain answers to these questions, you develop a fact-finding plan, which can
- involve another series of questions (who, what, where, when, and how), or use a more
- structured approach such as the Zachman Framework, which is explained in a following
- section. Either way, you will develop a strategy, carry out fact-finding techniques, document
- the results, and prepare a system requirements document, which is presented to
- management.
- Who, What, Where, When, How, and Why?
- Fact-finding involves answers to five familiar questions: who, what, where, when, and
- how. For each of those questions, you also must ask another very important question:
- why. Some examples of these questions are:
- 1. Who? Who performs each of the procedures within the system? Why? Are the
- correct people performing the activity? Could other people perform the tasks
- more effectively?
- 2. What? What is being done? What procedures are being followed? Why is that
- process necessary? Often, procedures are followed for many years and no one
- knows why. You should question why a procedure is being followed at all.
- 3. Where? Where are operations being performed? Why? Where could they be performed?
- Could they be performed more efficiently elsewhere?
- 4. When? When is a procedure performed? Why is it being performed at this time?
- Is this the best time?
- 5. How? How is a procedure performed? Why is it performed in that manner?
- Could it be performed better, more efficiently, or less expensively in some other
- manner?
- There is a difference between asking what is being done and what could or should be
- done. The systems analyst first must understand the current situation. Only then can he
- or she tackle the question of what should be done. Figure 4-16 lists the basic questions
- and when they should be asked. Notice that the first two columns relate to the current
- system, but the third column focuses on the proposed system.
- FIGURE 4-16 Sample questions during requirements modeling as the focus shifts from the current system to
- the proposed system.
- The Zachman Framework
- In the 1980s, John Zachman observed how industries such as architecture and
- construction handled complex projects, and he suggested that the same ideas could be
- applied to information systems development. His concept, the Zachman Framework for
- Enterprise Architecture, is a model that asks the traditional fact-finding questions in a
- systems development context, as shown in Figure 4-17. The Zachman Framework is a
- popular approach, and the Visible Analyst CASE tool now includes a Zachman
- Framework interface that allows users to view a systems project from different perspectives
- and levels of detail. The Zachman Framework helps managers and users understand
- the model and ensures that overall business goals translate into successful IT projects.
- FIGURE 4-17 Visible Analyst uses the Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture. The Zachman concept
- presents traditional fact-finding questions in a systems development context.
- To learn more
- about the Zachman
- Framework, visit the
- Management
- Information Systems
- CourseMate Web
- site at www.
- cengagebrain.
- com, navigate to
- On the Web
- Links for this
- chapter, and locate
- The Zachman
- Framework link.
- Interviews
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 159
- INTERVIEWS
- Interviewing is an important fact-finding tool during the systems analysis phase. An
- interview is a planned meeting during which you obtain information from another person.
- You must have the skills needed to plan, conduct, document, and evaluate interviews
- successfully.
- After you identify the information you need, as described earlier in the chapter, you
- can begin the interviewing process, which consists of seven steps for each interview:
- 1. Determine the people to interview.
- 2. Establish objectives for the interview.
- 3. Develop interview questions.
- 4. Prepare for the interview.
- 5. Conduct the interview.
- 6. Document the interview.
- 7. Evaluate the interview.
- Step 1: Determine the People to Interview
- To get an accurate picture, you must select the right people to interview and ask them
- the right questions. During the preliminary investigation, you talked mainly to middle
- managers or department heads. Now, during the systems analysis phase, you might need
- to interview people from all levels of the organization.
- Although you can select your interview candidates from
- the formal organization charts that you reviewed earlier, you
- also must consider any informal structures that exist in the
- organization. Informal structures usually are based on interpersonal
- relationships and can develop from previous work
- assignments, physical proximity, unofficial procedures, or personal
- relationships such as the informal gathering shown in
- Figure 4-18. In an informal structure, some people have more
- influence or knowledge than appears on an organization
- chart. Your knowledge of the company’s formal and informal
- structures helps you determine the people to interview during
- the systems analysis phase.
- Should you interview several people at the same time?
- Group interviews can save time and provide an opportunity to
- observe interaction among the participants. Group interviews
- also can present problems. One person might dominate the
- conversation, even when questions are addressed specifically
- to others. Organization level also can present a problem, as
- the presence of senior managers in an interview might prevent
- lower-level employees from expressing themselves candidly.
- Step 2: Establish Objectives for the Interview
- After deciding on the people to interview, you must establish
- objectives for the session. First, you should determine the general
- areas to be discussed, and then list the facts you want to
- gather. You also should try to solicit ideas, suggestions, and
- opinions during the interview.
- FIGURE 4-18 When setting up interviews, an analyst
- should look outside a formal organization chart to
- identify people who might provide valuable information
- The objectives of an interview depend on the role of the person being interviewed.
- Upper-level managers can provide the big picture and help you to understand the system
- as a whole. Specific details about operations and business processes are best learned
- from people who actually work with the system on a daily basis.
- In the early stages of systems analysis, interviews usually are general. As the factfinding
- process continues, however, the interviews focus more on specific topics.
- Interview objectives also vary at different stages of the investigation. By setting specific
- objectives, you create a framework that helps you decide what questions to ask and how
- to phrase the questions.
- Step 3: Develop Interview Questions
- Creating a standard list of interview questions helps to keep you on track and avoid
- unnecessary tangents. Also, if you interview several people who perform the same job, a
- standard question list allows you to compare their answers. Although you have a list of
- specific questions, you might decide to depart from it because an answer to one question
- leads to another topic that you want to pursue. That question or topic then should be
- included in a revised set of questions used to conduct future interviews. If the question
- proves to be extremely important, you may need to return to a previous interviewee to
- query him or her on the topic.
- The interview should consist of several different kinds of questions: open-ended,
- closed-ended, or questions with a range of responses. When you phrase your questions,
- you should avoid leading questions that suggest or favor a particular reply. For example,
- rather than asking, “What advantages do you see in the proposed system?” you might
- ask, “Do you see any advantages in the proposed system?”
- OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS Open-ended questions encourage spontaneous and
- unstructured responses. Such questions are useful when you want to understand a
- larger process or draw out the interviewee’s opinions, attitudes, or suggestions. Here
- are some examples of open-ended questions: What are users saying about the new
- system? How is this task performed? Why do you perform the task that way? How
- are the checks reconciled? What added features would you like to have in the new
- billing system? Also, you can use an open-ended question to probe further by asking:
- Is there anything else you can tell me about this topic?
- CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS Closed-ended questions limit or restrict the response.
- You use closed-ended questions when you want information that is more specific or
- when you need to verify facts. Examples of closed-ended questions include the following:
- How many personal computers do you have in this department? Do you review
- the reports before they are sent out? How many hours of training does a clerk receive?
- Is the calculation procedure described in the manual? How many customers ordered
- products from the Web site last month?
- RANGE-OF-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Range-of-response questions are closed-ended
- questions that ask the person to evaluate something by providing limited answers
- to specific responses or on a numeric scale. This method makes it easier to tabulate
- the answers and interpret the results. Range-of-response questions might include
- these: On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 the lowest and 10 the highest, how effective
- was your training? How would you rate the severity of the problem: low, medium,
- or high? Is the system shutdown something that occurs never, sometimes, often,
- usually, or always?
- Interviews
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 161
- Step 4: Prepare for the Interview
- After setting the objectives and developing the questions, you must prepare for the
- interview. Careful preparation is essential because an interview is an important meeting
- and not just a casual chat. When you schedule the interview, suggest a specific day and
- time and let the interviewee know how long you expect the meeting to last. It is also a
- good idea to send an e-mail or place a reminder call the day before the interview.
- Remember that the interview is an interruption of the other person’s routine, so you
- should limit the interview to no more than one hour. If business pressures force a postponement
- of the meeting, you should schedule another appointment as soon as it is
- convenient. Remember to keep
- department managers informed of
- your meetings with their staff
- members. Sending a message to
- each department manager listing
- your planned appointments is a
- good way to keep them informed.
- Figure 4-19 is an example of such
- a message.
- You should send a list of topics
- to an interviewee several days before
- the meeting, especially when
- detailed information is needed, so
- the person can prepare for the interview
- and minimize the need for a
- follow-up meeting. Figure 4-20
- shows a sample message that lists
- specific questions and confirms the
- date, time, location, purpose, and
- anticipated duration of the
- interview.
- If you have questions about documents,
- ask the interviewee to have
- samples available at the meeting.
- Your advance memo should
- include a list of the documents you
- want to discuss, if you know what
- they are. Also, you can make a general
- request for documents, as the
- analyst did in her e-mail shown in
- Figure 4-20.
- Two schools of thought exist
- about the best location for an
- interview. Some analysts believe
- that interviews should take place
- in the interviewee’s office, whereas
- other analysts feel that a neutral
- location such as a conference
- room is better.
- Supporters of interviews in the
- interviewee’s office believe that is
- the best location because it makes
- the interviewee feel comfortable
- during the meeting. A second
- FIGURE 4-19 Sample message to a department head about interviews.
- FIGURE 4-20 Sample message to confirm an interview.
- argument in favor of the interviewee’s office is that the office is where he or she has the
- easiest access to supporting material that might be needed during the discussion. If you
- provide a complete list of topics in advance, however, the interviewee can bring the necessary
- items to a conference room or other location.
- Supporters of neutral locations stress the importance of keeping interruptions to a
- minimum so both people can concentrate fully. In addition, an interview that is free of
- interruptions takes less time. If the meeting does take place in the interviewee’s office,
- you should suggest tactfully that all calls be held until the conclusion of the interview.
- Step 5: Conduct the Interview
- After determining the people to interview, setting your objectives, and preparing the
- questions, you should develop a specific plan for the meeting. When conducting an
- interview, you should begin by introducing yourself, describing the project, and explaining
- your interview objectives.
- During the interview, ask questions in the order in which you prepared them, and
- give the interviewee sufficient time to provide thoughtful answers. Establishing a good
- rapport with the interviewee is important, especially if this is your first meeting. If the
- other person feels comfortable and at ease, you probably will receive more complete and
- candid answers. Your primary responsibility during an interview is to listen carefully to
- the answers. Analysts sometimes hear only what they expect to hear. You must concentrate
- on what is said and notice any nonverbal communication that takes place. This
- process is called engaged listening.
- After asking a question, allow the person enough time to think about the question
- and arrive at an answer. Studies have shown that the maximum pause during a conversation
- is usually three to five seconds. After that interval, one person will begin talking.
- You will need to be patient and practice your skills in many actual interview situations
- to be successful.
- When you finish asking your questions, summarize the main points covered in the
- interview and explain the next course of action. For example, mention that you will
- send a follow-up memo or that the interviewee should get back to you with certain
- information. When you conclude the interview, thank the person and encourage him or
- her to contact you with any questions or additional comments. Also, when the interview
- ends, it is a good idea to ask the interviewee whether he or she can suggest any additional
- topics that should be discussed.
- After an interview, you should summarize the session and seek a confirmation from
- the other person. By stating your understanding of the discussion, the interviewee can
- respond and correct you, if necessary. One approach is to rephrase the interviewee’s
- answers. For example, you can say, “If I understand you correctly, you are saying that ...”
- and then reiterate the information given by the interviewee.
- Step 6: Document the Interview
- Although taking notes during an interview has both advantages and disadvantages, the
- accepted view is that note taking should be kept to a minimum. Although you should
- write down a few notes to jog your memory after the interview, you should avoid writing
- everything that is said. Too much writing distracts the other person and makes it
- harder to establish a good rapport.
- After conducting the interview, you must record the information quickly. You
- should set aside time right after the meeting to record the facts and evaluate the information.
- For that reason, try not to schedule back-to-back interviews. Studies have
- shown that 50 percent of a conversation is forgotten within 30 minutes. You, therefore,
- should use your notes to record the facts immediately so you will not forget
- Interviews
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 163
- CASE IN POINT 4.2: DEEP RIVER COLLEGE
- Deep River College is a two-year school in Southern California. Twice a year, the fundraising
- office at Deep River mails requests for donations to the alumni. The staff uses a word
- processing program and a personal information database to create personalized letters. Data
- on past contributions and other alumni information, however, is stored manually. The dean,
- Alexandra Ali, recently submitted a systems request asking the college’s IT department to
- develop a computerized alumni information system. The school does not have a formal systems
- review committee, and each department has an individual budget for information services.
- Eddie Bateman, a systems analyst, performed a preliminary investigation and he concluded that
- the system met all the feasibility tests. After reading his report, Alexandra asked him to proceed
- with the systems analysis phase. Eddie has scheduled an interview with her, and he has asked you
- to help him prepare for the meeting. Specifically, he wants you to list all the topics he should
- cover during the interview. Eddie also wants you to prepare a list of specific questions that he
- should ask. Be sure to include open-ended, closed-ended, and range-of-response questions.
- them. You can summarize the facts by preparing a narrative describing what took
- place or by recording the answers you received next to each question on your prepared
- question list.
- Tape recorders are effective tools for an interview; however, many people feel uncomfortable
- when recorders are present. Before using a recorder, you should discuss its use
- with the interviewee. Assure the interviewee that you will erase the tape after you transcribe
- your notes and that you will stop and rewind the tape anytime during the interview
- at his or her request. If you ask sensitive questions or the interviewee wants to
- answer a question without being recorded, explain that you will turn off the tape for a
- period of time during the interview.
- Even with a tape recorder in use, you should listen carefully to the interviewee’s
- responses so you can ask good follow-up questions. Otherwise, you might have to
- return for a second visit to ask the questions you missed the first time. Also, remember
- that each recorded interview takes twice the amount of time, because you must listen to
- or view the recorded meeting again after conducting the interview itself.
- After the interview, send a memo to the interviewee expressing your appreciation for
- his or her time and cooperation. In the memo, you should note the date, time, location,
- purpose of the interview, and the main points you discussed so the interviewee has a
- written summary and can offer additions or corrections.
- Step 7: Evaluate the Interview
- In addition to recording the facts obtained in an interview, try to identify any possible
- biases. For example, an interviewee who tries to protect his or her own area or function
- might give incomplete answers or refrain from volunteering information. Or, an interviewee
- with strong opinions about the current or future system might distort the facts.
- Some interviewees might answer your questions in an attempt to be helpful even though
- they do not have the necessary experience to provide accurate information.
- Unsuccessful Interviews
- No matter how well you prepare for interviews, some are not successful. One of the
- main reasons could be that you and the interviewee did not get along well. Such a situation
- can be caused by several factors. For example, a misunderstanding or personality conflict
- could affect the interview negatively, or the interviewee might be afraid that the new system
- will eliminate or change his or her job.
- In other cases, the interviewee might give only short or incomplete responses to your
- open-ended questions. If so, you should switch to closed-ended questions or questions
- with a range of responses, or try rephrasing your open-ended questions into those types
- of questions. If that still does not help, you should find a tactful way to conclude the
- meeting.
- Continuing an unproductive interview is difficult. The interviewee could be more
- cooperative later, or you might find the information you seek elsewhere. If failure to
- obtain specific information will jeopardize the success of the project, inform your supervisor,
- who can help you decide what action to take. Your supervisor might contact the
- interviewee’s supervisor, ask another systems analyst to interview the person, or find
- some other way to get the needed information.
- OTHER FACT-FINDING TECHNIQUES
- In addition to interviewing, systems analysts use other fact-finding techniques, including
- document review, observation, questionnaires and surveys, sampling, and research. Such
- techniques are used before interviewing begins to obtain a good overview and to help
- develop better interview questions.
- Document Review
- Document review can help you understand how the current system is supposed to work.
- Remember that system documentation sometimes is out of date. Forms can change or be
- discontinued, and documented procedures often are modified or eliminated. You should
- obtain copies of actual forms and operating documents currently in use. You also should
- review blank copies of forms, as well as samples of actual completed forms. You usually
- can obtain document samples during interviews with the people who perform that procedure.
- If the system uses a software package, you should review the documentation for
- that software.
- Observation
- The observation of current operating procedures is another fact-finding technique.
- Seeing the system in action gives you additional perspective and a better understanding
- of system procedures. Personal observation also allows you to verify statements made in
- interviews and determine whether procedures really operate as they are described.
- Other Fact-Finding Techniques
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 165
- Through observation, you might discover that neither the system documentation nor the
- interview statements are accurate.
- Personal observation also can provide important advantages as the development process
- continues. For example, recommendations often are better accepted when they are
- based on personal observation of actual operations. Observation also can provide the
- knowledge needed to test or install future changes and can help build relationships with
- the users who will work with the new system.
- Plan your observations in advance by preparing a checklist of specific tasks you want
- to observe and questions you want to ask. Consider the following issues when you prepare
- your list:
- 1. Ask sufficient questions to ensure that you have a complete understanding of the
- present system operation. A primary goal is to identify the methods of handling
- situations that are not covered by standard operating procedures. For example,
- what happens in a payroll system if an employee loses a time card? What is the
- procedure if an employee starts a shift 10 minutes late but then works 20 minutes
- overtime? Often, the rules for exceptions such as these are not written or formalized;
- therefore, you must try to document any procedures for handling exceptions.
- 2. Observe all the steps in a transaction and note the documents, inputs, outputs, and
- processes involved.
- 3. Examine each form, record, and report.
- Determine the purpose each item of information
- serves.
- 4. Consider each user who works with the system
- and the following questions: What information
- does that person receive from other people?
- What information does this person generate?
- How is the information communicated? How
- often do interruptions occur? How much downtime
- occurs? How much support does the user
- require, and who provides it?
- 5. Talk to the people who receive current reports
- to see whether the reports are complete, timely,
- accurate, and in a useful form. Ask whether
- information can be eliminated or improved and
- whether people would like to receive additional
- information.
- As you observe people at work, as shown in
- Figure 4-21, consider a factor called the Hawthorne
- Effect. The name comes from a well-known study
- performed in the Hawthorne plant of the Western
- Electric Company in the 1920s. The purpose of the
- study was to determine how various changes in the
- work environment would affect employee productivity.
- The surprising result was that productivity
- improved during observation whether the conditions
- were made better or worse. Researchers concluded
- that productivity seemed to improve whenever the
- workers knew they were being observed.
- Although some recent studies have raised questions
- about the original findings, you should be aware that
- observation can and does have an effect on normal
- FIGURE 4-21 The Hawthorne study suggested that worker
- productivity improves during observation. Always consider
- the Hawthorne Effect when observing the operation of an
- existing system.
- operations. With this in mind, always give advance notice to the supervisor in that area.
- In some situations, it might be helpful to explain the purpose of your visit to the people
- being observed.
- Questionnaires and Surveys
- In projects where it is desirable to obtain input from a large number of people,
- a questionnaire can be a valuable tool. A questionnaire, also called a survey, is a document
- containing a number of standard questions that can be sent to many individuals.
- Questionnaires can be used to obtain information about a wide range of topics,
- including workloads, reports received, volumes of transactions handled, job duties,
- difficulties, and opinions of how the job could be performed better or more efficiently.
- Figure 4-22 shows a sample questionnaire that includes several different question and
- response formats.
- FIGURE 4-22 Sample questionnaire. Does it follow the suggested guidelines?
- Other Fact-Finding Techniques
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 167
- A typical questionnaire starts with a heading, which includes a title, a brief statement of
- purpose, the name and telephone number of the contact person, the deadline date for completion,
- and how and where to return the form. The heading usually is followed by general
- instructions that provide clear guidance on how to answer the questions. Headings also are
- used to introduce each main section or portion of the survey and include instructions when
- the type of question or response changes. A long questionnaire might end with a conclusion
- that thanks the participants and reminds them how to return the form.
- What about the issue of anonymity? Should people be asked to sign the questionnaire,
- or is it better to allow anonymous responses? The answer depends on two questions.
- First, does an analyst really need to know who the respondents are in order to
- match or correlate information? For example, it might be important to know what percentage
- of users need a certain software feature, but specific usernames might not be relevant.
- Second, does the questionnaire include any sensitive or controversial topics?
- Many people do not want to be identified when answering a question such as “How
- well has your supervisor explained the system to you?” In such cases, anonymous
- responses might provide better information.
- When designing a questionnaire, the most important rule of all is to make sure that your
- questions collect the right data in a form that you can use to further your fact-finding. Here
- are some additional ideas to keep in mind when designing your questionnaire:
- • Keep the questionnaire brief and user-friendly.
- • Provide clear instructions that will answer all anticipated questions.
- • Arrange the questions in a logical order, going from simple to more complex topics.
- • Phrase questions to avoid misunderstandings; use simple terms and wording.
- • Try not to lead the response or use questions that give clues to expected answers.
- • Limit the use of open-ended questions that are difficult to tabulate.
- • Limit the use of questions that can raise concerns about job security or other
- negative issues.
- • Include a section at the end of the questionnaire for general comments.
- • Test the questionnaire whenever possible on a small test group before finalizing it
- and distributing to a large group.
- A questionnaire can be a traditional paper
- form, or you can create a fill-in form and collect
- data on the Internet or a company intranet. For
- example, you can use Microsoft Word, as
- shown in Figure 4-23, to create form fields,
- including text boxes, date pickers, and dropdown
- lists where users can click selections.
- Before you publish the form, you should protect
- it so users can fill it in but cannot change the
- layout or design. Forms also can be automated,
- so if a user answers no to question three, he or
- she goes directly to question eight, where the
- form-filling resumes.
- Sampling
- When studying an information system, you
- should collect examples of actual documents
- using a process called sampling. The samples
- might include records, reports, operational logs,
- FIGURE 4-23 Using Microsoft Word, you can create a fill-in form
- with text boxes, date pickers, and drop-down lists.
- data entry documents, complaint summaries, work requests, and various types of forms.
- Sampling techniques include systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and random sampling.
- Suppose you have a list of 200 customers who complained about errors in their statements,
- and you want to review a representative sample of 20 customers. A systematic
- sample would select every tenth customer for review. If you want to ensure that the sample
- is balanced geographically, however, you could use a stratified sample to select five
- customers from each of four zip codes. Another example of stratified sampling is to select
- a certain percentage of transactions from each zip code, rather than a fixed number.
- Finally, a random sample selects any 20 customers.
- The main objective of a sample is to ensure that it represents the overall population
- accurately. If you are analyzing inventory transactions, for example, you should select a
- sample of transactions that are typical of actual inventory operations and do not include
- unusual or unrelated examples. For instance, if a company performs special processing
- on the last business day of the month, that day is not a good time to sample typical daily
- operations. To be useful, a sample must be large enough to provide a fair representation
- of the overall data.
- You also should consider sampling when using interviews or questionnaires. Rather
- than interviewing everyone or sending a questionnaire to the entire group, you can use a
- sample of participants. You must use sound sampling techniques to reflect the overall
- population and obtain an accurate picture.
- Research
- Research is another important fact-finding technique. Your research can include the
- Internet, IT magazines, and books to obtain background information, technical material,
- and news about industry trends and developments. In addition, you can attend professional
- meetings, seminars, and discussions with other IT professionals, which can be
- very helpful in problem solving.
- The Internet is an extremely valuable
- resource. Part D of the Systems Analyst’s
- Toolkit describes a variety of Internet
- resource tools. Using the Internet, you also
- can access information from federal and
- state governments, as well as from publishers,
- universities, and libraries around the
- world. Online forums and newsgroups are
- good resources for exchanging information
- with other professionals, seeking answers
- to questions, and monitoring discussions
- that are of interest to you.
- All major hardware and software vendors
- maintain sites on the Web where you
- can obtain information about products
- and services offered by the company and
- send e-mail with specific questions to company
- representatives. In addition to contacting
- specific firms, you can access Web
- sites maintained by publishers and independent
- firms that provide links to hundreds
- of hardware and software vendors,
- as shown in Figure 4-24. Such sites are
- one-stop information centers where IT
- professionals can find information, share
- ideas, and keep posted on developments in
- technology.
- To learn more about
- sampling, visit the
- Management
- Information Systems
- CourseMate Web
- site at www.
- cengagebrain.
- com, navigate to
- On the Web Links
- for this chapter, and
- locate the Sampling
- link.
- FIGURE 4-24 InfoWorld’s Web site offers many resources for IT professionals.
- Other Fact-Finding Techniques
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 169
- Research also can involve a visit to a physical location,
- called a site visit, where the objective is to observe a system in
- use at another location. If you are studying your firm’s
- human resources information system, for example, you might
- want to see how another company’s system works. Site visits
- also are important when considering the purchase of a software
- package. If the software vendor suggests possible sites
- to visit, be aware that such sites might constitute a biased
- sample. A single site visit seldom gives you true pictures, so
- you should try to visit more than one installation.
- Before a site visit such as the one shown in Figure 4-25,
- prepare just as you would for an interview. Contact the
- appropriate manager and explain the purpose of your visit.
- Decide what questions you will ask and what processes you
- will observe. During your visit, observe how the system works
- and note any problems or limitations. You also will want to
- learn about the support provided by the vendor, the quality of
- the system documentation, and so on.
- Interviews versus Questionnaires
- When you seek input from a large group, a questionnaire is a very useful tool. On the
- other hand, if you require detailed information from only a few people, then you probably
- should interview each person individually. Is it better to interview or use a questionnaire?
- Each situation is different, and you must consider the type of information, time
- constraints, and expense factors.
- The interview is more familiar and personal than a questionnaire. People who are
- unwilling to put critical or controversial comments in writing might talk more freely in person.
- Moreover, during a face-to-face interview, you can react immediately to anything the
- interviewee says. If surprising or confusing statements are made, you can pursue the topic
- with additional questions. In addition, during a personal interview, you can watch for clues
- to help you determine if responses are knowledgeable and unbiased. Participation in interviews
- also can affect user attitudes, because people who are asked for their opinions often
- view the project more favorably.
- Interviewing, however, is a costly and time-consuming process. In addition to the
- meeting itself, both people must prepare, and the interviewer has to do follow-up work.
- When a number of interviews are planned, the total cost can be quite substantial. The
- personal interview usually is the most expensive fact-finding technique.
- In contrast, a questionnaire gives many people the opportunity to provide input and
- suggestions. Questionnaire recipients can answer the questions at their convenience and do
- not have to set aside a block of time for an interview. If the questionnaire allows anonymous
- responses, people might offer more candid responses than they would in an interview.
- Preparing a good questionnaire, however, like a good interview, requires skill and
- time. If a question is misinterpreted, you cannot clarify the meaning as you can in a
- face-to-face interview. Furthermore, unless questionnaires are designed well, recipients
- might view them as intrusive, time-consuming, and impersonal. As an analyst, you
- should select the technique that will work best in a particular situation.
- Another popular method of obtaining input is called brainstorming, which refers to a
- small group discussion of a specific problem, opportunity, or issue. This technique
- encourages new ideas, allows team participation, and enables participants to build on
- each other’s inputs and thoughts. Brainstorming can be structured or unstructured. In
- structured brainstorming, each participant speaks when it is his or her turn, or passes. In
- unstructured brainstorming, anyone can speak at any time. At some point, the results
- are recorded and made part of the fact-finding documentation process.
- CASE IN POINT 4.4: CYBERSTUFF
- Ann Ellis is a systems analyst at CyberStuff, a large company that sells computer hardware and
- software via telephone, mail order, and the Internet. CyberStuff processes several thousand
- transactions per week on a three-shift operation and employs 50 full-time and 125 part-time
- employees. Lately, the billing department has experienced an increase in the number of customer
- complaints about incorrect bills. During the preliminary investigation, Ann learned that
- some CyberStuff representatives did not follow established order entry procedures. She feels
- that with more information, she might find a pattern and identify a solution for the problem.
- Ann is not sure how to proceed. She came to you, her supervisor, with two separate questions.
- First, is a questionnaire the best approach, or would interviews be better? Second,
- whether she uses interviews, a questionnaire, or both techniques, should she select the participants
- at random, include an equal number of people from each shift, or use some other
- approach? As Ann’s supervisor, what would you suggest, and why?
- DOCUMENTATION
- Keeping accurate records of interviews, facts, ideas, and observations is essential to successful
- systems development. The ability to manage information is the mark of a successful
- systems analyst and an important skill for all IT professionals.
- The Need for Recording the Facts
- As you gather information, the importance of a single item can be overlooked or complex
- system details can be forgotten. The basic rule is to write it down. You should document
- your work according to the following principles:
- • Record information as soon as you obtain it.
- • Use the simplest recording method possible.
- • Record your findings in such a way that they can be understood by someone else.
- • Organize your documentation so related material is located easily.
- Often, systems analysts use special forms for describing a system, recording interviews,
- and summarizing documents. One type of documentation is a narrative list with
- simple statements about what is occurring, apparent problems, and suggestions for
- improvement. Other forms of documentation that are described in Chapter 4 include
- data flow diagrams, flowcharts, sample forms, and screen captures.
- Software Tools
- Many software programs are available to help you record and document information.
- Some examples are described here.
- CASE TOOLS You can use CASE tools at every stage of systems development. This
- chapter contains several examples of CASE tools. Part B of the Systems Analyst’s
- Toolkit describes other features and capabilities of CASE tools.
- PRODUCTIVITY SOFTWARE Productivity software includes word processing,
- spreadsheet, database management, presentation graphics, and collaboration software
- programs. Although Microsoft Office is the best-known set of productivity software
- programs, other vendors offer products in each of these categories.
- Documentation
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 171
- Using word processing software such as Microsoft Word, Corel WordPerfect, or
- OpenOffice.org Writer, you can create reports, summaries, tables, and forms. In addition
- to standard document preparation, the program can help you organize a presentation
- with templates, bookmarks, annotations, revision control, and an index. You can
- consult the program’s Help system for more information about those and other features.
- You also can create fill-in forms to conduct surveys and questionnaires, as described
- earlier in this chapter.
- Spreadsheet software, such as Microsoft Excel, Corel Quattro Pro, or OpenOffice.org
- Calc, can help you track and manage numeric data or financial information. You also
- can generate graphs and charts that display the data and show possible patterns, and you
- can use the statistical functions in a spreadsheet to tabulate and analyze questionnaire
- data. A graphical format often is used in quality control analysis because it highlights
- problems and their possible causes, and it is effective when presenting results to management.
- A common tool for showing the distribution of questionnaire or sampling results
- is a vertical bar chart called a histogram. Most spreadsheet programs can create histograms
- and other charts that can display data you have collected. Figure 4-26 displays a
- typical histogram that might have resulted from the questionnaire shown in Figure 4-22
- on page 166.
- FIGURE 4-26 This histogram displays results from Question 2 in the questionnaire shown in Figure 4-22 on page 166.
- Database management software allows you to document and organize fact-finding
- results such as events, observations, and data samples. You can use a database program
- such as Microsoft Access to manage the details of a complex project, create queries to
- retrieve specific information, and generate custom reports.
- Presentation graphics software, such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple Keynote, or
- OpenOffice.org Impress, is a powerful tool for organizing and developing your formal
- presentation. Presentation graphics programs enable you to create organization charts
- that can be used in a preliminary investigation and later during requirements modeling.
- These high-quality charts also can be included in written reports and management
- presentations.
- Collaboration software is the latest weapon in the struggle to boost productivity.
- More than ever, people work in teams and use Web-based software such as Google
- Docs and Microsoft Web Apps to access data and share files. Google and others are
- betting that cloud computing will create a virtual workplace, where people will be able
- to interact in real time, with all the benefits of a traditional face-to-face workplace, but
- none of the limitations.
- GRAPHIC MODELING SOFTWARE Microsoft Visio is a popular graphic modeling
- tool that can produce a wide range of charts and diagrams. Visio includes a library of
- templates, stencils, and shapes. An analyst can use Visio to create many types of visual
- models, including business processes, flowcharts, network diagrams, organization
- charts, and Web site maps, such as the one shown in Figure 4-27.
- FIGURE 4-27 This Microsoft Visio screen shows shapes that can be used to create a Web site map.
- Documentation
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 173
- PERSONAL INFORMATION MANAGERS A busy analyst needs to keep track of
- meetings, interviews, appointments, and deadlines. A personal information manager
- (PIM), such as Microsoft Outlook or IBM’s Lotus Organizer, can help manage those
- tasks using a personal calendar and a to-do list, with priorities and the capability to
- check off completed items.
- In addition to desktop-based organizers, handheld computers are popular. Some handheld
- computers, also called personal digital assistants (PDAs), accept handwritten input,
- while others have small keyboards. These devices can handle calendars, schedules,
- appointments, telephone lists, and calculations. A PDA can be standalone, Bluetoothcapable
- to synchronize with a desktop, or fully wireless-enabled, such as the HP iPAQ
- shown in Figure 4-28.
- WIRELESS COMMUNICATION DEVICES Even in the dynamic world of IT, the recent
- explosion in wireless technology is almost unprecedented. The latest wireless standard,
- called 4G (fourth generation), is opening new frontiers in broadband Web access,
- e-mail, social networking, file exchange, and streaming multimedia. Users enjoy new
- hardware and software, easy synchronization with office networks, and innovative
- services designed for a wired generation.
- The rapid growth of wireless communication has resulted in a merger of various
- technologies. Many people swear by all-in-one devices such as Research in Motion’s
- BlackBerry or smart phones, such as the Apple iPhone. Others are devoted to products
- that use Google’s Android operating system, which is a mobile device platform adopted
- by many hardware vendors, including Motorola, Kyocera, and LG. Figure 4-29 on the
- next page shows some examples of these products.
- FIGURE 4-29 Three popular examples of current wireless technology.
- Beyond hardware choices, users can select from literally thousands of portable
- applications for business and personal use. No one can predict the future with certainty,
- but it is apparent that portable wireless technology is having an enormous impact on
- business practices, everyday communications, and social interaction.
- Chapter Summary
- Phase 2 Systems Analysis
- 175
- PREVIEW OF LOGICAL MODELING
- At the conclusion of requirements modeling, systems developers should have a clear
- understanding of business processes and system requirements. The next step is to
- construct a logical model of the system.
- Data and process modeling, which is described in Chapter 5, uses a structured
- analysis approach. Structured analysis is a popular, traditional technique that describes
- the system in terms of data and the processes that act on that data.
- An alternative to structured analysis modeling is object modeling, which is described
- in Chapter 6. Object modeling is a methodology that combines data and processes into
- things called objects that represent actual people, things, transactions, and events.
- Systems analysts use object models to visualize and document real-world business processes
- and operations.
- IT professionals have differing views about systems development methodologies, and
- no universally accepted approach exists. By studying both structured analysis and objectoriented
- methods, you gain valuable knowledge, skills, and perspective. You then can use
- that information to determine what method, or combination of methods, is best for the
- different situations you will face in your career.
- CHAPTER SUMMARY
- The systems analysis phase includes three activities: requirements modeling, data and
- process modeling, and consideration of development strategies. The main objective is to
- understand the proposed project, ensure that it will support business requirements, and
- build a solid foundation for the systems design phase.
- During requirements modeling, you identify the business-related requirements for the
- new information system, including outputs, inputs, processes, performance, and controls.
- You consider scalability to ensure that the system can support future growth and
- expansion. You also estimate total cost of ownership (TCO) to identify all costs, including
- indirect costs.
- Popular team-based approaches include JAD, RAD, and agile methods. Joint application
- development (JAD) is a popular, team-based approach to fact-finding and
- requirements modeling. JAD involves an interactive group of users, managers, and IT
- professionals who participate in requirements modeling and develop a greater commitment
- to the project and to their common goals.
- Rapid application development (RAD) is a team-based technique that speeds up
- information systems development and produces a functioning information system.
- RAD is a complete methodology, with a four-phase life cycle that parallels the traditional
- SDLC phases.
- Agile methods attempt to develop a system incrementally, by building a series of
- prototypes and constantly adjusting them to user requirements.
- Systems analysts use various tools and techniques to model system requirements.
- Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a widely used method of visualizing and documenting
- software design through the eyes of the business user. UML tools include use
- case diagrams and sequence diagrams to represent actors, their roles, and the sequence
- of transactions that occurs.
- A functional decomposition diagram (FDD) is a model of business functions and
- processes. A CASE tool can generate a set of data flow diagrams directly from a FDD.
- The fact-finding process includes interviewing, document review, observation, questionnaires,
- sampling, and research. Successful interviewing requires good planning and strong
- interpersonal and communication skills. The systems analyst must decide on the people to
- interview, set interview objectives, and prepare for, conduct, and analyze interviews. The
- analyst also might find it helpful to use one or more software tools during fact-finding.
- Systems analysts should carefully record and document factual information as it is
- collected, and various software tools can help an analyst visualize and describe an information
- system. The chapter concluded with a preview of logical modeling. Data and
- process modeling is a structured analysis approach that views the system in terms of
- data and the processes that act on that data. Object modeling is an approach that views
- the system in terms of data and the processes that act on that data.
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